Respiratory system.

Functions of the Respiratory System

■ Air conduction
■ Air filtration
■ Gas exchange
■ Production of Speech
when air passes
through the Larynx
■ Olfactory mucosa in
the Nasal Cavities is
responsible for the
sense of smell
 Respiratory System
■ Specialized for gaseous
exchange between the blood and
the air
– Oxygen uptake, CO2 release
■ Composed of
– Lungs
– Airways (Pharynx, Larynx,
Trachea, Bronchi)
– Associated structures
■ Divided into 3 major parts based
on Function
– Ventilating Mechanism
– Conducting Portion
– Respiratory Portion
Ventilating Mechanism
■ Important in the movement of air in and out of the lungs
■ Thoracic (Rib) Cage
■ Intercostal muscles
■ Abdominal muscles
■ Diaphragm
■ Elastic and Collagen Components of the Lungs
Inspiration and Expiration
■ Intercostal muscles lift the ribs while the diaphragm and the and the
abdominal muscles lower the thoracic cavity floor this causes the cavity
to enlarge and creates a vacuum that draws air into the airways
■ Air expands the airways and inflate the lungs stretching the elastic
connective tissue
■ Passive relaxing of the muscles allows the elastic fibers to retract,
contracting the lungs and forcing the air out
 Conducting Portion
■ Specialized walls to carry air to
and from the site of gas exchange
without collapsing
■ Conditioning of the Air
– Warming, moistening, and
filtering (removal particulate
matter)
■ Nasal Cavity
■ Nasopharynx, Oropharynx
■ Larynx
■ Trachea
■ Bronchi
■ Bronchioles
■ Terminal Bronchioles
 Respiratory Portion
■ Specialized for gas exchange
■ Respiratory bronchioles
■ Alveolar ducts
■ Alveolar sacs
■ Alveoli
– Small secular thin-walled
structures
– Gas exchange between air and
blood
– Occur in clusters at the end of
the bronchial tree
 Walls of the Respiratory System
■ Pliable tubes
■ Layers
– Mucosa
❖ Respiratory epithelium
– Derived from the endoderm
❖ Lamina propia
– CT, mucous glands
– Submucosa
❖ Muscle (generally smooth muscle)
– In submucosa or between submucosa and LP
❖ Mucous and serous glands (not below tertiary bronchi)
❖ Cartilage (supporting skeleton)
– Adventitia
Respiratory Epithelium
■ Lines most of the respiratory tract
■ Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells
■ With the branching of the respiratory tract it’s epithelium:
– Drops its height (simple cuboidal)
– The number of goblet cells and cilia decrease in that order as it
approaches the alveoli
■ Typically contains 5 cell types
 Respiratory Epithelium
■ Ciliated Columnar Cells
– Most abundant
– Approx. 300 motile cilia on apical
surface with mitochondria (supply
ATP for movement)
– Immotile Cilia Syndrome
■ Mucous Goblet cells
– Next most abundant
– Apical portion contains mucous
droplets composed of glycoproteins
– Secrete mucous
❖ Covers the epithelium
❖ Prevents dehydration of the
epithelium
❖ Traps and removes bacteria and
other particles
Respiratory Epithelium
■ Brush Cells
– Columnar cells that lack cilia
– Abundant apical microvilli
– 2 types
❖ Afferent nerve endings on basal surface
(sensory receptor)
❖ Immature cell (may replace dead
ciliated or goblet cells)
■ Basal (short) cells
– Small rounded cells that lie on basal lamina
– Generative stem cells (mitosis and
differentiation into other cell types)
■ Small Granule cell (K cells,
Kulchitsky cells)
– Resemble basal cells but
contain many small
cytoplasmic granules that
are 100-300 nm in diameter
with dense centers
– DNES (diffuse
neuroendocrine system)
activity (serotonin,
calcitonin)
Metaplasia of Respiratory Epithelium
■ Nasal cavity to larynx portions of epithelium that stratified squamous
– Areas exposed to direct airflow or physical abrasion (oropharynx,
epiglottis, vocal folds)
– Provides more protection
■ If new abrasive sites develop, the epithelium can change from
pseudostratified columnar epithelium to stratified squamous
epithelium
■ Smokers (other changes)
❖ Increase in the number of goblet cells (high pollutant levels)
❖ Decrease in number of ciliated cells
❖ Cause congestion in lower airways (decreased movement of
mucous)
❖ Reversible
❖ Squamous cell carcinoma
 Lamina Propria
■ Loose CT
■ Fibro elastic tissue
■ Increase in elastic fibers as it
approaches the alveoli
■ Lymphoid aggregates (MALT or
BALT)
– Also in submucosa
■ Capillary network
■ Mucous glands from the nasal cavity
to the bronchi
– Most glands in submucosa
Muscle layer
■ Skeletal muscle
– Nasopharynx and larynx
■ Smooth muscle
– Begins at the level of the
trachea
❖ Joins the open ends of the
C-shaped tracheal cartilages
– Bronchi
❖ Layers encircle the wall in a
spiral
– Thickness decreases gradually
and this layer disappears at the
level of the alveolar ducts
(Thickest in bronchioles)
 Supporting Skeleton and Adventitia
AC

■ Supporting Skeleton
– Nasal Cavity ! cartilage and
bone PeriC

– Larynx ! only cartilage

– Cartilage decreases gradually
E
until it disappears (level of Cart
bronchioles) SubM

■ Adventitia PeriC

– Fibroelastic tissue
– Adipose cells
LP
– Blood vessels
 Nasal Cavity
■ Divided into 2 symmetric cavities by the nasal septum
■ Nares or nostrils
– Exterior openings of nasal cavities
■ 2 structures
– Vestibule (external or anterior chamber)
– Nasal Fossae (internal or posterior chamber)
Nasal Vestibule
■ Smaller, wider, and more anterior chamber of
each cavity that lies just behind the nares
■ Medial septum and lateral walls are supported
by cartilage
■ Epithelial lining is a continuation of the
epidermis that covers the nose
■ Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
■ Numerous sebaceous and sweat glands
■ Vibrissae
Nasal Fossae
■ Larger, narrower, more
posterior chambers that
lie within the skull and
that are separated by the
nasal septum
■ Respiratory epithelium
■ LP contains serous and
mucous glands and
venous sinuses
■ Supported by bone
 Nasal Fossae
■ 3 curved bony shelf-like structures !
Conchae or turbinate bones project into each
fossa from its lateral wall
– Create passages that improve the
conditioning of inspired air
– Increase contact between air streams and
the mucous layer (warm and moisten)
– Within the LP there are large venous
plexuses (Swell Bodies)
■ Rich vascular system with complex
organization
– Arcading arterial vessels in fossa walls
arise from large vessels that form a
network next to the periosteum
■ Roof of each fossa contains specialized
olfactory epithelium
Functions of Nasal Cavity: Conditioning of
Air

■ Functions of the conducting portion

■ Before air reaches the lungs it needs to be
cleansed, moistened and warmed
■ Air enters the nose ! large vibrissae remove
course particles of dust
■ Air reaches the nasal fossae ! particulate and
gaseous impurities are trapped in mucous layer
■ Mucous moistens the air
■ Rich superficial vascular network (including
arcading arterial vessels) warms the air
 Functions of Nasal Cavity: Olfaction (Smell)
■ Olfactory epithelium
– Specialized area of the mucous membrane in the superior conchae (roof
of nasal cavity)
– Contains olfactory chemoreceptors
– Area: 10 cm2 Thickness: 100 um
– Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with 3 types of cells
 Cells of the Olfactory Epithelium
■ Supporting cells
– Broad cylindrical apexes, narrow bases
– Microvilli submerged in fluid layer on free
surface
– Well-developed junctional complexes
– Contain light yellow pigment
– Fluid is produced by the glands of Bowman
(LP)
■ Basal Cells
– Small, spherical or cone-shaped
– Single layer at the base of the epithelium
■ Olfactory cells
– Apexes/Dendrites have elevated and
dilated areas that give rise to long non-
motile cilia (respond to odoriferous
substances by generating a receptor
potential)
 Paranasal Sinuses
■ Cavities in the frontal, maxillary,
ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
■ Lined with thinner Respiratory
epithelium
■ Few goblet cells
■ LP is continuous the periosteum and
contains a few small mucous glands
■ Activity of the cilia results in the drainage
of mucous into the nasal passages via
small openings that communicate the
cavities with the nasal fossae
Nasopharynx
■ Upper part of the
pharynx
■ Continuous with
oropharynx caudally
■ Thin respiratory
epithelium with few
goblet cells
■ Walls supported by
bone and skeletal
muscle
 Larynx
■ Irregular tube
■ Connects pharynx and trachea
■ Walls
– Laryngeal cartilages in Submucosa
❖ Thyroid, Cricoid, Arytenoids (2) (large Hyaline cartilages)
❖ Epiglottis, Cuneiform (2), Corniculate (2), Arytenoid tips (smaller
Elastic cartilages)
❖ Function
– As attachments for the skeletal muscles that control of the vocal
apparatus
– To maintain the airway open
– As a valve to prevent food or fluid from entering the trachea
– Participate in phonation
– Skeletal Muscle
– Vocal apparatus
 Epiglottis
■ Projects from the front of the larynx
■ Lingual surface
– Stratified squamous epithelium
■ Laryngeal surface
– Nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium ! apical
portion
– Rest is ciliated psuedostratified
columnar epithelium
■ Submucosa mixed mucous and serous
glands and elastic cartilage
■ Swallowing: epiglottis is forced over
laryngeal opening
 Trachea
■ 10 cm
■ Respiratory epithelium
■ Submucosa
– 16 to 20 C-shaped rings of hyaline
cartilage
– Fibroeslastic ligament and bundle of
smooth muscle (trachealis muscle)
bind to the perichondrium
❖ Ligament prevents
overdistention
❖ Muscle constriction narrows the
lumen and is used in cough
reflex
– Serous and mucous glands
 Bronchial Tree
■ Begins at the carina where the trachea
divides to form 2 primary bronchi
■ Enter the lung at the hilum
■ Pulmonary root
■ Primary bronchi course downward
and outward
■ Lobar (Secondary) bronchi
– 3 right and 2 left
■ Tertiary or segmental bronchi
– Bronchopulmonary segment/
pulmonary lobule
■ Bronchioles
■ Terminal Bronchioles
 Bronchi
■ Respiratory epithelium
– Gradual decease in height, cilia and goblet
cells
– Numerous lymphocytes among epithelial
cells
■ LP:
– Elastic fibers
■ Submucosa
– Muscle
❖ Crisscrossing spiral bands of smooth
muscle that completely encircle the
lumen (more prominent near
respiratory zone)
– Mucous and serous glands (ducts open into
bronchial lumen)
– Cartilage
– Numerous lymphocytes and lymphatic
nodules
❖ Bronchus associated lymphoid tissue
 Bronchi
■ Primary bronchi:
– Each one branches 9-12
times
– Cartilage rings
■ Secondary (lobar bronchi)
– Supporting cartilages
form irregular plates or
islands
■ Tertiary (segmental)
bronchi
– Each supplies one
bronchopulmonary
segment (pulmonary
lobule)
– 10/lung
– Plates or islands of
cartilage
 Bronchioles and Terminal Bronchioles
■ Branches of the smallest bronchi
■ Smallest components of conducting portion
■ 5mm diameter or less
■ Respiratory epithelium
– Decreases in height and complexity with the decreasing diameter
❖ Only scattered goblet cells
❖ Ciliated simple columnar or cuboidal cells
❖ Clara cells
– Glycogen granules, lateral and apical Golgi complexes, elongated
mitochondria and few secretory granules in apex
– Secrete proteins (components of surfactant) that protect
bronchiolar lining
– Reserve cells (able to divide and differentiate)
❖ Neuroepithelial bodies
– 80-100 cells: contain secretory granules, receive nerve endings
■ Submucosa:
– No cartilage or glands
– Smooth muscle and elastic fibers
TB
 Respiratory Bronchioles
■ First part of respiratory portion
■ Ciliated cuboidal epithelium with clara cells that resembles that of terminal bronchioles
■ Distally the cilia become absent
■ No Goblet cells
■ Walls interrupted by numerous saclike evaginations (alveoli)
■ LP
– Smooth muscle and elastic CT
 Alveolar Ducts
■ Distal extensions of respiratory
bronchioles
■ Cilia-free cuboidal or squamous
cells
■ LP:
– Smooth muscle cells
– Matrix of elastic and
collagen fibers
■ Wall consists almost entirely of
alveolar sacs
■ Ducts open into atria
Atria and Alveolar Sacs
■ Atria communicate with 2 or more alveolar sacs
■ Atria open into alveolar ducts, alveoli and alveolar sacs
■ Alveolar sacs open into atria and alveoli
■ Squamous epithelium
■ LP
– Atria: Smooth muscle, network of elastic and reticular fibers
– Alveolar Sacs: network of elastic and reticular fibers
 Alveoli
■ 200 um sacs that open into respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, atria and alveolar
sacs
■ Spongy structure of the lung
■ Area where CO2 is exchanged for O2
■ Separated by interlaveolar or alveolar septa (thin
walls)
■ Approx 300 million alveoli in the lungs
■ 140 m2 exchange surface
Interalveolar Septa
■ Structure specialized for gas exchange
■ 2 thin squamous epithelial layers (type I pneumocytes)
■ Interstitium (capillaries and CT)
– Continuous non-fenestrated capillaries
– Network of elastic and reticular fibers
– Basement membrane
– Fibroblasts
– Macrophages
– Mast cells
– Leukocytes
– Interstitial cells (contract in response to epinephrine
and histamine)
Blood-Air Barrier
■ 0.1 – 1.5 um thickness
■ 4 components
– Film or pulmonary
surfactant
– Cytoplasm of squamous
epithelial (type 1 alveolar)
cells
– Fused basal lamina
between alveolar and
endothelial cells (form the
basement membrane)
– Cytoplasm of squamous
endothelial cells
 Type I Pneumocytes, Type I Alveolar Cells
or Squamous Alveolar Cells
■ Squamous epithelial cells
■ 97% of alveolar surfaces
■ Very thin (sometimes 25 nm)
■ Main function is to provide a barrier of
minimal thickness that is gas permeable
■ Golgi complex, ER, and mitochondria
grouped around the nucleus
■ Cytoplasm unobstructed by organelles
■ Pinocytotic vesicles assist in the
turnover of pulmonary surfactant and
removal of small particles
■ Desmosomes and occluding junctions
between cells
 Type II Alveolar Cells
■ 3% of alveolar surface
■ Attach to Type I cells with desmosomes and occluding
junctions
■ Rounded or cuboidal cells rest on basement membrane
– Many mitochondria
– Well-developed Golgi
– Lamellar (multilamellar) bodies
❖ Concentric or parallel membranes (lamellae) limited
by a membrane
❖ Phospholipids, GAG and proteins
❖ Synthesized and released at the apical surface
(numerous short microvilli)
❖ Provides extracellular alveolar coating !
PULMONARY SURFACTANT
■ Divide by Mitosis and replace their own population and type
I cells
Alveoli with Type I & II Pneumocytes
Pulmonary Surfactant
■ Synthesis: Type II
■ Removal:
– Macrophages, Type I, and Type II
– Ciliary activity leads to removal of surfactant via the conducting
passages (combine with bronchial mucous to form
bronchoalveolar fluid)
■ Functions
– Reduces surface tension in alveoli
– Bactericidal effects
❖ Cleaning the alveolar surface
❖ Preventing bacterial invasion of septal capillaries
■ Thin 2 layered film over the entire alveolar surface
– Aqueous basal layer (hypophase) ! protein
– Monomolecular film of phospholipid (dipalmitoyl
phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylglycerol) ! fatty acid
tail extends into lumen
■ Respiratory distress syndrome
Alveolar Macrophages
■ Dust Cells
■ Mononuclear phagocyte system
■ On surface of alveolar septa and in the interstitium
■ Remove debris that escapes mucous and cilia
(conduction portion)
■ Cells that scavenge luminal surface are carried to
the pharynx where they are swallowed
■ Many of these cells filled with carbon and dust
(anthracotic pigment) are found in the CT around
major blood vessels and in the pleura
 Defense Mechanisms
■ Defense Mechanisms
– Large area exposed to both blood-borne
microorganisms and external environment
– Particles
❖ > 0.5 um retained in nasal passages
❖ 0.1-.05 um trapped in mucus that coats
the epithelium (eliminated via cough
reflex)
❖ < 0.1 um removed by macrophages
– BALT (bronchus associated lymphoid
tissue)
❖ Immunologic processes in nodules that
contain B and T cells that interact with
macrophages
❖ Secrete IgA
 Pleura
■ Serous membrane
■ 2 layers (continuous at hilum)
– Parietal pleura
– Visceral pleura
■ Thin squamous mesothelium
cells resting on a fine CT layer
(collagen and elastic fibers)
■ Pleural cavity
– Film of liquid that acts as a
lubricant reducing friction
between lung surfaces and
thoracic walls