byjusexamprep.

com

1
byjusexamprep.com

IMPORTANT FORMULAS ON DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES

CHAPTER-1- PLASTIC ANALYSIS
In plastic analysis, we use the reserve of strength beyond the point of the first yield and mostly

used for indeterminate structures.

Assumptions:

i. Material must possess ductility so that it could be deformed to the plastic state.

ii. Strain distribution should be linear, i.e. plane section should remain plane after bending

(shear deflections are neglected)

iii. Stress-strain curve is assumed to be idealised elastoplastic.

iv. Relation between tensile stress-strain is the same in both tension and compression.

v. Joints should be sufficiently rigid to transfer the moment.

1. SAFE AND YIELD MOMENT OF RESISTANCE

1.1. Safe moment of resistance: M = f × z
Where, f = stress in extreme fibre and z = section modulus
1.2. Yield Moment of Resistance (My): My = fy× z
Where, fy = yield stress and z = section modulus

2. PLASTIC MOMENT CAPACITY

Plastic moment = Mp=C × lever arm = T × lever arm.
A
Mp= C × lever arm = fy   (y1 + y2 )
2
A
( 
)
MP = f y  y1 + y2  = fyzP
 2 

Here, zP =
A
( )
y + y2 = Plastic modulus
2 1

y1, y2 = Centroid distances of compression area and tension area from the neutral axis.

3. IMPORTANT FACTORS IN PLASTIC DESIGN

MP fy zP z
3.1. Shape factor (SF) = =  SF = P
My fy z z

MP fy .zP
3.2. Load factor (LF) = =
M fz
fy zP
 = FoS  SF = load factor
f z
 Load factor = Factor of Safety × Shape factor

2
byjusexamprep.com
3.3. Factor of Safety (FOS)

fy
Factor of safety for ductile material, FOS =
f
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety for brittle material, FOS =
Working stress
Shape factors for various cross-sections:
S.No CROSS-SECTION SHAPE FACTOR
1. Rectangle 1.5
2. Circle 1.7
3. Rolled steel I section 1.12 to 1.14
4. H section 1.5
5. Diamond section 2
6. Triangle 2.34
3.4. Calculation of Collapse Load
To form a mechanism, the number of plastic hinges required = n = Ds +1.
In the plastic analysis, the following conditions must be satisfied.
i) Equilibrium condition: the equation of equilibrium should be satisfied.
ii) Mechanism condition: sufficient number of plastic hinges must develop so that a
part or entire structure must transform into a mechanism leading to collapse.
iii) Yield condition: Bending moment at any section should not exceed plastic moment
capacity (Mp) of the cross-section.
On the basis of the above 3 conditions, there are two methods:
i) Kinematic method or Kinematic theorem or upper bound theorem
a) It is the combination of equilibrium and mechanism conditions.
b) It also states that the collapse load formed by assuming a mechanism will always be
greater than or equal to the true collapse load.
ii) Static method or Static theorem or lower bound theorem
a) It satisfies equilibrium and yield conditions.
b) It states that the collapse load formed based on any collapsed bending moment will
always be less or equal to the true collapse load.

4. LOCATIONS WHERE PLASTIC HINGES CAN FORM

i) At maximum bending moment locations.
ii) At fixed supports and rigid joints.
iii) Wherever the cross-section changes.
iv) Under point loads in supported spans but not at a free end.
v) Whenever the material changes.
4.1. Principle of Virtual Work: “when a body is in equilibrium, the total virtual work done
by all forces is zero”.

3
byjusexamprep.com
4.2. Collapse Load for Various Cases
i) Simply Supported beam
4MP
a) Point load at mid-length: Collapse load = KN

8MP
b) Uniformly distributed load: Collapse load = KN / m
2

MP
c) Eccentric loaded point load: Collapse load = {∵ a + b = }
ab
(ii) Fixed-beam
8MP
a) Point load at mid-length: Collapse load = KN

b) Uniformly distributed load:

12MP
⇒When two hinges are formed simultaneously at the ends  W1 = KN / m
2

⇒When the third hinge is formed at mid-span after the hinges form at the ends

16MP
Collapse load = KN / m
2

2MP
c) Eccentric point load: Collapse load = kN
ab
(iii) Propped cantilever beam
6MP
a) Point load at mid-length: Collapse load = kN

11.656MP
b) Uniformly distributed load: Collapse Load = kN
2

MP ( + b)
c) Eccentric point load: Collapse load = kN
ab
4.3. Plastic Analysis of Frame
4.3.1. Beam Mechanism: The mechanism is formed only in one member of the portal
frame.
W
B C

A D

4.3.2. Sway Mechanism: If the frame sways to the left or to the right.

4
byjusexamprep.com

4.3.3. Combined Mechanism: It is formed by the combination of sway and beam

mechanism.

5
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-2- DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION: Different types of fasteners available are rivets, bolts, pins and welds.

2. BOLTED CONNECTIONS

Bolts are classified as:

(a) Unfinished or Black Bolts, (b) Finished (turned) bolts, (c) High strength friction grip
(HSFG) bolts
2.1. Black Bolts: Black bolts are also referred to as ordinary, unfinished, rough, or common
bolts. They are the least expensive bolts.

Fig. Hexagonal head black bolt and nut.

Figures in bracket are for high-strength bolts and nut
In steel construction, generally, bolts of property class 4.6 are used. In property class
4.6, the number4 indicates 1/100th of the nominal ultimate tensile strength in N/mm 2,
and the number 6 indicates the ratio of yield stress to ultimate stress expressed as a
percentage. Thus, the ultimate tensile strength of a class 4.6 bolt is 400 N/mm2, and yield
strength is 0.6 times 400, which is 240 N/mm2.
2.2. Turned Bolts (Close Tolerance Bolts): These are similar to unfinished bolts, with the
difference that the shanks of these bolts are formed from a hexagonal rod. They are
mainly used in special jobs (in some machines and where there are dynamic loads).
2.3. High Strength Friction Grip bolts (HSFG): The tension in the bolt ensures that no
slip takes place under working conditions, and so the load transmission from plate to
the bolt is through friction and not by bearing. HSFG bolts are made from quenched and
tempered alloy steels with grades from 8.8 to 10.9.

6
byjusexamprep.com
3. CLASSIFICATION OF BOLTS BASED ON METHOD OF LOAD TRANSFER
Based on load transfer in the connection, bolts may be classified as:
(a) Bearing type: Unfinished (black) bolts and finished (turned) bolts are bearing types since
they transfer shear force from one member to other members by bearing.
(b) Friction grip type: HSFG bolts belongs to the friction grip type since they transfer shear by
friction.

4. TERMINOLOGY IN BOLTED CONNECTION

1. Pitch of the Bolts (P): It is the centre to centre spacing of bolts in a row, measured in the
direction of load.
2. Guage (g): It is the distance between the two consecutive bolts of adjacent rows and is
measured at a right angle to the direction of the load.
3. Staggered Pitched (Ps): It is the centre to centre distance of staggered bolts measured in
the direction of load.

4. Diameter of Bolt Hole: The diameter of the bolt hole is larger than the nominal diameter
(shank diameter) of the bolt
5. Area of Bolt at Root (Anb): Area of Bolt at the root of the thread is less than at the shank
of the bolt. For some common bolt sizes, Anb = 0.78 × Asbwhere, Asb = Area of bolt at the
shank.

5. IS 800– 2007SPECIFICATIONS FOR SPACING AND EDGE DISTANCE OF BOLT HOLES

(i) Pitch shall not be less than 2.5 d, where ‘d’ is the nominal diameter of the bolt.
(ii) Pitch shall not be more than
(a) 16t or 200 mm, whichever is less, in case of tension members.
(b)12t or 200mm, whichever is less, in the case of compression members where t is the
thickness of the thinnest member.

7
byjusexamprep.com
(c) In the case of staggered pitch, the pitch may be increased by 50 per cent of the specified
value provided the gauge distance is less than 75 mm.
(iii) In the case of butt joints, the maximum pitch is to be restricted to 4.5d for a distance of
1.5 times the width of the plate from the butting surface.
(iv) The gauge length ‘g’ should not be more than 100+4t or 200 mm, whichever is less.
(v) Minimum edge distance shall be
(a) Less than 1.7 × hole diameter in case of sheared or hand flame cut edge.
(b) Less than 1.5 × hole diameter in case of rolled, machine flame cut, sawn and planed
edges.
(vi) Maximum edge distance should not exceed.

250
(a) 12t , where = and t is the thickness of the thinner outer plate.
fy

(b) 40 + 4t, where t is the thickness of thinner connected plate if exposed to the
corrosive environment.
(vii) Apart from the required bolt from the consideration of design forces, additional bolts
called tacking fasteners should be provided as specified below.
(a)If the value of gauge length exceeds after providing design fasteners at maximum
edge distances tacking rivets should be provided.
- At 32t or 300mm, whichever is less, if plates are not exposed to the weather.
- At 16t or 200mm, whichever is less if plates are exposed to the weather.
(viii) In the case of a member made of up two flats, or angles or tees or channels, tacking
rivets are to be provided along the length to connect its components as specified below.
(a) Not exceeding 1000mm, if it is a tension member.
(b) Not exceeding 600mm, if it is a compression member.

6. TYPES OF BOLTED CONNECTION

Bolted joints may be grouped into the following types.
6.1. Lap Joint: It is the simplest type of joint. In this, the plate to be connected overlaps one
another.

lg  5d, d = diameter of the bolt.

8
byjusexamprep.com
6.2. Single Cover Butt Joint: Bolts in single cover butt joints are subjected to single shear
and bearing.

tcover  tmain

6.3. Double cover butt joint: Bolts in double cover butt joint are subjected to double shear
and bearing.

sum of t cover  tmain

7. ASSUMPTIONS IN DESIGN OF BEARING BOLTS: The following assumptions are made in

the design of bearing (finished or unfinished) bolted connections:
1. The friction between the plates is negligible.
2. The shear is uniform over the cross-section of the bolt.
3. The distribution of stress on the plates between the bolt holes is uniform
4. Bolts in a group subjected to direct loads share the load equally
5. Bending stresses developed in the bolts in neglected.

8. DESIGN TENSILE STRENGTH OF PLATES IN A JOINT

(i) Failure of bolts
(a) Shear failure of the bolt, the bolt will get cut into 2 pieces.
(b) Bearing failure of the bolt, the bolt will go out of shape.
(ii) Failure of plates
(a) Shear of plates, the cracks are developed parallel to the direction of the force.

Shear stress at (2) – (2)

Tensile stress at (1) – (1)
(b) Splitting failure: It occurs due to diagonal tension in the plate at bolt level.

9
byjusexamprep.com
(c) Bearing failure: Bolt will push the plate forward. It occurs when the bearing strength of
the plate is less.

(d)Tension failure or tearing failure of plate: Cracks are developed perpendicular to the
direction of the force.

Design strength of bolted joint: It is taken as the least value of

- Shear strength of all bolts in the joint (Ps)
- Bearing strength of all bolts in the joint (Pb)
- Tensile strength of the plate (Pt)
(i) Lap joint
Case (a): For the entire width of the plate.
Ps = shear strength of all bolts in the joint.

Ps = n   d2  fs
4
n = Total number of bolts in the joint.
d = diameter of the bolt.
fs = permissible shear stress in the bolt.
fu
fs = (for LSM)
3  1.25
Pb = bearing strength of all bolts in the joint.
Pb = n × d × t × fb
n = number of bolts in the joint
d × t = projected area of the bolt against the plate.
t = thickness of the thinner plate.
fb = permissible bearing stress in the bolt.
fu
fb = 2.5 × kb ×
1.25
PT = Tensile strength of the plate.
fy
PT = Ag  (Based on gross area yielding at x.x)
1.1
0.9 fu
= Anet  (based on net area)
1.25
Least value of Ps, Pb and Pt is taken as the strength of the joint.

10
byjusexamprep.com
Case (b): Strength of joint / gauge length

PS = Shear strength of all bolts in shaded gauge length.

1


PS = n1   d2  fs
1 4

n1 = total number of bolts in shaded gauge length.

n1 = 3

Pb1 = bearing strength of all bolts in shaded gauge length.

Pb = n1  d  t  fb
1

Pt1 = tensile strength of the plate/gauge length

fy
= Ag 
1.1
0.9 fu
= Anet 
1.25
(ii) Double Cover butt joint
Ps = shear strength of all bolts in the joint

Ps = n  2   d2  fs
4
Pb = Bearing strength of all bolts in the joint.

Pb = n  d  t  fb
n=g
t = sum of cover plate thickness or thickness of thinner main plate, whichever is less.
Pt = tensile strength of the plate.
fy
= Ag 
1.1
0.9fy
= Anet 
1.25

(iii) Rivet value (Rv): It is the strength of a single bolt. It is taken as the least value of Ps
and Pb of a single bolt.
(a) When bolt is in single shear

11
byjusexamprep.com

 
Ps =  d2  fs 
4  whichever is less is R v
Pb = d  t  fb 

(b) If bolt is in double shear

 
Ps = 2   d2  fs 
4  whichever is less
Pb = d  t  fb 

Factored load
Number of bolts required at a joint = n =
Rivet value
F
n=
Rv

9. ARRANGEMENT OF BOLT
(i) Chain bolting:

Here, net area = Anet = (B – 3d)t at 1 – 1

d = diameter of bolt hole
B = width of plate
(ii) Diamond bolting

here, net area = Anet = (B – d)t at 1 – 1

So, Diamond riveting/bolting is more efficient than chain bolting.
(iii) Mixed Bolting

In this arrangement, both cover plates and the main plate can take the maximum load.

12
byjusexamprep.com
10. ECCENTRIC BOLTED CONNECTION: If the centre of gravity of the bolt group does not lie on
the line of action of the load, then it is called an eccentric connection.
10.1. In-plane eccentricity: In this case, the bolt group and load are on the same plane,
but the CG of the bolt group does not lie on the line of action of the load.

There are two effects when the load is applied, as shown above
→direct load (P)
→twisting moment (T) = Pe.
P
Direct shear force on bolt due to load P, F1 =  Ai
Ai
where Ai = cross-section area of each bolt.
P P
If the cross-sectional area is the same for all bolts, then, F1 =  Ai =
nAi n
where n = number of bolts.
Pe
Shear force in the bolt due to twisting moment (T), F2 =  rA
i i
Airi2

Pe
If all the bolts have the same area, F2 =  ri
ri2
where ri = radial distance of each bolt from CG of bolt group.

Resultant shear force in the bolt, FR = F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos 

 = the angle between F1 and F2

FR  R v for safe bolting, RV = rivet/bolt value.

If the bolts are of the same diameter, the most critically stressed bolt is the one for
which ‘r’ is maximum and  is minimum.
10.2. Out of plane eccentricity
Section is subjected to a direct shear force P and moment M = Pe.

13
byjusexamprep.com
On the tension side, only the bolt resists load but on the compression side entire zone
between the columns and the connecting angle resist the load.
H
It is assumed that the neutral axis (NA) lies at a height of of the depth of bracket,
7
measured from the bottom edge of the angle.
Since bolts above NA are subjected to tension and shearing, the governing criteria to
prevent failure of the bolt is given by
2 2
 PT, cal   PS, cal 
  +    1
 PT   PS 
Here,
PT, cal = calculated factored tensile force in the bolt.
PT = tension capacity of the bolt
PS = shear capacity of the bolt
Interaction curve between PT and PS.

11. DESIGN OF WELDED JOINT: There are three types of welded joints
(i) Butt weld
(ii) Fillet weld
(iii)Slot weld or plug weld
11.1. Butt weld: It is also called a groove weld. Depending upon the shape of the groove
made for welding, butt welds are classified as square butt weld, single v butt weld,
double v butt weld, sing U butt joint, single J butt joint, single bevel butt joint.
11.2. Fillet Weld: It is a weld of approximately a triangular cross-section joining two surfaces
approximately at right angles to each other in a lap joint or corner joint. It is assumed
that fillet welds always offer resistance in the form of shear only.
(i)Size of fillet weld:
(a) Size of the normal fillet weld shall be taken as the minimum weld leg size.
(b)For deep penetration welds with penetration not less than 2.4 mm, the size
of the weld is (minimum leg size + 2.4 mm).
(c)For fillet welds made by semi-automatic or automatic process with deep
penetration of more than 2.4 mm,
S = minimum leg size + actual penetration

14
byjusexamprep.com
(ii) Throat: It is the minimum dimension in fillet weld. Throat thickness = t t = k × size
of weld.
Where k is a constant depends on the angle between fusion faces.

Angle between fusion faces k

60° — 90° 0.7

91° — 100° 0.65

101° — 106° 0.6

107° — 113° 0.55

114° — 90° 0.5

Fillet weld should not be used if the angle between fusion faces is less than 60° or more
than 120°.
(iii) Minimum size of weld
The minimum size of weld specified is 3mm. To avoid the risk of cracking in the absence
of preheating, the minimum size specified are :
Thickness of thicker plate Minimum size of weld
< 10 mm 3 mm
10 mm 5 mm
20 mm – 32 mm 6 mm
32 mm – 50 mm 8 mm
(iv)Maximum size of weld
(a)At a square edge, Maximum size of weld = thickness of plate – 1.5 m
3
(b)At the round edge, Maximum size of weld =  thickness of the plate
4
(v) Effective length of weld: Welding length made is equal to effective length plus
twice the size of the weld. Effective length should not be less than four times the size
of the weld.
(vi) Lap joint: The minimum lap should be four times the thickness of the thinner part
joined or 40 mm, whichever is more. The length of weld along either edge should not
be less than the transverse spacing of welds.
(vii) Strength of weld: Load carrying capacity of weld
P = permissible shear stress in weld × effective area of the weld.

P = fs  leff  t t

fu
Where fs = permissible shear stress in the weld =
3  1.25
11.3. Slot weld or plug weld: Slot welding is alone to increase the length of the weld.
Minimum width of slot = 3 t or 25 mm, whichever is less.
Here, t = thickness of the plate in which slot is made.

15
byjusexamprep.com
12. ECCENTRIC WELDED CONNECTION: Plane of the moment and the eccentric load, P is
equivalent to a direct load P at the centre of gravity of the group of weld and a twisting
moment, P × e.

Due to direct load P, shear stress f1, is developed and due to twisting moment, torsion shear
stress f2 is developed at A (this torsional shear stress is maximum if radial distance is
maximum). Resultant due to f1 and f2can be calculated as follows:

fR = f12 + f22 + 2f1f2 cos 

 = angle between f1 and f2

Out of plate eccentricity:
The effect of eccentric load is equivalent to a direct load acting at centre of gravity of weld
group and bending moment, P × e.

Neutral axis for the weld group lies at the centre of gravity of weld group because bending
tensile stress and bending compressive stress are resisted by weld only.
Due to direct load, P vertical shear stress f1 is developed and due to bending moment, bending
tensile stress is developed.
Equivalent stress is calculated as follows
fu
fE = f12 + 3f22  fs =
3  1.25

If f1+f2<fs than

fr = f12+f22  fs

16
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-3- TENSION MEMBERS

1. LUG ANGLE: Length of the end connection of a heavily loaded tension member may be reduced

by using lug angles. By using the lug angle, there will be a saving in the greatest plate.

(i) The effective connection of the lug angle shall as far as possible terminate at the end of

the member.

(ii) The connection of the lug angle to the main angle shall preferably start in advance of the

member to the gusset plate.

(iii) Minimum of two bolts rivets or equivalent welds is used for attaching lug angle to the

gusset plate.

(iv) The purpose of lug angle is to reduce the shear lag effect and to reduce the length of the

connection to the gusset plate.

(v) Shear lag factor, which takes care of loss of efficiency due to shear lag, should not be less

than 0.7.

2. LONG JOINTS: If the length of the joint is more than 15 d or 150 t t, where d is the diameter

of the bolt hole, and tt is the throat thickness.

3. GRIP LENGTH: grip length should not be more than 5d, where d is the diameter of the bolt

hole. If the value of grip length is in the range of 5d to 8d, then Ps is multiplied by a reduction

factor to take care of the additional stresses. But in case the value of grip length is more than

8d, then, in that case, the section must be redesigned.

4. SLENDERNESS RATIO LIMITS

Maximum value of slenderness
Type of member
ratio
(i) Pure tension member 400
(ii) Hanger bars 160
(iii) Pure compression member 180
(iv) Lacing member 145
(v) Tension member subjected to reversal of stresses due to live
180
load
(vi) Pure tension member subjected to reversal of stress due to
350
action of wind.
(vii)Reversal of load by wind/E.Q. the deformation of such
250
members doesn’t affect the other part of the structure

17
byjusexamprep.com
5. NET SECTIONAL AREA:

Case 1: Chain Bolting: Net area along the section ABCD, Anet = (B – nd)t

Where n = number of bolt holes, d = diameter of bolt holes, t = thickness of the plate.

Case 2: Staggered Bolting

𝑠12 𝑠22
Net Area along the section 1-2-3-4-5 is given by, 𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = [𝐵 − 𝑛𝑑 + + ]×𝑡
4𝑔1 4𝑔2

𝑛′𝑠 2
If s1=s2, and g1=g2,𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑡 = [𝐵 − 𝑛𝑑 + ]×𝑡
4𝑔

Where,s = staggered pitch, g = gauge distance, n’ = number of staggered pitches, n =

number of holes in zig-zag line

6. LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF A TENSION MEMBER

A tension member may fail in any of the following modes:

𝐴𝑔 𝑓𝑦
6.1. Gross Section Yielding: 𝑇𝑑𝑔 =
𝛾𝑚0

Here, Ag = gross area of plate,

fy = yield stress,

γmo = Partial factor of safety governed by yielding = 1.1

𝐴𝑛 𝑓𝑢
6.2. Net section Rupture: 𝑇𝑑𝑛 = 0.9
𝛾𝑚1

Here, An = Net area of plate,

fu = Ultimate strength of plate

γm1 = Partial factor of safety governed by ultimate strength = 1.25

18
byjusexamprep.com
6.3. Block shear failure:

Shear failure occurs along 1 – 2 and 3 – 4, whereas tension failure occurs along 2 – 3.

𝐴𝑣𝑔 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑡𝑛 𝑓𝑢
For shear yield and tension failure: 𝑇𝑑𝑏1 = + 0.9
√3𝛾𝑚0 𝛾𝑚1

𝐴𝑡𝑔 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑛 𝑓𝑢
For tension yield and shear fracture: 𝑇𝑑𝑏2 = + 0.9
𝛾𝑚0 √3𝛾𝑚1

Where,

Avg = Gross area in shear along the line of action of force

Avn = Net area in shear along the line of action of force

Atg = Gross area in tension across the line of action of force

Atn = Net area in tension across the line of action of force

19
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-4- COMPRESSION MEMBERS

1. EFFECTIVE LENGTH

(a) If end conditions can be assessed: Where the boundary conditions in the plane of
buckling can be assessed, the effective length (KL) can be calculated as follows.
Boundary Condition
Diagram Effective Length
At one end At another end
Translation Rotation Translation Rotation

2.0 L
Restrained Restrained Free Free

Restrained Free Free Restrained L

Restrained Free Restrained Free L

Restrained Restrained Free Restrained 1.2 L

Restrained Restrained Restrained Free 0.8 L

Restrained Restrained Restrained Restrained 0.65 L

20
byjusexamprep.com
(b) Compression member in truss
• In the case of bolted, riveted or welded trusses and braced frames, the effective length, KL,
shall be taken as 0.7 to 1.0 times the actual length, depending upon the degree of end
restraints provided.
• For buckling in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the truss, the effective length may
be taken as the actual length.
(c) In frames: In frame analyses, if the deformed shape is not considered, the effective length
depends upon the stiffness of the members meeting at the joint.

𝜋2 𝐸𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
2. EULER’S COLUMN FORMULA: Critical load on column, 𝑃𝐶𝑟 =
𝐿2

Where, L = effective length, Imin = minimum moment of inertia= A rmin

2

rmin = minimum radius of gyration.

As per IS 800: 2007. The factored compressive load carrying capacity of the column,
Pc = fcd × Ag
Here, fcd = design compressive stress, Ag = gross cross sectional area of the column.

3. ANALYSIS OF STRUT: To prevent the buckling of strut components between tack bolts,

 t 
   40
 rmin comp
4. DESIGN OF LACING: If lacing members are used, then the effective length of the column is
increased by 5% in the calculations. Lacing members are designed as truss elements. The
maximum slenderness ratio for lacing members is 145.
The angle of lacing with respect to vertical should not be less than 40° and more than 70°.

If   70, the force in the lacing member will be very high and it may buckle. If   40, the

length of the lacing member will be more and it may buckle.

To prevent buckling of the column component between lacing connection,

 C 
   50  0.7  slenderness ratio of the overall section
r
 min 
Where C = overlap length  4t, rmin = minimum radius of gyration

According to IS 800 – 2007, the dimensions of the lacing bar are specified as follows
(i) Length of lacing bar (l1): It is taken as the distance between inner welds or bolts.
(ii) Effective length of lacing bar (leff):
leff = l1 , for single lacing (with one or two bolts)

leff = 0.7l1 , for double lacing.

leff = 0.7l1 , for welded lacing.

21
byjusexamprep.com
(iii) Minimum thickness (tmin):
leff
tmin  , for single lacing.
40
leff
tmin  , for double lacing.
60
(iv) Minimum width (bmin): bmin  3

Where  = nominal diameter of bolt.

At the top and bottom, tie plates or batten plates are provided. They prevent distortion of built-
up column cross-section due to twisting moment at the connection of the base plate with the
column.
Force in the lacing system:
- The lacing shall be designed to resist transverse shear force, V = 2.5 % of column load (to
take care of the eccentricity of axial loads and moments arising due to accidental lateral loads).
- The shear force V is shared by parallel planes of the lacing system equally. So transverse
V
shear force on each lacing system is where n is the number of parallel planes of lacing.
n
- If the column is subjected to bending also, Vt = bending shear + 2.5% column force.
- Laced members should not be subjected to eccentric loading because additional transverse
shear force is developed in the lacing system due to moment.

5. DESIGN OF BATTENED COLUMN: IS 800 – 2007 specifies the following rules for the design
of battened column.
(i) Batten plates should be placed symmetrically.
(ii) At both ends, batten plates should be provided.
(iii) The number of battens should be such that the member is divided into less than three
bays. As far as possible, they should be spaced and proportioned uniformly throughout.
(iv) Battens shall be of plates, angles, channels, or I-sections and at their ends shall be riveted,
bolted or welded.
(v) By providing battens distance between the members of columns is so maintained that radius
of gyration about the axis perpendicular to the plane of battens is not less than the radius of
gyration about the axis parallel to the plane of the batten.
(vi) The effective slenderness ratio of battened columns shall be taken as 1.1 times the
maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column to account for shear deformation.
(vii) The vertical spacing of battens, measured as the centre to centre of its end fastening,
shall be such that the slenderness ratio of any component of the column over that distance
shall be neither greater than 50 nor greater than 0.7 times the slenderness ratio of the member
as a whole about its axis.
(viii) Battens shall be designed to carry the bending moment and shear forces arising from
transverse shear force Vt equal to 2.5% of the total axial force.

22
byjusexamprep.com
(ix) In case columns are subjected to moment also, the resulting shear force should be found,
and then the design shear is the sum of this shear and 2.5% of axial load.
(x) The design shear and moments for battens plates is given by
VtC VC
Vb = and M = t at each connection here, Vt = transverse shear force as defined in 8
NS 2N
and 9.
Here,
C = distance between centre to centre of battens longitudinally.
N = number of parallel planes.
S = minimum transverse distance between the centroid of the fasteners connecting batten to
main
(xi) The effective depth of end battens (longitudinally), shall not be less than the distance
between the centroids of main members.
3
(xii) The effective depth of intermediate battens shall not be less than th of above distance.
4
(xiii) In no case, the width of battens shall be less than twice the width of one member in the
plane of the batten. It is to be noted that the effective depth of a batten shall be taken as the
longitudinal distance between the outermost fasteners.
1 th
(xiv) The thickness of battens shall not be less than of the distance between the innermost
50
connecting lines of rivets, bolts or welds.
(xv) The length of the weld connecting the batten plate to the member shall not be less than
half the depth of the batten plate. At least one-third of the weld shall be placed at each end of
this edge.

23
byjusexamprep.com

CHAPTER-5- BEAMS
1. COMMON TYPES OF BEAMS
• Floor beam: A major beam of a floor system usually supporting joints in a building.
• Girder: In buildings, girders are the same, as floor beams are also a major beam in a
structure.
• Grit: A horizontal member fastened to and spanning between peripheral columns of an
industrial building to support wall cladding.
• Joist: A beam supporting floor construction but not major beams.
• Lintel: Beam members used to carry wall loads over wall openings for doors, windows etc.
• Purlin: A roof beam, usually supported by roof trusses.
• Rafter: A roof beam, usually supporting purlins.
• Spandrels: Exterior beams at floor level of buildings, which carry part of floor load and the
exterior wall
• Stringers: Beam supporting stair steps (in case of buildings).
• Header: A beam at stairwell openings.

2. TYPES OF BEAMS BASED ON THE LATERAL SUPPORTS TO COMPRESSION FLANGES

(i) Laterally supported beam: If the compression flange of the beam is completely
restrained against lateral movement, then it is called a laterally supported beam.

Since the moment of inertia about the y-axis increases due to the slab, there is no possibility
of the buckling of the compression flange. So, design bending compressive stress, fbd is taken
fy(in LSM) or 0.66 fy (in WSM).
(ii) Laterally unsupported beam: If the compression flange of the beam is not restrained
against lateral movement, then it is called a laterally unsupported beam.

Since there is a possibility of buckling of the compression flange, design bending compressive

 fy 
stress is taken as fbd = XLT  .
 1.1 

24
byjusexamprep.com
Where, XLT = reduction factor to take care of lateral-torsional buckling of the beam.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF CROSS-SECTIONS:
(i) Plastic section: It has the capacity to develop the plastic hinge and collapse mechanism
MP = plastic moment capacity of cross section = fy × Zp

fy
= zP
My = Yield moment carrying capacity 1.1
Mo = fbd  zp

fy
fbd =
Where 1.1 design stress
(ii) Compact section: It has the capacity to develop a plastic hinge but does not have the
capacity to form a collapse mechanism.
Mp = fy  zp

Mu = fbd  zp

fy
fbd =
Here, 1.1
(iii) Semi-compact section: It has the capacity to develop yield moment only.

My = fy  z

Mo = fbd  z
(iv) Slender Section: These sections fail by buckling even before reaching yield stress.

Mu = fbd  z

4. BENDING (FLEXURAL) STRENGTH: Bending strength design of laterally supported beams is

governed by yield stress, and lateral or torsional buckling controls the design of laterally
unsupported beams.
(a) Laterally supported beams:(For beam supported laterally against lateral -torsional
buckling)
• Factored design moment at any section (M) ≤(Design bending strength of section M d)
• When d/tw< 67 ϵ (No shear buckling in web)
• Nominal shear capacity (Vn) - Plastic shear strength of beam (Vp)
• Design shear strength Vd = Vn/γmo
• When d/tw> 67 ϵ (web of beam susceptible to shear buckling)
Case I: Low shear case (Factored design shear force V ≤ 0.6 Vd)
Design bending strength Md = βpZpfy/γmo
≤ 1.2 Zefy/γmo (For simply supported beams)
≤ 1.5 Zefy/γmo (For cantilever beams)
Where,

25
byjusexamprep.com
βb= 1.0 (for plastic and compact sections)
βb = Ze /Zp (for semi compact sections)
βb and ZP elastic and plastic section modulus of the cross section
For slender sections:
Md = Zef’y(f’y Reduced design strength)
Case II: High shear case - (Factored design shear force V > 0.6 Vd)
Design bending strength
Md = Mdv(Mdv - design bending strength under high shear)
For plastic or compact section
2
1.2Zefy  2V 
Mdv = Md(Md − Mfd )  where =  − 1
mo  Vd 
Md = Plastic design moment of the whole section neglecting high shear case and considering
web buckling effect
V = Factored applied shear force
Vd = Design shear strength as governed by web yielding fort web buckling.
Mfd = Plastic design strength of the area of cross-section excluding shear area.
For Semi compact section
Mdv =Zefy/γmo
(b) Laterally unsupported beams (For beam unsupported laterally against lateral torsional
buckling)
• Beam with major axis bending and compression flange not restrained against lateral bending
fail by lateral. Torsional buckling before attaining their bending strength
• The effect of lateral-torsional buckling need not be considered when λLT≤0.4 (where λLT- non-
dimensional effective slenderness ratio for lateral-torsional buckling)
The bending strength of laterally unsupported beam is given by,
Md = βb.Zp.fcd
βb= 1.0 (For plastic and compact sections)
= Ze/Zp (for semi compact sections)
Ze = Elastic section modulus
Zp = Plastic section modulus

fy
fcd = Design bending compressive stress= XLT .
mo
XLT = Bending stress reduction factor to account for lateral-torsional buckling

1
X=  1.0
( )
0.5
2 2
LT + (LT − LT )

LT = 0.5[1 + LT ( LT − 0.2) + LT

2
]

αLT = Imperfection factor

26
byjusexamprep.com
= 0.21 (For rolled sections)
= 0.49 (Welded section)
λLT = Non dimensional slenderness ratio

fy
= bZp.fy / Mcr  1.2Ze.fy / Mcr =
fcr .b

 2EI   2EI 
Mcr =  2  GIt + 2 w 
 LT   LT 

= βb.Zp.fcr.b
Mcr = The moment at which a beam fail by lateral buckling when subjected to uniform moment
is called elastic critical moment.

5. SHEAR STRENGTH OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAM

A v fyv
Design shear strength Vd =
3 mo

Where,
Av = Shear area
fyv = Yield strength of the web
The shear area may be calculated as given below :
For I and Channel Sections
(i) Major axis bending
Hot rolled – htw.
Welded –dtw
(ii) Minor axis bending
Hot rolled or welded – 2btf
For Rectangular Hollow Sections of Uniform Thickness
Ah
(i) Loaded parallel to depth (h) :
(b + h)
Ab
(ii) Loaded parallel width (b) :
(b + h)
(iii) Circular hollow tubes of uniform thickness – 2A

(iv) Plates and solid bars – A
Where,
A = Cross-section area:
b = Overall breadth of the tubular section, breadth of I section flanges
d = Clear depth of web between flanges
h = Overall depth of the section
tr = thickness of the flange and

27
byjusexamprep.com
tw = thickness of the web.

6. DEFLECTION LIMIT
• Vertical deflection for a simply supported span
Elastic cladding – span/240
Brittle cladding – span /300
• Vertical deflection for cantilever span
Elastic cladding – span/120
Brittle cladding – span /240
• Vertical deflection for purlins and grit
Elastic cladding – span/ 150
Brittle cladding – span/180

7. WEB CRIPPLING

The crippling occurs at the root of the radius. IS 800-2007 has accepted the following formula

fyw
Fw = (b1 + nc )tw 
to find crippling of the web: mo

where,

b1 = Stiff bearing length

nc = length obtained by dispersion through the flange to the web function at a slope 1: 2.5 to

the plane of flange .

⇒nc = 2.5 tf

fyw = Yield stress of the web

8. WEB BUCKLING

The web buckling strength of support will be

FWb = B.tw.fcd

fcd = Allowable compressive stress

fcd = Allowable compressive stress corresponding to the announced web strut according to

buckling curve ‘C

B = length of left portion of the bearing plus additional length is given dispersion 45° to the

level of NA.

28
byjusexamprep.com

Hence as per IS 800-2007, effective web buckling is to be found based on the cross-section of
the web.

At support, A =  b1 +
 h
t
 2  w

Web buckling strength = Fcdw =  b1 +

 h
t f
 2  w c
And fc is the allowable compressive stress corresponding to the assumed web column of
effective length = 0.7 d, where d is the web height.
At concentrated load

 h
Fcdw =  b1 + 2 +  twfc
 2

Fcdw = (b1 + h) tw  fc

9. DESIGN OF BUILT-UP BEAMS: If a single beam section could not withstand the applied load,
then we use built-up beams. The factored moment carrying capacity can be expressed as
 fy 
Mu =    zP
 1.1 
Mu
(ZP )required =
 fy 
 
 1.1 
where, M = factored bending moment.
u

If cover plates are provided to increase moment carrying capacity, then

(Z )
p req ( )
= Zp
beam
+ Zp( )plates

Zp = Ap  d
Here, Ap = area of plate required on each side

(ZP )req − (Zp )beam Zreq − Zbeam

Ap = Ap =
d (in LSM), d (in WSM)

10. STEPS FOR BEAM DESIGN (LIMIT STATE DESIGN):

A. Design of laterally supported beams
1. Calculate the factored load and the maximum bending moment and shear force
2. Obtain the plastic section modulus required

29
byjusexamprep.com

Zreq =
(M  mo )
fy

Select a suitable section for the beam-ISLB, ISMB, ISWB or suitable built-up sections (doubly
symmetric only). (Doubly symmetric, singly symmetric and asymmetric- procedures are
different)
3. Check for section classification such as plastic, compact, semi-compact or slender. Most of
the sections are either plastic or compact. Flange and web criteria.

d b 250
, = =1
tw t f fy
4. Calculate the design shear for the web and is given by

Vdp =
( Av  fy )  Vd and V  0.6 Vd
3   mo
=
5. Calculate the design bending moment or moment resisted by the section (for plastic and
compact) Md =βpZPfy/ γmo
6. Check for buckling
7. Check for crippling or bearing
8. Check for deflection
B. Design of laterally unsupported beams
1. Calculate the factored load and the maximum bending moment, and shear force.
2. Design of ISB is by trial and error method. The design bending stress is significantly less,
which is to be assumed to start with. Assume slenderness ratio and Wu and get the
corresponding critical bending stress and hence the corresponding design bending stress.
3. Determine the required plastic section modulus and select the section.
4. Determine the actual design bending stress of this selected section knowing in slenderness
ratio, which should be greater than that assumed previously. Otherwise, revise the section.
5. Check for shear, buckling, crippling, and deflection should be done. Design bending strength
can be calculated as per IS 800:2007.
11. Gantry Girder:A typical arrangement of a crane system is shown in Figure.

30
byjusexamprep.com
Different forms of gantry girder are as follows:

11.1. LOADS ON GANTRY GIRDER: These are subjected to three forces:

(i) The reaction from the crane girder, acting vertically downwards.
(ii) The longitudinal thrust, due to starting or stopping of crane, acting in the longitudinal
direction.
(iii) The lateral thrust, due to starting or stopping of the crab acting horizontally, normal
to the gantry girder.

Additional load on the structure due to Impact load:

Type of Load
Additional load

(a) Vertical forces transferred to the rails 25% of maximum static wheel load
(i) For electrically overhead cranes 10% of maximum static wheel load
(ii) For hand-operated cranes
(b)Horizontal forces transverse to the rails 10% of the weight of the crab and the
(i) For electrically overhead cranes weight lifted on the crane
5% of the weight of the crab and the
weight lifted on the crane
(ii) For hand-operated cranes
(c)Horizontal forces along the rails 5% of the static wheel load

31
byjusexamprep.com
11.2. PERMISSIBLE DEFLECTION: The vertical deflection of a gantry girder should not
exceed the values specified below:
𝐿
(i) Where the cranes are manually operated -
500
𝐿
(ii) Where the cranes are travelling overhead and operated electrically up to 500 kN -
750
𝐿
(iii) Where the cranes are travelling overhead and operated electrically over 500 kN -
1000
𝐿
(iv) Other moving loads, such as charging cars, etc.-
600

Where L = span of gantry girder

12. PLATE GIRDER: It is a flexural member designed for bending, which is used when I section
are not sufficient to support the anticipated load.
12.1. Elements of plate girder
(i) Web plate
(ii) Flange angles with or without flange cover plate
(iii) Stiffeners
(iv) Splices

12.2. General Considerations

• The flange angles must be unequal angles with longer legs connected to flange plates
to get more bearing area.
1
• The size of the flange angle should be such that they should form at least of total
3
flange area.
• The stiffeners are designed on the basis of the following condition.
𝑑1
(i) If > 90, vertical stiffeners are provided to prevent buckling of the web due to diagonal
𝑡𝜔

compression. Vertical stiffeners are provided under point loads. Vertical stiffeners are
provided under point loads. These stiffeners are called load-bearing stiffeners. They
prevent & web crippling or web crimpling, or local buckling of the web.

32
byjusexamprep.com

d1
(ii) If  200, horizontal stiffeners are longitudinal, stiffeners are provided above NA
t
at a distance of 0.2 dw(depth of web plate) from the compression flange. They prevent
buckling of the web due to bending compressive stress.
d1
(iii) If  250, additional horizontal stiffeners are provided at the neutral axis. These
tw
stiffeners prevent buckling of web between vertical stiffeners due to shear force.
d1
(iv) If  400, then section must be redesigned.
tw
• At the supports, to prevent bending of flange plate and buckling of web plate due to
support reaction and bearing stiffeners are provided. If the bearing stiffeners are the only
means of providing torsional restraint, then they are also called torsional stiffeners. The
other means of providing torsional restraint are extending the plate girder into the wall
or using a small piece of angle (web cleats).
• Design of end bearing stiffeners
End bearing stiffeners are designed as an imaginary column with both ends fixed whose
effective length is 0.7l1.
Here,
l1 = length of bearing stiffener between flange angles.

Since bearing stiffeners are designed as columns, they should be vertical and should not
be jogged (jogging means bending, i.e., they should not be bent to touch the web plate),
and the gap between bearing stiffeners and web plate must be filled by filler plate. Since
they act as a column, the end bearing stiffener should have a tight bearing between the
flange angles.
• Design of vertical stiffeners
Vertical stiffeners are used to prevent buckling of the web due to diagonal compression.
These stiffeners are not designed as columns. So, the ends of stiffeners need not have a
tight bearing with the flange angle.

33
byjusexamprep.com

Since the vertical stiffeners are not designed as column they can be joggled (i.e. they can
be bent to touch the web plate so that filler plates need not be provided)
Dimensions of vertical stiffeners are as follows:
(i) Spacing of vertical stiffeners (s)

s  0.33 d1 and s  1.5 d1

here, d1 = clear depth of web between toes of flange angles.

(ii) Lesser clear panel dimension  180 t w

greater clear panel dimension  270 tw

(iii) So, the spacing of vertical stiffeners increases, permissible shear stress in the web
decreases due to buckling possibility of the web.

****

34