IB Biology Notes - 2.

1 Cell theory

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1 Statisical Analysis
Working with data Cell theory
2 Cells
2.1.1 Outline the cell theory.    
Cell theory
Prokaryotic cells
The cell theory states that: 
Eukaryotic cells
 
Membranes
Cell division All living organisms are composed of cells. Multicellular organisms (example: humans) are composed of many cells
while unicellular organisms (example: bacteria) are composed of only one cell. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all
3 Chemical elements and water
organisms. 
Chemical elements & water
Carbohydrates, lipids & proteins Cells are the smallest unit of life. They are the smallest structures capable of surviving on their own.
Dna structure
Cells come from pre-exsisting cells and cannot be created from non-living material. For example, new cells arise from
Dna replication
cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an organism is produced) arises from the fusion of an egg cell
Transcription & translation
and a sperm cell. 
Enzymes
Cell respiration  
Photosynthesis

4 Genetics 2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory. 

Chromosomes, genes, alleles & mutations
Meiosis When scientists started to look at the structures of organisms under the microscope they discovered that all living
Theoretical genetics organisms where made up of these small units which they proceeded to call cells. When these cells were taken from
Genetic engineering & biotechnology tissues they were able to survive for some period of time. Nothing smaller than the cell was able to live independently and
so it was concluded that the cell was the smallest unit of life. For some time, scientists thought that cells must arise from
5 Ecology and evolution
non-living material but it was eventually proven that this was not the case, instead they had to arise from pre-exsisting
Communities & ecosystems
cells. An experiment to prove this can be done as follows: 
The greenhouse effect
 
Populations
Evolution Take two containers and put food in both of these
Classification
Sterilize both of the containers so that all living organisms are killed
6 Human health and physiology
Leave one of the containers open and seal the other closed 
Digestion
The transport system What will happen is that in the open container mold will start to grow but in the container that was sealed no mold will be
Defence against infectious disease present. The reason for this is because in the open container, cells are able to enter the container from the external
Gas exchange environment and start to divide and grow. However, due to the seal on the other container no cells will be able to enter
Nerves, hormones & homeostasis and so no mold will develop, proving that cells cannot arise from non-living material. 
Reproduction

7 Nucleic acids and proteins 2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. 
Dna structure
Dna replication

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IB Biology Notes - 2.1 Cell theory

Transcription 2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles
Translation and cells, using the appropriate SI unit. 
Proteins
Enzymes Remember:
1 millimeter (mm) = 10-3 meters
8 Cell respiration and
photosynthesis 1 micrometer (μm) = 10-3 millimeters 
Cell respiration 1 nanometer (nm) = 10-3 micrometers
Photosynthesis
A molecule = 1 nm
9 Plant science Thickness of cell membrane = 10 nm
Plant structure & growth Viruses = 100 nm
Transport in angiospermophytes Bacteria = 1μm
Reproduction in angiospermophytes Organelles = up to 10 μm
Eukaryotic cells = up to 100 μm
10 Genetics
Meiosis
Dihybrid crosses & gene linkage 2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnifcation of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of
Polygenic inheritance known magnifcation. 

Take a measurement of the drawing (width or length)

Take this same measurement of the specimen  

Remember to convert units if needed to

Place your values into the equation

Magnification = length of drawing / length of actual specimen

You can also calculate the length of the specimen if this is unknown: length of the drawing / magnification. 

Conversion of units:
1 centimeter = 10-2 meters
1 millimeter = 10-3 meters
1 micrometer = 10-6 meters
1 nanometer = 10-9 meters

2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size. 
Many reactions occur within the cell. Substances need to be taken into the cell to fuel these reactions and the wast
products of the reactions need to be removed. When the cell increases in size so does its chemical activity. This means
that more substances need to be taken in and more need to be removed. The surface area of the cell is vital for this.
Surface area affects the rate at which particles can enter and exit the cell (The amount of substances that it takes up from
the environment and excretes into the environment), whereas the volume affects the rate at which material are made or
used within the cell, hence the chemical activity per unit of time. 

As the volume of the cell increases so does the surface area however not to the same extent. When the cell gets bigger its
surface area to volume ratio gets smaller. To illustrate this we can use three different cubes. The first cube has a side of 1
cm, the second 3 cm and the third 4 cm. If we calculate the surface area to volume ratio we get:

Cube 1
Surface area: 6 sides x 12 = 6 cm2
Volume: 13 = 1 cm3
Ratio = 6:1

Cube 2
Surface area: 6 sides x 32 = 54 cm2
Volume: 33 = 27 cm3
Ratio = 2:1

Cube 3
Surface area: 6 sides x 42 = 96 cm2
Volume : 43 = 64 cm3
Ratio = 1.5:1

As we can see the cube with the largest surface area and volume has the smallest surface area to volume ratio. If the
surface area to volume ratio gets too small then substances won’t be able to enter the cell fast enough to fuel the
reactions and wast products will start to accumulate within the cell as they will be produced faster than they can be
excreted. In addition, cells will not be able to lose heat fast enough and so may overheat. Therefor the surface area to
volume ratio is very important for a cell. 

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties. 

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IB Biology Notes - 2.1 Cell theory

Multicellular organisms show emergent properties. For example: cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form
organ systems and organ systems form multicellular organisms. The idea is that the whole is greater than the composition
of its parts. For example your lungs are made of many cells. However, the cells by themselves aren’t much use. It is the
many cells working as a unit that allow the lungs to perform their function.

2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms diferentiate to carry out specialized functions by
expressing some of their genes but not others. 

Every cell in a multicellular organisms contains all the genes of that organism. However, the genes that are activated vary
from cell to cell. The reason we have different types of cells in our body (the cells in your eyes are not the same as the
ones that make up your hair) is because different genes are activated in different cells. For example, the gene that
produces keratin will be active in hair and nail cells. Keratin is the protein which makes up hair and nails. Genes encode
for proteins and the proteins affect the cell’s structure and function so that the cell can specialize. This means cells
develop in different ways. This is called differentiation. Differentiation depends on gene expression which is regulated
mostly during transcription. It is an advantage for multicellular organisms as cells can differentiate to be more efficient
unlike unicellular organisms who have to carry out all of the functions within that one cell.

2.1.9 State that sem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to diferentiate along
diferent pathways. 

Adults have stems cells in the tissues in their bodies that need to be frequently replaced such as the skin. Stem cells have
the ability to produce a wide range of cells which means that they are pluripotent. They retain their ability to divide and
produce many different cells by cell division and the process of differentiation. For example, one type of stem cells in the
bone marrow produce a variety of red and white blood cells.

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of sem cells. 

Bone marrow transplants are one of the many therapeutic uses of stem cells. Stem cells found in the bone marrow give
rise to the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in the body. These stem cells can be used in bone marrow
transplants to treat people who have certain types of cancer. 

When a patient has cancer and is given high doses of chemotherapy, the chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but also the
normal cells in the bone marrow. This means that the patient cannot produce blood cells. So before the patient is treated
with chemotherapy, he or she can undergo a bone marrow harvest in which stem cells are removed from the bone marrow
by using a needle which is inserted into the pelvis (hip bone). Alternatively, if stem cells cannot be used from the patient
then they can be harvested from a matching donor. After the chemotherapy treatment the patient will have a bone
marrow transplant in which the stem cells are transplanted back into the patient through a drip, usually via a vein in the
chest or the arm. These transplanted stem cells will then find their way back to the bone marrow and start to produce
healthy blood cells in the patient. Therefore the therapeutic use of stem cells in bone marrow transplants is very important
as it allows some patients with cancer to undergo high chemotherapy treatment. Without this therapeutic use of stem
cells, patients would only be able to take low doses of chemotherapy which could lower their chances of curing the
disease.

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