High Voltage Assig 2 Aamir Ali Fa18-EPE-069

Que: 1

Discuss the different numerical methods available for estimation of

electric field distribution in dielectric media?

Introduction:
Dielectrics are materials that can be polarized by an applied electric field.
Polarizability is the essential property for dielectrics. The term is closely related to insulator. In
electrical phenomena, insulator is commonly used especially in electronic engineering and
electrical engineering, that is, in electronic packaging printed circuit board, electrical wire, high
voltage system, and so on. It has a longer history than “dielectrics.” The main property of an
insulator is to prevent the flow of current when it is not desired. This means that insulator must
have low electrical conductivity and can resist breakdown under high electric field.

Various numerical method that can be used to find potential difference in electric field
due to dielectric.

➢ Finite Difference Method

➢ Finite Element Method
➢ Boundary Element Method
➢ Finite Volume Method
➢ Charge Simulation Method

Finite Difference Method

Apart from other numerical methods for solving partial differential equations, the finite difference
method (FDM) is quite universally applicable to linear and even non-linear problems. Although
this method can be traced back to C.F. Gauss (1777–1855), and Boltzmann had already
demonstrated in 1892 in his lectures in Munich the applicability of difference equations to solve
Laplace’s equation, it was not until the 1940s that FDMs had been used widely. The applicability
of FDMs to solutions of general partial differential equations is well documented in specialized
books. More specific references concerning the treatment of electric and magnetic field problems
with the FDM.
The finite difference method (FDM) is an approximate method for solving partial
differential equations. It has been used to solve a wide range of problems. These include linear and
nonlinear, time independent and dependent problems. This method can be applied to problems
with different boundary shapes, different kinds of boundary conditions, and for a region containing
several different materials. The application of FDM is not difficult as it involves only simple
arithmetic in the derivation of the discretization equations and in writing the corresponding
programs. During 1950–1970 FDM was the most important numerical method used to solve
practical problems. With the development of high-speed computers having large scale storage
capability many numerical solution techniques appeared for solving partial differential equations.
However, due to the ease of application of the finite difference method it is still a
valuable means of solving these problems.

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Finite Element Method:

The finite element method (FEM) is a systematic numerical method for solving problems
of engineering and mathematical physics, more specifically PDEs. The FEM generally addresses
issues in heat transfer, structural analysis, fluid flow, electromagnetic potential, and mass transport.
Also, the analytical nature of the solutions of these issues typically requires the solution to
boundary value problems for PDEs. Furthermore, the FEM formulation of the problem will result
in a system of algebraic equations. The FEM also appraises the unknown function over the domain.
Thus, to solve the problem, it subdivides a large system into smaller, simpler parts that are called
finite elements. After which, these simple equations that model the finite elements are then
compiled into a larger system of equations that models the entire problem. The FEM will then use
variational methods from the calculus of variations to estimate a solution by minimizing a related
error function. Lately, the FEM is in use in applications for simulating quantum effects in low
dimensional systems like carbon nanotubes, metallic nanoparticles, quantum wells, quantum dots,
monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides, and artificial molecules.

▪ discretization of whole domain

▪ good on finite domains
▪ approximates u, q must be found from u and may not be as accurate
▪ large, sparse matrix Ku = F
▪ requires no prior knowledge of solution
▪ solves most linear second order PDEs

FEM use is mode of the fact that in an electrostatic field that a total energy enclosed in a field
region acquired a minimum value. We know that electrostatic energy stored per unit value is
given by.

𝟏 𝟐
𝒘= 𝛆𝐄
𝟐

For situation where electric field is not uniform, then electric energy complete volume is given
by:
𝟏
𝒘 = 𝛆(−∆𝐕)𝟐 𝒅𝒖
𝟐

The finite element method, potential at node I, j, k is given by:

𝐕𝐢 = 𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝒙𝐢 + 𝐚𝟑𝐲𝐢
𝐕𝐣 = 𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝒙𝐣 + 𝐚𝟑𝐲𝐣
𝐕𝐤 = 𝐚𝟏 + 𝐚𝟐𝒙𝒌 + 𝐚𝟑𝐲𝐤

By using crammer rule we can find the value of a, b and c

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Boundary Element Method:

The boundary element method (BEM) is a relatively new technique for solving Laplace’s and
Poisson’s equations (and other partial differential equations). The unknown function u is first
solved on the boundary of the domain, the value of u and its partial derivatives are then calculated
by integration of the number of elements on the boundary. In this way, the number of elements
and thus the number of unknowns of the resulting linear equations is greatly reduced compared
with domain approaches such as finite element and final difference methods. The boundary
approach also makes it possible to handle problems with infinite domain.

▪ BEM is superior that FEM.

▪ It is series of wells in an infinite reservoir.
▪ discretization of boundary
▪ good on infinite or semi-infinite domains
▪ approximates q and u approximation of q is accurate
▪ small, filled-in matrix Hu = Gq
▪ requires a fundamental solution to the PDE
▪ can be difficult to solve in homogeneous or nonlinear problems

Finite Volume Method:

The Finite volume method (FVM) is a widely used numerical technique. The fundamental
conservation property of the FVM makes it the preferable method in comparison to the other
methods, i.e., FEM, and finite difference method (FDM). Also, the FVM’s approach is comparable
to the known numerical methods like FEM and FDM, which means that its evaluation of volumes
is at discrete places over a meshed geometry.
Furthermore, the FVM transforms the set of partial differential equations into a system of
linear algebraic equations. Although the discrete approximation procedure in use in the FVM is
distinctive, it also utilizes two basic steps. Firstly, it transforms and integrates the PDEs into
balance equations over an element. The process incorporates the changing of the surface and
volume integrals into discrete algebraic relations over elements as well as their surfaces using
an integration quadrature of a specified order of accuracy. This will result in a set of semi
discrete equations.
Secondly, in this next step, the interpolation profiles are chosen to estimate the variation
of the variables within the element and relate the surface values of the variables to their cell
values and thus transform the algebraic relations into algebraic equations. Regarding the two
steps in the FVM process, your approximation selection affects the overall accuracy of the
subsequent numeric.
Charge Simulation Method:
Charge Simulation Method (CSM) belongs to the family of integral methods for calculation
of electric fields. There are two variations of this method: CSM with discrete charges and CSM
with area charges. Charge Simulation Method with discrete charges is based on the principle that
the real surface charges on the surface of electrodes or dielectric interfaces are replaced by a system

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of point and line charges located outside the field domain. The position and the type of simulation
charges are to be determined first and then the magnitudes of the charges are calculated so that
their combined effect satisfies the boundary conditions. After determining these magnitudes by
using the method of solving a system of liner equations, it is to be verified whether the systems of
simulation charges fulfil the boundary conditions between the location points with sufficient
accuracy. Then the voltage and field strength at any point within the field domain can be calculated
analytically by the superposition of simple potential and gradient functions.

Working Principle
When the conductor is excited by an applied voltage, charges appear on the surface of the
conductor. These charges produce an electric field outside the conductor, while at the same time
maintains the conductor at equipotential. Similarly, when a dielectric is excited by an external
field, it gets polarized, i.e., the charged particles of the molecules of the dielectric get shifted from
their neutral state to produce a volume of dipoles. In essence, it is possible to replace this volume
polarization by the charged surface. Charge Simulation Method employs this physical description
and attempts to simulate the above-mentioned continuous charge distribution by a set of discrete
charges kept just outside the computational domain. The values of these discrete charges are then
evaluated by forcing the specified voltages at some selected points called contour points on the
surface of the conductor and by forcing the material interface conditions at some selected points
on the dielectric interface.

It is required that at any of these contour points on the electrode, the potential resulting from
the superposition of the charges is equal to the electrode potential 𝜑
𝑵

𝝋 = ∑ 𝑷𝒊𝒋 𝑸𝒋
𝑱=𝟏

where, 𝑃𝑖𝑗 are the potential coefficients which can be evaluated analytically for many types of
charges by solving Laplace’s or Poisson’s equation. For example, in Fig. 1.5 which shows three-
point charges Q1, Q2 and Q3 in free space, the potential 𝜑𝑖 at point Ci will be

𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟑
𝝋𝟏 = + +
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹𝟏 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝑹𝟑

𝑷𝒊𝟏𝑸𝟏 + 𝑷𝒊𝟐𝑸𝟐 + 𝑷𝒊𝟑𝑸𝟑

Thus, once the types of charges and their locations are defined, it is possible to relate φ"% and
𝑄% quantitatively at any boundary point. In Charge Simulation Method, the simulation charges
are placed outside the space where the field solution is desired (or inside any equipotential
surface such as metal electrodes). If the boundary point 𝐶" is located on the surface of a
conductor, then 𝜑" at this contour point will be equal to the conductor potential φ. When this
procedure is applied to m contour points; it leads to the following system of m linear equations
for an unknown charge.

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High Voltage Assig 2 Aamir Ali Fa18-EPE-069

Que:2
Define field factor? How does it vary in simple geometries? List some
geometrical Configuration and field factor?

Field Factor:

As per the definition of field factor its states that ratio of Avg. Electric Field to the Max. Electric
Field
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝
𝐅𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 =
𝐌𝐚𝐱 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜 𝐅𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝

Electrical field distribution and breakdown strength of insulating materials:

Electrical field distribution and breakdown strength of insulating materials. It is often assumed that
a voltage between two electrodes may be adequately insulated by placing a homogeneous
insulating material of breakdown strength Eb which is considered as a characteristic constant of
the material, between these electrodes. The necessary separation may then simply be calculated as
D V/Eb. Although the electrodes are usually well defined and are limited in size, the experienced
designer will be able to take care of the entire field distribution between the electrodes and will
realize that in many cases only a small portion of the material is stressed to a particular maximum
value Emax. One may conclude that the condition Emax D Eb would provide the optimal solution
for the insulation problem, which thus could be solved merely by field analysis. This is true only
when Eb has a very specific value directly related to the actual field distribution and can be
calculated for very well-known insulating materials, such as gases, for most solid and liquid
dielectrics such values are only approximately known. Hence a special approach is necessary to
solve the insulation problem with fair accuracy.

Fields in homogeneous, isotropic materials:

Many electrical insulation systems contain only one type of dielectric material. Most materials
may be considered to be isotropic, i.e., the electric field vector E and the displacement D are
parallel. At least on the macroscopic scale many materials at uniform temperature may also be
assumed to be homogeneous. The homogeneity is well confirmed in insulating gases and
purified liquids. Solid dielectrics are often composed of large molecular structures forming
crystalline and amorphous regions so that the homogeneity of the electrical material properties
may not be assured within microscopic structures. The materials will also be assumed to be
linear; that means the electric susceptibility is not a function of electric field strength. On a
macroscopic basis, the permittivity ε will then simply be a scalar quantity correlating D and E.

At this stage it is assumed here that the influence of electrical conductivity 𝜎 on the field
distribution may be ignored; this is justified for most insulating materials when they are stressed
by alternating voltages at frequencies above about 1 Hz. Thus, simple electrostatic field theory
may be applied to most of the practical applications concerned with power frequency or impulse
voltages. With direct or slowly alternating voltages the use of simple electrostatic field theory is
greatly impeded by conduction phenomena. In the limiting case, the field is purely given by

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conduction and the correlation between field strength E and current density j is j D 𝜎 E, where 𝜎
may be highly dependent upon time due to relaxation phenomena, upon temperature and often also
upon field intensity. This problem is only mentioned here to emphasize the difficulties encountered
with d.c. voltage applications.

The following examples for electrostatic field distributions are typical for h.v. insulation
systems.

❖ The uniform field electrode arrangement:

The realization of homogeneous fields within a finite volume of insulating material is
very difficult. Using parallel metal plates of limited dimensions creates the problem of a proper
stress control at the edges of the plates. The field problem becomes thus three dimensional,
although a rotational symmetry exists if the parallel plates are circular discs. Depending upon the
material to be tested, the breakdown strength may be very sensitive to local high fields
within the whole electrode arrangement. Therefore, the highest stress should only be present in
the homogeneous field region, where the plates are in parallel. A certain profile of electrodes
is necessary outside the plane region to limit the dimensions, but the field strength at the curved
edges should never exceed the value E D V/d, if V is the applied voltage and d the distance
between the parallel plates. Rogowski proposed electrodes for uniform fields for axially
symmetrical systems whose profile follows the analytical function first introduced by Maxwell,

𝒂
𝒛 = (𝒘 + 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒘 )
𝝅
where z and w represent the complex coordinates in the z- and w-planes.

❖ Coaxial cylindrical and spherical fields:

Electrode configurations providing two-dimensional cylindrical or three- dimensional spherical
fields are used in h.v. equipment as well as in laboratories for fundamental research or field
stress control. In a short treatment of the well-known coaxial arrangements, we shall demonstrate
the fundamental differences only; some special cases give useful comparison. Cross-sections of
coaxial cylinders and concentric spheres are sketched the notations are used to distinguish
between the radii of cylinders (r1, r2) and spheres (R1, R2). The electrical field distribution is
symmetrical with reference to the centers of the cylinder axis or the centre point of the sphere. In
both cases the lines of force are radial, and the field strength E is only a function of the distance
x from the centers. The cylinders are then uniformly charged over their surface with a charge per
unit length Q/l, and the spheres with a charge Q if a voltage V is applied to the two electrodes.
Using Gauss’s law, the field strength E(x) at x is derived from the following:

𝑸/𝒍 𝟏 𝑽 𝟏
Coaxial cylinder: 𝑬(𝒙) = = 𝒓𝟐
𝟐𝝅𝜺 𝒙 𝒍𝒏( 𝟏 ) 𝒙
𝒓

𝑸 𝟏
Coaxial sphere: 𝑬(𝒙) =
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒙𝟐

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𝑽 𝟏
=
𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏 𝒙𝟐
𝑹𝟏𝑹𝟐

❖ Field distortions by conducting particles:

Up to now we have treated ‘macroscopic’ fields acting between conducting electrodes

with dimensions suitable to insulate high voltages by controlling the maximum electrical field
strength by large curvatures of the electrodes. In actual insulation systems the real surface of
any conductor may not be plane or shaped as assumed by macroscopic dimensions, or the real
homogeneous insulation material may be contaminated by particles of a more or less conducting
nature. Although a real surface roughness of an electrode, or the real shape of
particles within the insulating material, may be very complex, the local distortion of the electrical
field which can be assumed to be ‘microscopic’ in dimensions can easily lead to
partial discharges or even to a breakdown of the whole insulation system.

❖ Fields in multi dielectric, isotropic materials

Many actual h.v. insulation systems, e.g., a transformer insulation, are composed of various
insulation materials, whose permittivity’s ε are different from each other. The main reasons for
the application of such a multibiometric system are often mechanical ones, as gaseous or fluid
materials are not able to support or separate the conductors. Layer arrangements may also be
applied to control electric stresses. The aim of this section is, therefore, to treat fundamental
phenomena for such systems. Only a few examples have been chosen to demonstrate
principally the dangerous effects. Analytical methods for field computations in multi dielectric
systems containing predetermined shapes of the electrodes as well as the interfaces of the
dielectrics are severely restricted. Adequate solutions are in general only possible by numerical
computations or experimental field plotting techniques.

❖ Simple configurations:

Due to the effect of reduced electrical breakdown at the interface of two different insulation
materials, the interfaces in highly stressed field regions should be normal to the field lines. The
‘Parallel-plate capacitor’ containing two layers of different materials represented by their
permittivity’s ε1 and ε2 is therefore typical for many applications. Figure 4.17 shows the
arrange- ment and the dimensions assumed. For usual dielectric materials and power frequency
a.c. voltages, the conductivity of the materials can be neglected and hence no free charges are
built up at the interface between the two layers. The displacement vectors D1 and D2 are then
equal, starting from and ending at the equal free charges on the plates only. As D D εE, and
identical in both materials, the ratio of the field strength becomes.

𝐸1 𝜀2
=
𝐸2 𝜀1

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Dielectric refraction

In the case when the electrical displacement vector D meets the interface between two media
of different permittivity’s at an angle other than 90°, the direction of this vector will change in
the second dielectric. In general, it can be assumed that no free charges are present at the
interface and only (dipolar) polarization charges define the boundary conditions. Then the angles
of incidence and refraction are related as follows:

𝐸𝑡1 𝐷𝑛2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 𝐸𝑛1 𝜀1
= = 𝜀2 =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 𝐸𝑡2 𝐷𝑛1 𝜀2
𝐸𝑛2 𝜀1

These quantities are illustrated in Fig for the conditions ε1 > ε2. In practical systems stressed
with d.c. voltages the accumulation of free surface charges at the interface will take place,
caused by the differing conductivities of the materials. For a.c. voltage applications eqn may
be applied. Figure shows the case when two different dielectrics are placed between parallel
plane electrodes, the interface of which is not perpendicular to the electrode surface. We observe
a compression of equipotential lines at the corner P increasing the field strength at that point.

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Que: 3
Describe the following for Generation of high Voltage DC?

a) Electrostatic Generators
b) Kelvin Electrostatic Generator
c) Van De Graff generator

❖ Electrostatic generator

An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is an electromechanical generator that

produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The
knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained
merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and
often confused with magnetism. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had developed
practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines
did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the
studies about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or
other) power to transform mechanical work into electric energy. Electrostatic generators develop
electrostatic charges of opposite signs rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces, and
work by using moving plates, drums, or belts to carry electric charge to a high potential electrode.
The charge is generated by one of two methods: either the triboelectric effect (friction) or
electrostatic induction.

❖ Kelvin Electrostatic Generator

More than 100 years ago, while he was working on atmospheric electricity Lord Kelvin
(Thomson 1872, Lloyd 1980) built an electrostatic the Kelvin generator. Although not very
well, known, this electrostatic generator works and is very easy to build. Figure shows a simple
version of the Kelvin generator.

Two streams of water run down into two metallic

collectors insulated from each other. The water
passes through two metallic cans, electrically
connected to the opposite collector, as shown
in figure. We will call the two cans’ inductors,
as did Kelvin. If the two rods connecting the
inductor and the collector are about 1cm apart,
a spark jumps between them, after a short
time of perhaps 1min. Thereafter the phenomenon
repeats itself almost periodically. Hence, there must
be a large electric field generated between the two rods.

In this device, water from a single source is directed into two separate Metal Buckets via tubing
ending in small nozzles. The flow of water is adjusted precisely so that the water rapidly falls

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in droplets, rather than in a continuous stream, through Metal Rings located above each bucket.
The rings are electrically attached to the bucket on the opposing side; there is no contact
between the wires. Each bucket also is connected to a ball-tipped Discharge Rod positioned so
that it is only a short distance away from the rod on the other bucket. Periodically a spark will
jump across the gap in the conductors when the potential difference between the two buckets
can no longer be maintained. (This gap can be adjusted using the Discharge Rod Separation
slider; the closer the rods, the more quickly the build-up of charge will be discharged.) The
difference in potential that develops is related to the ions (charged particles) present in water.

Water does not exhibit an overall charge under normal circumstances but contains many ions
from salts dissolved in the liquid and the dissociation of water itself. Some of the ions are
positively charged (cations) and others are negatively charged (anions), so that they typically
balance each other out. If a charged object is placed close to water, however, the ions in the
water will separate into groups. If a charged object is placed close to water, however, the ions
in the water will separate into groups. Ions with a charge opposite to that of the object will
draw closer to it, ions with the same charge will be repelled. This is the premise that the Kelvin
water dropper is built upon.
A slightly charged negative droplet of water falls through the left side of the device. Because
the electrons in the metal ring are repelled by the negative charge, they move away, down the
attached wire, so that the ring is left with a slight positive charge. The now positively charged
ring is more likely to attract additional negatively charged water droplets, and as these droplets
pass through the ring they render it even more positive, amplifying the effect. The negatively
charged particles that fall into the bucket below the ring transfer their charge to the bucket,
providing it with a negative charge. Almost simultaneously, the metal ring on the right side of
the instrument develops a negative charge. This results both from the transfer of some of the
negative charge accumulating on the surface of the bucket on the left (via the wire that connects
it to the ring on the right) and from the increasing proportion of positive ions in the water that
flow toward the right because they are repelled by the positive charge at the surface of the ring
on the left. Again, as more and more positively charged droplets flow through the right ring,
the negative charge on the ring increases, and the positive charge on the bucket below increases.
Some of the positive charge on that bucket can then be transferred to the ring on the left,
completing the positive feedback system characteristic of the Kelvin water dropper.

Once the process of charge separation is begun, positive feedback produces a large potential
difference relatively quickly. The voltage soon builds up to such an extent that the water
dropper discharges, generating a spark between the conducting rods. A scientist from the time
period could have stored the charge in a Leyden jar. Then the process of charge separation
begins, and the cycle of electrostatic generation continues.

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❖ The Van De Graaff Generator

A Van de Graaff generator is an electrostatic generator.

American physicist, Robert J. Van de Graaff
was the person behind this invention.
It uses a moving belt that accumulates charge
On a hollow metal structure. This structure
has a design of a globe, placed on the top of
a column that is insulating in nature. Thus, it
creates a very high electric potential in the order
of a few million volts. This results in a very large
electric field. We use this electric field to accelerate
charged particles.
Working Principle of The Generator

Let us consider a large spherical shell of radius R. If we place a charge of magnitude Q on such
a sphere, the charge will spread uniformly over the surface of the sphere. The electric field
inside the sphere is zero, and that outside the sphere is due to the charge Q at the center of the
sphere. So, the potential outside is that of a point charge; and inside it is constant. We, thus,
have:
Potential inside conducting spherical shell of radius R carrying charge Q = constant and is as
Follows.
1 𝑄
𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑅

Let us place a small sphere at the center of the large one such that the radius of the smaller
sphere is r and the charge over its surface is q. At the surface of the small sphere:

1 𝑞
𝑉𝑟1 =
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟
If we consider the total charges in the system, that is, q and Q, then the total potential energy
due to the system of charges is:
1 𝑞 𝑞
𝑉𝑅 = 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 +𝑟

In the given figure , we can see a Van de Graaff generator. Here, a large spherical shell
is at a height of several meters above the ground. An insulating column holds it. Two pulleys
are wound with a belt-like insulating material, with one being at ground level and the other one
at the center of the shell.
This belt undertakes a continuous motion, thus carrying a positive charge continuously from
the ground to the top. This belt is kept moving continuously by a motor driving the lower
pulley. The positive charge is transferred to the larger shell by a carbon brush, thus rendering the
outer shell with a very high potential over the time.

THE END

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