Mechanical Behavior,

Testing of Materials
 Behavior Of Material Under Mechanical Loads
Mechanical Properties.
 Stress and strain:
 What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation
 Elastic behavior:
 Recoverable Deformation of small magnitude
 Plastic behavior:
 Permanent deformation We must consider which materials are most
resistant to permanent deformation?
 Toughness and ductility:
 Defining how much energy that a material can take before failure. How do
we measure them?
 Hardness:
 How we measure hardness and its relationship to material strength

2 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
3 Sunday, February 5, 2023
 Plastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

delastic + plastic dplastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
d
4
dplastic Sunday, February 5, 2023
 Stress-Strain: Testing Uses Standardized methods
developed by ASTM for Tensile Tests (ASTM E8)

• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile

machine specimen (ASTM A-bar)

extensometer specimen

5 Sunday, February 5, 2023

Common test for determining such mechanical properties as strength,
ductility, toughness, elastic modulus, and strain hardening.

 The test specimen made according to standard specifications. Most

specimens are solid and round, some are flat-sheet.

 In this test a metal sample is pulled to failure at a constant rate.

 The load – displacement relationship is plotted on a moving chart graph

paper, with the signals coming from a load cell fixed at the top of the
testing machine, and an extensometer (strain gauge) attached to the
sample.

 The load – displacement data obtained from the chart paper can be
converted to engineering stress/strain data, and a plot of engineering
stress vs. engineering strain can be constructed.

6 Sunday, February 5, 2023

The Engineering Stress - Strain curve
Divided into 2 regions

ELASTIC PLASTIC

7 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Linear: Elastic Properties
Units:
• Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus) E: MPa
: Mpa
• Hooke's Law: : [m/m or mm/mm]
s=Ee s F
d/2
Ao
E
Lo
wo
e
Linear-
elastic dL /2
The Black Outline is
Original, Green is after
application of load
8 Sunday, February 5, 2023
9 Sunday, February 5, 2023
 Plastic deformation
(Tension)

Plastic deformation:
• stress not proportional to strain
• deformation is not reversible
• deformation occurs by breaking and re-arrangement of
10 Sunday, February 5, 2023
atomic bonds (crystalline materials by motion of defects)
 Tensile properties: Yielding
Stress

Strain
For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve includes
both an upper and lower yield point.
The yield strength is defined in this case as the average
stress at the lower yield point.
11 Sunday, February 5, 2023
 True Stress & Strain
Note: Stressed Area changes when sample is deformed
(stretched)
 True stress T  F Ai T  1   
 True Strain T  lni o  T  ln1   

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister 7e.

12 Sunday, February 5, 2023

During the tensile test, the true stress is higher than the
engineering stress.

• Engineering stress σ = P/A0 and

• Engineering strain ε =(l-l0 )/l0

• True stress σT = F/Ai = σ (1+ ε) and

• True strain εT =ln (li /l0 ) = ln (1+ ε)

13 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Other Elastic Properties
t M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
g torsion
t=Gg test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
DV DV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= DV
E E
G= K= E is Modulus of Elasticity
2(1 + n) 3(1 - 2n)
14  is Poisson’s Ratio
Sunday, February 5, 2023
 Nonlinear elastic behavior
In some materials (many polymers, concrete...), elastic
deformation is not linear, but it is still reversible.

/ = tangent modulus at 2

Definitions of E

/ = secant modulus between origin

and 1

15 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale

Attractive is positive
High Strongly here
modulus bonded
Force, F

Separation, r
Low modulus

Weakly
bonded

E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
F= (sign) dV/dr 
E~ curvature of potential
at equilibrium, r0
16 Sunday, February 5, 2023
17 Sunday, February 5, 2023
 Resilience, Ur
 Ability of a material to store (elastic) energy
 Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur @ sy e y
2
18 Sunday, February 5, 2023
Tensile properties
Yielding Strength
Most structures operate in elastic region, therefore need to know when it ends

Yield strength
-- Generally quoted

Proportional
Limit
Some steels (lo-C)

Proof stress

19 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain

20 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Ductility

Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, s larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao

21 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 Toughness

• Energy to break a unit volume of material

• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, s
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
22 Sunday, February 5, 2023
Elastic Strain Recovery – After Plastic Deformation

It is an important factor
in forming products
(especially sheet metal
and spring making)

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.
23 Sunday, February 5, 2023
 Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
 Anelasticity
 Ductility
 Elastic deformation
 Elastic recovery
 Engineering strain
 Engineering stress
 Modulus of elasticity
 Plastic deformation
 Proportional limit
 Tensile strength
 Toughness
 Yielding
 Yield strength

24 Sunday, February 5, 2023

 y ou
Thank