Topic 1 Cell Biology

1.1 Introduction to Cells

1.1 According to the The Cell Theory

U1 cell theory, living  All living things are composed of cells (or cell products)
organisms are  The cell is the smallest unit of life
composed of  Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
cells.
1.1 Organisms Unicellular organisms must carry out at least seven functions of life
U2 consisting of only  Metabolism - The web of all the enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a
one cell carry out cell e.g. respiration
all functions of  Response – the ability to react to changes in the environment
life in that cell.  Homeostasis - The maintenance and regulation of internal cell
Students are conditions, e.g. water and pH
expected to be  Growth – Irreversible increase in size
able to name and  Excretion - The removal of metabolic waste
briefly explain  Reproduction - Producing offspring, either sexually or asexually
these functions of  Nutrition - Feeding by synthesis of organic molecules (e.g.
life: nutrition, photosynthesis) or the absorption of organic matter
metabolism,
growth, response,
excretion,
homeostasis and
reproduction.
1.1 Surface area to For metabolism to continue, reactants used in metabolism must be
U3 volume ratio is absorbed and the waste products must be removed
important in the  Material exchange is a function of the plasma membrane – larger
limitation of cell surface area to volume ratio means that the cell can act more
size. effectively as there is more membrane to serve every unit of
volume that requires change
 Hence, the rate of metabolic reactions are proportional to the
surface area to volume ratio of the cell

Benefits of larger SA:Vol ratio

 Diffusion pathways are shorter – molecules travel less to get
in/out of cell, less time and energy (if it is active transport) is
consumed
 Concentration gradients are easier to generate – makes diffusion
more efficient

As a cell grows, volume (units3) increases faster than surface area

(units2), leading to a decreased SA:Vol ratio
 If metabolic rate exceeds the rate of exchange of vital materials
and wastes (low SA:Vol ratio), the cell will eventually die

Cells maintain their SA:Volume ratio by:

 Dividing and remaining small to maintain a high SA:Volume ratio
 Cells and tissues specialised for gas and material exchange will
increase their surface area to optimise material transfer
o Intestinal tissue of the digestive tract may form a ruffled
structure (villi) to increase the surface area of the inner lining
o Alveoli within the lungs have membranous extensions called
 microvilli, which function to increase the total membrane
surface
1.1 Multicellular Multicellular organisms are capable of completing functions that
U4 organisms have unicellular organisms could not undertake – this is due to the collective
properties that actions of individual cells combining to create new synergistic effects
emerge from the (emergent properties)
interaction of  Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ systems
their cellular
components.
1.1 Specialized All specialized cells and the organs constructed from them have
U5 tissues can developed as a result of differentiation
develop by cell
differentiation in
multicellular
organisms.
1.1 Differentiation Differentiation is the process during development whereby newly
U6 involves the formed cells become more specialised and distinct from one another as
expression of they mature
some genes and  All (diploid) cells of an organism share an identical genome –
not others in a each cell contains the entire set of genetic instructions for that
cell’s genome. organism
 The activation of different instructions (genes) within a cell by
chemical signals will cause it to differentiate
 As a result of gene expression the cell’s metabolism and shape
changes to carry out a specialized function (cell differentiation)
1.1 The capacity of When a cell differentiates and becomes specialised, it loses its capacity
U7 stem cells to to form alternative cell types
divide and
differentiate along Stem cells are unspecialised cells that have two key qualities:
different 1. Self Renewal – They can continuously divide and replicate
pathways is 2. Potency – They have the capacity to differentiate into
necessary in specialised cell types
embryonic
development and There are four main types of stem cells present at various stages of
also makes stem human development:
cells suitable for  Totipotent – Can form any cell type, as well as extra-embryonic
therapeutic uses. (placental) tissue (e.g. zygote)
 Pluripotent – Can form many cell type (e.g. embryonic stem cells)
 Multipotent – Can differentiate into a number of closely related
cell types (e.g. haematopoietic adult stem cells)
 Unipotent – Cannot differentiate, but are capable of self-renewal
(e.g. progenitor cells, muscle stem cells
1.1 Questioning the Striated muscle fibers
A1 cell theory using  Muscle cells fuse to form fibers that may be very long (>300mm)
atypical  Consequently, they have multiple nuclei despite being surrounded
examples, by a single, continuous plasma membrane
including striated  Challenges the idea that cells always function as autonomous
muscle, giant units
algae and Aseptate fungal hyphae
aseptate fungal  Fungi may have filamentous structures called hyphae, which are
hyphae. separated into cells by internal walls called septa
 Some fungi are not partitioned by septa and hence have a
 continuous cytoplasm along the length of the hyphae
 Challenges the idea that living structures are composed of
discrete cells
Giant Algae
 Certain species of unicellular algae may grow to very large sizes
(e.g. Acetabularia may exceed 7 cm in length)
 Challenges the idea that larger organisms are always made of
many microscopic cells
1.1 Investigation of Paramecium:
A2 functions of life in  Metabolism – most metabolic pathways happen in the cytoplasm
Paramecium and  Response – the wave action of the cilia moves the paramecium in
one named response to changes in the environment, e.g. towards food.
photosynthetic  Homeostasis – contractile vacuole fill up with water and expel
unicellular through the plasma membrane to manage the water content
organism.  Growth – after consuming and assimilating biomass from food the
paramecium will get larger until it divides.
Chlorella or  Reproduction – The nucleus can divide to support cell division by
Scenedesmus are mitosis, reproduction is often asexual
suitable  Excretion – the plasma membrane control the entry and exit of
photosynthetic substances including expulsion of metabolic waste
unicells, but  Nutrition – food vacuoles contain organisms the paramecium has
Euglena should be consumed
avoided as it can
feed Chlorella:
heterotrophically.  Metabolism – most metabolic pathways happen in the cytoplasm
 Response – the wave action of the cilia moves the algae in
response to changes in the environment, e.g. towards light.
 Homeostasis – contractile vacuole fill up with water and expel
through the plasma membrane to manage the water content
 Growth – after consuming and assimilating biomass from food the
algae will get larger until it divides.
 Reproduction – The nucleus can divide to support cell division, by
mitosis (these cells are undergoing cytokinesis)
 Excretion – the plasma membrane control the entry and exit of
substances including the diffusion out of waste oxygen
 Nutrition – photosynthesis happens inside the chloroplasts to
provide the algae with food
1.1 Use of stem cells Stem cells can be used to replace damaged or diseased cells with
A3 to treat healthy, functioning ones
Stargardt’s This process requires:
disease and one  The use of biochemical solutions to trigger the differentiation of
other named stem cells into the desired cell type
condition.  Surgical implantation of cells into the patient’s own tissue
 Suppression of host immune system to prevent rejection of cells
(if stem cells are from foreign source)
 Careful monitoring of new cells to ensure they do not become
cancerous

Stargardt’s disease
 A genetic disease due to a recessive mutation of a gene that
causes a membrane protein used for active transport in retina
cells to malfunction
 Photoreceptor cells (light detectors) in the retina degenerate,
 ultimately resulting in progressive vision loss, to the point of
blindness
 Treated by replacing dead cells in the retina with functioning
ones derived from stem cells

Leukemia
 Type of cancer that produces abnormally large numbers of white
cells
 To remain healthy in the long run, the patient must be able to
produce the white blood cells needed to fight the disease
 Fluid is removed from the bone marrow, to extract adult stem
cells – only have the potential of producing blood cells
 A high dose of chemotherapy drugs is given to the patient, to kill
all the cancer cells in the bone marrow, which disables the bone
marrow’s ability to produce blood cells
 The stem cells are then returned to the patient’s body, re-
establishes themselves in the patient’s bone marrow, multiply
and start to produce red and white blood cells
1.1 Ethics of the Embryonic stem Cord blood stem Adult stem cells
A4 therapeutic use of cells cells
stem cells from Differentiatio Almost unlimited Limited capacity to differentiate into
specially created n growth potential, different cell types – less growth
can differentiate potential than embryonic stem cells
embryos, from the
into any type in
umbilical cord
the body
blood of a new- Ease of Can be obtained Easily obtained and Difficult to obtain
born baby and extraction from excess stored, however as there are very
from an adult’s embryos limited quantities few, and are buried
own tissues. generated by IVF of stem cells deep in tissues
programs
Ethics of Removal of cells Umbilical cord is Removal of stem
extraction from the embryo discarded at birth cells does not kill
kills it whether or not the adult form
stem cells are which the cells are
harvested taken
Tumour risk More risk of Lower risk of development
becoming tumour
cells
Genetic Less chance of genetic damage than Due to
damage adult cells accumulation of
mutations through
the life of the adult,
genetic damage
can occur
Compatibility Likely to be Fully compatible with the patient as the
genetically stem cells are genetically identical – no
different to the rejection problems occur
patient

The ethical considerations associated with the therapeutic use of stem

cells will depend on the source
 Using multipotent adult tissue may be effective for certain
conditions, but is limited in its scope of application
 Stem cells derived from umbilical cord blood need to be stored
and preserved at cost, raising issues of availability and access
 The greatest yield of pluripotent stem cells comes from embryos,
 but requires the destruction of a potential living organism
1.1 Use of a light ¿ image
magnification=
S1 microscope to actual ¿ specimen
investigate the
structure of cells 1mm = 1000 μm
and tissues, with
drawing of cells.
Calculation of the
magnification of
drawings and the
actual size of
structures and
ultrastructures
shown in
drawings or
micrographs.
Scale bars are
useful as a way of
indicating actual
sizes in drawings
and micrographs.
 1.2 Ultrastructure of Cells

1.2 Prokaryotes have a Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a nucleus ('pro' =
U1 simple cell before; 'karyon' = nucleus)
structure without
compartmentalizat Prokaryotic Features
ion. Prokaryotic cells will typically contain the following cellular
components:
 Cytoplasm – internal fluid component of the cell
 Nucleoid – region of the cytoplasm where the DNA is located
(DNA strand is circular and called a genophore)
 Plasmids – autonomous circular DNA molecules that may be
transferred between bacteria (horizontal gene transfer)
 Ribosomes – complexes of RNA and protein that are
responsible for polypeptide synthesis (prokaryote ribosome =
70S)
 Cell membrane – Semi-permeable and selective barrier
surrounding the cell
 Cell wall – rigid outer covering made of peptidoglycan;
maintains shape and prevents bursting (lysis)
 Capsule – a thick polysaccharide layer used for protection
against desiccation (drying out) and phagocytosis
 Flagella – Long, slender projections containing a motor protein
that enables movement (singular: flagellum)
 Pili – Hair-like extensions that enable adherence to surfaces
(attachment pili) or mediate bacterial conjugation (sex pili)

1.2 Eukaryotes have a Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus (‘eu’ = good
U2 compartmentalized / true; ‘karyon’ = nucleus)
cell structure.  They have a more complex structure and are believed to have
evolved from prokaryotic cells (via endosymbiosis)
 Their chromosomes are bund by a nuclear envelope consisting
of a double layer of membrane
 Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalised by membrane-bound
structures (organelles) that perform specific roles

Animal Cell
 Plant Cell

The advantages of being compartmentalized:

 Efficiency in metabolism - enzymes and substrates are localized
and much more concentrated
 Localized conditions - pH and other such factors can be kept at
optimal levels. The optimal pH level for one process in one part
of the cell
 Toxic/ damaging substances can be isolated - e.g. digestive
enzymes (that could digest itself) are stored in lysozymes
 Numbers and locations of organelles can be changed -
dependent on the cell's requirements

1.2 Electron Resolution is the shortest distance between two points that can be
U3 microscopes have distinguished
a much higher
resolution than Beams of electrons have a much shorter wavelength than light, so
light microscopes. electron microscopes have a much higher resolution
 Electron microspores have a resolution that is 200 times greater
than light microscopes
 Light microscopes reveal the structure of cells, but electron
microscopes reveal the ultrastructure

1.2 Structure and Structure Function

A1 function of Plasma Phospholipid bilayer Semi-permeable and selective
organelles within membrane embedded with proteins barrier surrounding the cell
 exocrine gland Mitochondrion Double membrane Site of aerobic respiration
cells of the structure with folded inner (ATP production)
pancreas and membrane (cristae), fluid
inside (matrix)
within palisade
Ribosomes Two subunits made of RNA Site of polypeptide synthesis
mesophyll cells of
and protein; larger in (this process is called
the leaf.
eukaryotes (80S) than translation)
prokaryotes (70S)
Nucleus Double membrane Stores genetic material (DNA)
structure with pores; as chromatin; nucleolus is
contains DNA associated site of ribosome assembly
with histone proteins
Rough A network of flattened Protein synthesized by the
endoplasmic membrane sacs (cisternae) ribosomes of the rER passes
reticulum that are studded with into its cisternae and is then
ribosomes (rough ER) carried by vesicles
Golgi Consists of flattened Involved in the sorting,
apparatus membrane sacs called storing, modification and
cisternae export of secretory products
Vesicles Single membrane with fluid Transport material inside the
inside cell
Lysosomes Single membrane Break down ingested food in
structures formed by the vesicles using digestive
golgi apparatus, containing enzymes
high concentration of
digestive enzymes
Microtubules Microtubules are Radiating microtubules form
and centrioles cylindrical fibres. spindle fibres and move
(animals only) Centrioles form an anchor chromosomes during cell
point for microtubules division
during cell division. Also
present inside cilia and
flagella
Cilia and Whip like structures Cilia and flagella can be used
flagella projecting from the cell for locomotion
surface. Contain a ring of
nine double microtubules
and two central ones
Chloroplast Double membrane Site of photosynthesis –
(plants only) structure with internal manufactured organic
stacks of membranous molecules are stored in
discs (thylakoids) various plastids
Vacuoles Fluid-filled internal cavity Maintains hydrostatic
surrounded by a membrane pressure
Cell wall External outer covering Provides support and
(plants only) made of cellulose mechanical strength;
prevents excess water
uptake

1.2 Prokaryotes divide Prokaryotes reproduce asexually using the process of binary fission
A2 by binary fission. 1. The DNA is replicated semi conservatively
2. The two DNA loops attach to the membrane
3. The membrane elongates and pinches off (cytokinesis) forming
two separate cells
4. The two daughter cells are genetically identically (clones)
1.2 Drawing of the
S1 ultrastructure of
prokaryotic cells
based on electron
micrographs.

Drawings of
prokaryotic cells
should show the
cell wall, pili and
flagella, and
plasma membrane
enclosing
cytoplasm that
contains 70S
ribosomes and a
nucleoid with
naked DNA.

1.2 Drawing of the

S2 ultrastructure of
eukaryotic cells
based on electron
micrographs.

Drawings of
eukaryotic cells
should show a
plasma membrane
enclosing
cytoplasm that
contains 80S
ribosomes and a
nucleus,
mitochondria and
other membrane-
bound organelles
are present in the
cytoplasm. Some
eukaryotic cells
have a cell wall.
1.2 Interpretation of
S3 electron
micrographs to
identify organelles
and deduce the
function of
specialized cells.

1.3 Membrane Cell Structure

1.3 Phospholipids Structure of Phospholipids:

U1 form bilayers in  Consist of a polar head (hydrophilic) composed of a glycerol and
water due to the a phosphate molecule
amphipathic  Consist of two non-polar tails (hydrophobic) composed of fatty
properties of acid (hydrocarbon) chains
phospholipid  Because phospholipids contain both hydrophilic (water-loving)
molecules. and lipophilic (fat-loving) regions, they are classed
as amphipathic
Amphipathic
phospholipids The phosphate heads are attracted to water but the hydrocarbon tails
have hydrophilic are attracted to each other, but not to water
and hydrophobic  Because of this, the phospholipids become arranged into double
properties. layers, with the hydrophobic tails facing inwards towards each
 other and the hydrophilic heads facing the water on either side
 This double layer is called the phospholipid bilayer

Properties of the Phospholipid Bilayer:

 The bilayer is held together by weak hydrophobic
interactions between the tails
 Hydrophilic / hydrophobic layers restrict the passage of many
substances
 Individual phospholipids can move within the bilayer, allowing
for membrane fluidity and flexibility
 This fluidity allows for the spontaneous breaking and reforming
of membranes (endocytosis / exocytosis)

1.3 Membrane Proteins

U2 proteins are  Integral proteins are permanently embedded, many go all the
diverse in terms way through and are polytopic (many surface), integral proteins
of structure, penetrating just one surface are monotopic
position in the  Peripheral proteins usually have a temporary association with
membrane and the membrane, they can be monotopic or attach to the surface
function.
Glycoproteins
 Are proteins with an oligosaccharide (few sugar) chain attached
 They are important for cell recognition by the immune system
and as hormone receptors

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Transport: Protein channels (facilitated) and protein pumps (active)

Receptors: Peptide-based hormones (insulin, glucagon, etc.)
Anchorage: Cytoskeleton attachments and extracellular matrix
Cell recognition: MHC proteins and antigens
Intercellular joinings: Tight junctions and plasmodesmata
Enzymatic activity: Metabolic pathways (e.g. electron transport chain)
1.3 Cholesterol is a Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes, where it
U3 component of functions to maintain integrity and mechanical stability
animal cell  Cholesterol is a type of lipid, but not a fat or oil
membranes.  Most of a cholesterol molecule is hydrophobic and therefore is
attracted to the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails in the centre of
 the membrane
 One end of the cholesterol molecule has a hydroxyl (-OH) group
which is hydrophilic and attracted to the phosphate heads of the
periphery of the membrane
 They are therefore amphipathic and are positioned between
phospholipids in the membrane

1.3 Cholesterol in The hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails usually behave as a liquid, but the
A1 mammalian hydrophilic phosphate heads act more like a solid
membranes  Overall the membrane is fluid as the components of the
reduces membrane are free to move
membrane fluidity
and permeability It is important to regulate the degree of fluidity:
to some solutes.  Membranes need to be fluid enough so that the cell can move
and the required substances can move across the membrane
 If too fluid however the membrane could not effectively restrict
the movement of substances across itself

Cholesterol’s role in membrane fluidity

 Cholesterol disrupts the regular packing of the hydrocarbon tails
of phospholipid molecules, so prevents them crystallising and
behaving as a solid
 It restricts the molecular motion and therefore the fluidity of the
membrane
 It reduces the permeability to hydrophilic particles such as
sodium ion and hydrogen ions
 Due to its shape cholesterol can help membranes to curve into a
concave shape, which helps the formation of vesicles during
endocytosis
1.3 Drawing of the
S1 fluid mosaic
model.

Drawings of the
fluid mosaic
model of
membrane
structure can be
two dimensional
rather than three
dimensional.
Individual
phospholipid
molecules should
be shown using
the symbol of a
 circle with two
parallel lines
attached. A range
of membrane
proteins should be
shown including
glycoproteins.

1.3 Analysis of When viewed under a transmission electron microscope, membranes

S2 evidence from exhibit a characteristic 'trilaminar’ appearance (3 layers – two dark
electron outer layers and a lighter inner region)
microscopy that
led to the Electron Micrograph of Plasma Membrane
proposal of the
Davson-Danielli
model.

Danielli and Davson proposed a model whereby two layers of protein

flanked a central phospholipid bilayer
 The model was described as a 'lipo-protein sandwich’, as the
lipid layer was sandwiched between two protein layers
 The dark segments seen under electron microscope were
identified (wrongly) as representing the two protein layers

1.3 Analysis of the Structure of membrane proteins

S3 falsification of the  Protein extracted from the membranes were very varied in size
Davson-Danielli and globular in shape – unlike the type of structural protein that
model that led to would form uniform and continuous layers on periphery of the
the Singer- membrane
Nicolson model.  The phospholipid bilayer was insoluble
(indicating hydrophobic surfaces)

Fluorescent antibody tagging

 Membrane proteins from two different cells were tagged with
red and green fluorescent markers respectively
 When the two cells were fused, the markers became mixed
throughout the membrane of the fused cell
 This demonstrated that the membrane proteins could move and
did not form a static layer (as per Davson-Danielli)

Freeze-etched electron micrographs

 Rapid freezing of cells and then fracturing them – fracture
occurs along lines of weakness
 Revealed irregular rough surfaces within the membrane
  These rough surfaces were interpreted as
being transmembrane proteins, demonstrating that proteins
were not solely localised to the outside of the membrane
structure

1.4 Membrane Transport

1.4 Particles move Cellular membranes possess two key qualities:

U1 across  They are semi-permeable (only certain materials may freely
membranes by cross – large and charged substances are typically blocked)
simple diffusion,  They are selective (membrane proteins may regulate the
facilitated passage of material that cannot freely cross)
diffusion, osmosis
and active The polar heads are attracted to other polar molecules and the non-
transport. polar tails repel any polar molecules, preventing passage of ions
through the membrane.

Passive Transport
 Passive transport involves the movement of material along a
concentration gradient (high concentration ⇒ low
concentration)
 Because materials are moving down a concentration gradient, it
does not require the expenditure of energy (ATP hydrolysis)

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration
 This directional movement along a gradient is passive and will
continue until molecules become evenly dispersed
(equilibrium)
 Small and non-polar (lipophilic) molecules will be able to freely
diffuse across cell membranes (e.g. O2, CO2, glycerol)

The rate of diffusion can be influenced by a number of factors,

including:
 Temperature (affects kinetic energy of particles in solution)
 Molecular size (larger particles are subjected to greater
resistance within a fluid medium)
 Steepness of gradient (rate of diffusion will be greater with a
higher concentration gradient)
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules across a semi-
permeable membrane from a region of low solute concentration to a
region of high solute concentration (until equilibrium is reached)
 Water is considered the universal solvent – it will associate
with, and dissolve, polar or charged molecules (solutes)
 Because solutes cannot cross a cell membrane unaided, water
will move to equalise the two solutions
 At a higher solute concentration, there are less free water
molecules in solution as water is associated with the solute
 Osmosis is essentially the diffusion of free water molecules
and hence occurs from regions of low solute concentration

Solutions may be loosely categorised as hypertonic, hypotonic or

isotonic according to their relative osmolarity
 Solutions with a relatively higher osmolarity are categorised as
hypertonic (high solute concentration ⇒ gains water)
 Solutions with a relatively lower osmolarity are categorised as
hypotonic (low solute concentration ⇒ loses water)
 Solutions that have the same osmolarity are categorised as
isotonic (same solute concentration ⇒ no net water flow)

Aquaporin is an integral protein that acts as a pore in the membrane

that speeds the movement of water molecules

Facilitated diffusion is the passive movement of molecules across

the cell membrane via the aid of a membrane protein
 It is utilised by molecules that are unable to freely cross the
phospholipid bilayer (e.g. large, polar molecules and ions)
 This process is mediated by channel proteins

Active Transport
Active transport uses energy to move molecules against a
concentration gradient
 This type of movement across a membrane is not diffusion and
energy is needed to carry it out (ATP)
 Active transport involves the use of carrier proteins (called
protein pumps due to their use of energy)
 A specific solute will bind to the protein pump on one side of the
membrane
 The hydrolysis of ATP (to ADP + Pi) causes a conformational
change in the protein pump
 The solute molecule is consequently translocated across the
membrane (against the gradient) and released

1.4 The fluidity of Endocytosis – the taking in of

U2 membranes external substances by
allows materials forming a vesicle
to be taken into  Inward pouching of
cells by the plasma
endocytosis or membrane,
released by pinched off to
exocytosis. form a vesicle
containing the
external material
 Phagocytosis
(solid substance
ingestion) and
Pinocytosis (liquid
substances
ingested)

Exocytosis – the release of

substances from a cell
(secretion)
 Vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, the contents are then
outside the membrane
 Digestive enzymes are released from gland cells by exocytosis
 Exocytosis can also be used to expel waste products or
unwanted materials

1.4 Vesicles move Vesicles can be used to move materials around inside cells
U3 materials within
cells. An example of moving the vesicle contents occurs in the secretory
cells
 Protein is synthesized by ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum and accumulates inside the rER
 Vesicles containing the protein bud off the rER and carry them
 to the Golgi apparatus
 The vesicles fuse with the Golgi apparatus, which processes the
protein into its final form
 When this has been done, vesicles bud off the Golgi apparatus
and move to the plasma membrane, where the protein is
secreted

1.4 Structure and An axon is part of a neuron with the function of conveying messages
A1 function of rapidly from one part of the body to another in an electrical form called
sodium– a nerve impulse
potassium pumps  A nerve impulse involves rapid movements of sodium and then
for active potassium across the axon membrane
transport and
potassium The sodium-potassium pump follows a repeating cycle of steps that
channels for result in three sodium ions being pumped out of the axon and two
facilitated potassium ions being pumped in
diffusion in  Each time the pump goes around this cycle it uses one ATP
axons.
1. The interior of the pump is open to the inside of the axon; three
sodium ions enter the pmp and attach to their binding sites
2. ATP transfers a phosphate group from itself to the pump; this
causes the pump to change shape and the interior is then
closed
3. The interior of the pump opens to the outside of the axon and
three sodium ions are released
4. Two potassium ions from outside can then enter and attach to
their binding sites
5. Binding of potassium causes release of the phosphate group;
this causes the pump to change shape again so that it is again
only open to the inside of the axon
6. The interior of the pump opens to the inside of the axon and the
two potassium ions are released; sodium ions can then enter
and bind to the pump again

1.4 Tissues or organs In solutions with higher osmolarity (hypertonic solution), water leaves
A2 to be used in the cells by osmosis so their cytoplasm shrinks in volume, causing
medical indentations
procedures must  Conversely, in a solution with lower osmolarity (hypotonic) the
be bathed in a cells take in water by osmosis and swell up, and may eventually
solution with the burst
same osmolarity
 as the cytoplasm Both hypertonic and hypotonic solutions therefore damage human
to prevent cells
osmosis.  In a solution with same osmolarity as the cells (isotonic) , water
molecules enter and leave the cell at the same rate so they
remain healthy
 It is therefore important for any human tissues and organs to be
bathed in an isotonic solution during medical procedures
 Usually an isotonic sodium chloride solution is used, which is
called normal saline

1.4 Estimation of
S1 osmolarity in
tissues by
bathing samples
in hypotonic and
hypertonic
solutions.

Osmosis
experiments are a
useful opportunity
to stress the need
for accurate mass
and volume
measurements in
scientific
experiments

1.5 Origin of Cells

1.5 Cells can only be Cells only arise from the division of preexisting cells
U1 formed by  Mitosis – duplication of the DNA and the nucleus, results in
division of pre- genetically identical diploid daughter cells
 existing cells.  Meiosis – cell division in parents, generates haploid gametes
(sex cells)
Students should
be aware that the Other evidences of the cell theory
64 codons in the 1. Cells are highly complex structure and no mechanism has been
genetic code found for producing cells form simpler subunits
have the same 2. All known examples of growth, be it of a tissue, an organism
meanings in population, are all a result of cell division
nearly all 3. Viruses are produced from simpler subunits, but they do not
organisms, but consist of cells, and they can only be produced inside the host
that there are cells that they have infected
some minor 4. Genetic code is universal each of the 64 codons (a codon is a
variations that combination of 3 DNA bases) produces the same amino acid in
are likely to have translation, regardless of the organism
accrued since the
common origin of Base pairs (ATGC) → codon (3 base pairs) → genes (many codons) →
life on Earth. Chromosome (many genes)

1.5 The first cells There is evidence that suggest complex structures arising in a series
U2 must have arisen of stages over logn periods of time. There are hypotheses of how some
from non-living of the main stages could have occurred:
material.
1. Non-living synthesis of simple organic molecules:
 Miller and Urey recreated the conditions of pre-biotic Earth in a
closed system
 They passed steam through a mixture of methane, hydrogen and
ammonia (representative of the atmosphere of the early Earth)
 Electrical discharges were used to stimulate lightning
 They found that amino acids and other carbon compounds
needed for life were produced

2. Assembly of these organic molecules into polymers:

 A possible site for the origin of the first carbon compounds is
around deep-sea vents (cracks in the Earth’s surface)
 They are characterized by gushing hot water carrying reduced
inorganic chemicals
 These chemicals represent readily accessible supplies of
energy, a source of energy for the assembly of carbon
compounds into polymers

3. Formation of membranes to package the organic molecules

 Experiments have shown that phospholipids natural assemble
 into bilayers, if conditions are correct.
 Formation of the bilayer creates an isolated internal
environment which allows optimal conditions, e.g. for
replication or catalysis to be maintained.

4. Formation of polymers that can self-replicate (enabling inheritance)

 DNA though very stable and effective at storing information is
not able to self-replicate – enzymes are required
 However, RNA can both store information and self-replicate - it
can catalyze the formation of copies of itself and hence are
speculated to be the genetic material used in early Earth
 In ribosomes RNA is found in the catalytic site and plays a role
in peptide bond formation

1.5 The origin of Endosymbiotic theory explains the existence of several organelles of
U3 eukaryotic cells eukaryotes. The theory states that the organelles (e.g. mitochondria
can be explained and chloroplasts) originated as symbioses between separate single-
by the celled organisms.
endosymbiotic
theory. Development of the Nucleus
 A prokaryote grows in size and develops folds in its membrane
Evidence for the to maintain an efficient SA:Vol
endosymbiotic  The infoldings are pinched off forming an internal membrane
theory is  The nucleoid region is enclosed in the internal membrane and
expected. The hence becomes the nucleus
origin of
eukaryote cilia Development of Mitochondria
and flagella does  An aerobic proteobacterium enters a larger anaerobic
not need to be prokaryote (possibly as prey or a parasite)
included.  It survives digestion to become a valuable endosymbiont (An
endosymbiont is a cell which lives inside another cell with
mutual benefit)
 The aerobic proteobacterium provides a rich source of ATP to
its host enabling it to out-compete other anaerobic prokaryotes
 As the host cell grows and divides so does the aerobic
proteobacterium therefore subsequent generations
automatically contain aerobic proteobacterium
 The aerobic proteobacterium evolves and is assimilated and to
become a mitochondrion

Evidence for Endosymbiosis

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both organelles suggested to have
arisen via endosymbiosis
 Evidence that supports the extracellular origins of these
organelles can be seen by looking at certain key features:

Component Evidence
 Membranes Some organelles have double membranes
Antibiotics Susceptible to antibiotics
Division Reproduction occurs via a fission-like process
DNA Has own DNA which is naked and circular (like
prokaryotic DNA structure)
Ribosomes Have ribosomes which are 70S in size

1.5 Evidence from Louis Pasteur experimented whether sterile nutrient broth (everything
A1 Pasteur’s that is needed for a living organism) to determine if life can be
experiments that generated spontaneously
spontaneous
generation of Method:
cells and  Two experiments were set up
organisms does  In both, Pasteur added nutrient broth to flasks and bent the
not now occur on necks of the flasks into S- shapes
Earth.  Each flask was then heated to boil the broth in order to kill all
existing microbes
 After the broth had been sterilized, Pasteur broke off the swan
necks from the flasks in Experiment 1, exposing the nutrient
broth within them to air from above
 The flasks in Experiment 2 were left alone

Results
 The broth in experiment 1 turned cloudy whilst the broth in
experiment 2 remained clear
 Microbe growth only occurred in experiment 1

This suggested that spontaneous generation of life no longer occurs

on Earth, and that life only arises from pre-existing life forms
 1.6 Cell Division

1.6 Mitosis is division Mitosis is the nuclear division by which replicated copies of a cell’s
U1 of the nucleus DNA are organized into chromosomes.
into two
genetically Reasons for Cell Division
identical daughter  Growth - cells can only get to a certain SA:Vol ratio
nuclei.  Asexual reproduction - certain eukaryotic organisms ay
reproduce asexually by mitosis and for single celled organisms,
The sequence of cell division
events in the four  Tissue repair - damaged tissue can recover by replacing dead or
phases of mitosis damaged cells
should be known.  Embryonic development - a fertilised egg will undergo mitosis
To avoid and differentiation in order to develop into an embryo
confusion in
terminology, The cell cycle is the series of events through which cells pass to divide
teachers are and create two identical daughter cells.
encouraged to
refer to the two
parts of a
chromosome as
sister chromatids,
while they are
attached to each
other by a
centromere in the
early stages of
mitosis. From
anaphase Chromosome and Chromatid
onwards, when  A chromosome is the condensed form of DNA which is visible
sister chromatids during mitosis (via microscopy)
have separated to  As the DNA is replicated during the S phase of interphase, the
form individual chromosome will initially contain two identical DNA strands
structures, they  These genetically identical strands are called sister
should be referred chromatids and are held together by a central region called the
to as centromere
chromosomes.

Interphase
DNA is present as uncondensed chromatin (not visible under
microscope)
 DNA is contained within a clearly defined nucleus
 Centrosomes and other organelles have been duplicated
 Cell is enlarged in preparation for division

Prophase
 DNA supercoils and chromosomes condense (becoming visible
under microscope)
 Chromosomes are comprised of genetically identical sister
chromatids (joined at a centromere)
 Paired centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell and
form microtubule spindle fibres
 The nuclear membrane breaks down and the nucleus dissolves

Metaphase
 Microtubule spindle fibres from both centrosomes connect to the
centromere of each chromosome
 Microtubule depolymerisation causes spindle fibres to shorten in
length and contract
 This causes chromosomes to align along the centre of the cell
(equatorial plane or metaphase plate)

Anaphase
 Continued contraction of the spindle fibres causes genetically
identical sister chromatids to separate
 Once the chromatids separate, they are each considered an
individual chromosome in their own right
 The genetically identical chromosomes move to the opposite
poles of the cell

Telophase
 Once the two chromosome sets arrive at the poles, spindle fibres
dissolve
 Chromosomes decondense (no longer visible under light
microscope)
 Nuclear membranes reform around each chromosome set
  Cytokinesis occurs concurrently, splitting the cell into two

1.6 Chromosomes  Human cells are on average less than 5 μm in diameter.

U2 condense by  Human chromosomes are 15mm to 85mm (15,000μm to 85,000
supercoiling μm) in length
during mitosis.  It is therefore essential to package chromosomes into much
shorter structures

Condensation occurs by means of repeatedly coiling the DNA molecule

to make the chromosome shorter and wider – this process is called
supercoiling
 This process occurs during the first stage of mitosis

1.6 Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and hence the cell
U3 occurs after  The division of the cell into two daughter cells (cytokinesis)
mitosis and is occurs concurrently with telophase.
different in plant
and animal cells.

Animal cells
 Microfilaments pulls the plasma membrane inward
 Produces cleavage furrow
 When the cleavage furrow reaches the centre of the cell it is
pinched apart

Plant
cells
 During Telophase, vesicles migrate to the centre of the cell
 Vesicles fuse to form tubular structures
 The tubular structure merge with the plasma membrane (the cell
plate)
 Completes the division of the cytoplasm
 Vesicles deposit substances in the lumen between the daughter
cells to form the middle lamella (‘gluing’ the cells together)
 Both daughter cell secrete cellulose to form their new adjoining
cell walls

1.6 Interphase is a
U4 very active phase
of the cell cycle
with many
processes
occurring in the
nucleus and
cytoplasm.

Interphase
 The stage in the development of a cell between two successive
divisions
This phase of the cell cycle is a continuum of three distinct stages:
 G1 – First intermediate gap stage in which the cell grows and
prepares for DNA replication
 S – Synthesis stage in which DNA is replicated
 G2 – Second intermediate gap stage in which the cell finishes
growing and prepares for cell division

During interphase, the cell carries out its normal functions

 DNA replication – DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase
 Organelle duplication – Organelles must be duplicated for twin
daughter cells
 Cell growth – Cytoplasmic volume must increase prior to division
 Transcription / translation – Key proteins and enzymes must be
synthesised
 Obtain nutrients – Vital cellular materials must be present before
division
 Respiration (cellular) – ATP production is needed to drive the
division process

1.6 Cyclins are Cyclins are a family of proteins that control the progression of cells
U5 involved in the through the cell cycle
control of the cell  Cells cannot progress to the next stage of the cell cycle unless
cycle. the specific cyclin reaches its threshold
 Cyclins bind to enzymes called cyclin-dependent kinases
 These kinases then become active and attach phosphate groups
to other proteins in the cell
 The attachment of phosphate triggers the other proteins to
become active and carry out tasks (specific to one of the phases
of the cell cycle)

1.6 Mutagens, Tumours are abnormal cell growths resulting from uncontrolled cell
U6 oncogenes and division and can occur in any tissue or organ
metastasis are  Diseases caused by the growth of tumours are collectively
involved in the known as cancers
development of
primary and Mutations
secondary A mutation is a change in an organism’s genetic code
tumors.  A mutation in the base sequence of certain genes can result in
cancer

Mutagens
A mutagen is an agent that changes the genetic material of an
organism (either acts on the DNA or the replicative machinery)
Mutagens may be physical, chemical or biological in origin:
 Physical – Sources of radiation including X-rays
(ionising), ultraviolet (UV) light and radioactive decay
 Chemical – DNA interacting substances including reactive
oxygen species (ROS) and metals (e.g. arsenic)
 Biological – Viruses, certain bacteria and mobile genetic
elements (transposons)

Mutagens that lead to the formation of cancer are further classified

 as carcinogens

Oncogenes
An oncogene is a gene that produces the proteins that controls the cell
cycle.
 A mutation in the oncogene can produce proteins that may not
function properly, causing uncontrolled cell cycle

Metastasis
Tumour cells may either remain in their original location (benign) or
spread and invade neighbouring tissue (malignant)
 Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one location (primary
tumour) to another, forming a secondary tumour
 Secondary tumours are made up of the same type of cell as the
primary tumour – this affects the type of treatment required
o For example, if breast cancer spread to the liver, the patient
has secondary breast cancer of the liver (treat with breast
cancer drugs)

1.6 The correlation A correlation in science is a relationship between two variable factors
A1 between smoking  There is a positive correlation between cigarette smoking and
and incidence of the death rate due to cancer
cancers.  Many researches show that the more cigarettes smoked per day,
the higher the death rate due to cancer
 More than 20 chemicals found in tobacco have caused cancers in
laboratory animals and humans
 More than 40 other chemicals found in tobacco have been
identified as carcinogens

1.6 Identification of Prophase

S1 phases of mitosis
in cells viewed
with a
microscope or in
a micrograph. Metaphase

Preparation of
temporary mounts
of root squashes
Anaphase
is recommended
but phases in
mitosis can also
be viewed using
permanent slides. Telophase

1.6 Determination of Mitotic index - the ratio between the number of cells in a tissue and the
S2 a mitotic index total number of observed cells
from a number of cells ∈mitosis
micrograph. total number of cells