International Journal on ISSN 2077-3528

“Technical and Physical Problems of Engineering” IJTPE Journal

(IJTPE) www.iotpe.com
Published by International Organization of IOTPE [email protected]

June 2022 Issue 51 Volume 14 Number 2 Pages 200-215

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS FOR ELECTROMAGNETICALLY-

MECHANICAL FIELDS
P. Andrei 1 M. Stanculescu 1 S. Deleanu 2 E. Cazacu 1 M. Gaiceanu 3 D. Micu 4
H. Andrei 5
1. Electrical Engineering Department, Polytechnics University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
2. Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, Edmonton, Canada, [email protected]
3. Control Systems and Electrical Engineering Department, University of Dunarea de Jos, Galati, Romania,
[email protected]
4. Energy Transition Research Center, Technical University, Cluj Napoca, Romania, [email protected]
5. Doctoral School of Engineering Sciences, University of Valahia, Targovishte, Romania, [email protected]

Abstract- This paper is presenting some of the electromagnetic field energy in the considered field. So,
engineering applications related to transformation of the decrease of the electromagnetic energy in the
electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy. The elementary unit of time in the considered field is equal to
numerical determination of the interaction forces between the sum between the power developed in the electrical
current-carrying conductors and the carrying force of an conduction process and the power transformed into
electromagnet are interesting for the reader because mechanical energy. The additive separation of the
different numerical calculation methods are used, and the electromagnetic force, in volume density of the electric
results are compared with the measurements performed. and magnetic force, will be the basis of the applications
The conclusions are important both from theoretically and developed in this paper [4-16].
practically point of view. In many engineering applications it is necessary to
determine the interaction forces between two parallel
Keywords: Electromagnetic Field Laws, Electromagnetic conductors, rectilinear, located at a distance from each
Energy, Finite Element Method, Interaction Forces, FEM, other and circulated by currents. Also, the calculation of
Engineering Applications, Electromagnetic Field the carrying force of an electromagnet that is used in
Synthesis, Computation and Analysis. numerous electromagnetic and electromechanical
equipment is important from a theoretical and practical
1. INTRODUCTION point of view. Therefore, the third part of this paper will
The study of electromagnetic phenomena is done briefly describe the constructive and functional
indirectly, through mechanical, chemical, optical or characteristics of some electromagnetic equipment, such
thermal side effects [1]. Among these reproducible effects, as the transformer, the electromagnet and the aerial lines
the mechanical forces and moments or the ponderomotive of the electric power system [17].
interactions exerted on the bodies in a closed domain Advanced numerical calculation methods of the
together with the electromagnetic field prove the electromagnetic field and of the electromagnetic energy
transformation of the electromagnetic energy into will be described in the fourth part of the paper [18-25]. In
mechanical energy respecting the law of energy engineering practice, an electromagnetic field analysis
conservation [2]. If the total energy of the electromagnetic problem consists in determining the electromagnetic field
field is known, its interaction with any physical system corresponding to given conditions of uniqueness. The
consisting of bodies can be described by means of finite element method is based on the approximation of
electromagnetic forces [3]. partial differential equations as well as approximation of
The second part of the paper makes, at the beginning, the solutions by expressions defined on a partition of the
a synthetic presentation of the quantities and of the general field to be studied in disjoint elements, called “finite
laws of the macroscopic theory of the electromagnetic elements”, which give the name of the method. In the
field that will present the readers with these theoretical traditional approach to the finite difference method, the
notions. Then the electromagnetic energy theorem is stated equations of the electromagnetic field in their differential
and proved, which states that the transfer of form are used. From the point of view of the concrete
electromagnetic field power to a stationary domain approach, the finite element method has two main variants:
through its boundary is the sum of the power transferred to the Galerkin method, based on the use of a so-called “weak
the bodies in the field and the rate of increase of form” of the field equations, and the convenient

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discretization of the domain and the Ritz method, in which V = dqV / dv (2)
the solution is obtained by minimizing a certain functional
then, applying Gauss-Ostrogradski relation, one obtains
[26]. The FEMM programming environment has all the
the integral form electric flux law:
modules necessary to use the finite element method, for
any linear and nonlinear structures.  DdA =  divDdv =  V dv (3)
The FEMM program allows the numerical simulation  V V

by the finite element method of electromagnetic field where, being true for any arbitrary considered domain V
problems for low frequency (industrial) electromagnetic imposes the equality of the integrands.
devices and high frequency electromagnetic devices. The divD = V (4)
first class includes devices, appliances, machines, etc.
working in low frequency alternating electromagnetic field The relation (4) represents the local form the electric
such as electric transformers, asynchronous motors, flux law for continuity domains. Electric flux law
electromagnets etc. For the first class there is a wide emphasizes one of the causes that generate electric field,
variety of program packages based on the finite element namely charged bodies (Figure 2).
method in 2D (plane simulation) and 3D (three-
dimensional simulation) space. In this part of the paper,
applications for determining the interaction forces between
the conductors of the electricity transmission lines and
between the conductors of some power transformers will
be developed in the FEMM programming environment.
Figure 2. Charged bodies
The calculation of the load force for an electromagnet used
in electromagnetic equipment will be another important
2.1.2. Magnetic Flux Law
application [27-34]. The values obtained from the
Statement: Magnetic flux   through any closed
calculation in the FEMM programming environment will
be compared with the results of the measurements that the surface  is zero in any moment:
authors performed on the electromagnetic equipment used  = 0 (5)
[35-42]. The calculated errors will be analyzed. The paper Replacing in Equation (5) the expression of the
ends with conclusions on the applications developed and magnetic flux, one obtains the integral form of the
an up-to-date bibliography. magnetic flux law:

2. MACROSCOPIC ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD  BdA =  divBdv = 0 (6)

 V
THEORY - PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND
Because this relation is valid for any space domain
GENERAL LAWS
(V ), it results the local form for continuity domains of
2.1. Macroscopic Electromagnetic Field Theory the magnetic flux law:
Physical Quantities and General Laws divB = 0 (7)
According to relation (7), the magnetic flux density
2.1.1. Electric Flux Law (Gauss’s Law on The Electric field vector is a solenoidal one (without sources). This fact
Flux) underlines on one hand the non-existence of the magnetic
Statement: Electric flux   through any closed charges similar to electric charges and, on the other hand,
inexistence of some points - extremity of magnetic field
surface  is equal at any moment to the electric charge
lines. Therefore, magnetic field lines are not open curves.
qV in domain V bounded by the surface  (Figure 1).
An immediate consequence of the magnetic flux law
  = qV (1) magnetic flux through any open surface bounded by the
same closed curve is the same. In order to prove this
statement one will consider an arbitrary closed curve  ,
and two arbitrary open surfaces S, j and S ,k , which rest
on curve  , as Figure 3.

Figure 1. General domain for the electric flux law

If electric charge from V has the volume distribution

Figure 3. General domain for the magnetic flux law
density a V :

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By convention the line-oriented element is associated

with each of the area-oriented elements, and according to
the right drill rule, the relation (5) for the closed curve,
reunion of the open surfaces is written. In these conditions,
the integral will be:
 BdAext =  BdAext +  BdAext =  BdAj −  BdAk = 0 (8)
 S , j S ,k S , j S ,k

therefore,
 BdAk =  BdAk =  BdAk (9) Figure 4. General domain for the electromagnetic flux law
S , j S ,k S
 B 
BdA =   + wdivB + rot ( B  w )  dA
d
For any open surface which sits on the closed curve,
 t
(16)
S  
which shows that the magnetic flux has a unique value dt S
 
through all open surfaces bounded by the same closed
curve. Moreover, the vector identity: where, w is the local speed vector of the medium.
div ( rotA ) = 0
Using Stokes relation, it results that
(10)
Allows the introduction of a new quantity, called  =  ( rotE ) dA
Edl (17)
 S
magnetic vector potential, and denoted by A with relation: and,
rotA = B
 rot ( B  w) dA =  ( B  w) dl
(11)
(18)
As vector A is uniquely determined only if we know S 
its divergence, it is common that in stationary regime to
Considering the local form of the magnetic flux law,
adopt the calibration condition
one obtains a new integral form of the electromagnetic
divA = 0 (12) induction law:
such that the field vector A to be a solenoidal one too. B
Applying Stokes’ theorem, the magnetic flux which u =  Edl = −  dA −  ( B  w ) dl (19)
 S
t 
flows through an arbitrary open surface S  , which sits on 

Relation (19) emphasizes the physical significance of

a closed curve  , can be expressed by line integral of the
the law: the time variable magnetic field produces
of the magnetic potential vector on the curve  : (induces) an electric field by the electromagnetic induction
 S =  BdA =  rotAdA =  Adl (13) phenomena. Therefore, the electromagnetic induction is a
S S  physical phenomenon, unlike electric displacement D and
This shows that magnetic flux through an open surface magnetic induction B which are physical quantities.
depends only on the closed curve that bounds it. Moreover, relation (19) allows the decomposition of
the emf into two components:
2.1.3. Electromagnetic Induction Law (Faraday’s Law) u = ut + um (20)
Statement: The electromotive force (emf) u  along a
with
closed curve  is equal to the rate of decrease (in time) of B B
the magnetic flux  S across any surface S  bordered by ut = −  dA =  − dA (21)
S
t S
t
 
the closed curve  : called emf induced by transformation and, respectively.
d  S
u = − (14) um = −  ( B  w ) dl =  ( w  B ) dl (22)
dt  
Considering the definition of the emf and of the called emf induced by movement.
magnetic flux it results the integral form of the law In stationary regime, the electromagnetic induction law
d becomes the theorem of the stationary electric potential,
 Edl = − dt  BdA (15) which has the local form:
 S  rotE = 0 (23)
The electromagnetic induction law has the above form and, respectively, the integral form:
only with the condition that the reference direction of the
u =  Edl = 0 (24)
closed curve  (the reference direction of the oriented line 
element dl ) and the direction of the normal to the surface The local form (23) of electromagnetic induction law
S  (with the oriented area element dA ) are associated in stationary regime shows that, in this regime, the vector
according to right corkscrew rule (Figure 4). field E is non-rotational and, according to the vector
For moving media, the integration domains follow the identity which states that the curl of the gradient for any
bodies in their movement, and the derivative with respect scalar field is zero, it can be introduced the scalar quantity
to time of the magnetic flux is a substantial derivative and V , called electric potential, with relation:
it is computed using the following relation: E = −gradV (25)

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The integral form of the electromagnetic induction law S , arbitrary, bordered by the closed curve  and the time
in stationary regime allows the demonstration of the derivative of the electric flux over the same surface S  :
following theorem: the voltage drop between two points
M k and M j , from space (arbitrary points) does not d  S
umr = iS + (30)
depend on the paths (integration curve) between them. dt
Indeed (Figure 5), let consider two paths (arbitrary) The term iS  is also denoted by  S . By rewriting
between M k and M j , represented by the open curves C1 relation (30) one obtains the integral form of the law:
and C 2 , whose reunion is the closed curve  . According d
to relation (24) it results:
 H  dl = S J  dA + dt S D  dA (31)

Which has the above presented form only if the

association between the reference direction of the
orientation the oriented line element dl and the oriented
area element dA is according to the corkscrew rule (as for
the electromagnetic induction law).
For moving media, the integration domains follow the
bodies in their movement, following a similar path as the
one described for the electromagnetic induction law, and
the integral developed form of magnetic circuit law is
Figure 5. Voltage drops between two points obtained:

Mj Mk Mj Mj  Hdl =  ( rotH ) dA =  JdA +

 S S
u =  Edl =  Edl +  Edl =  Edl −  Edl = 0 (26)
 D 
() Mk Mj Mk Mk +  + wdivD + rot ( D  w )  dA =  JdA + (32)
(C1 ) ( C2 ) (C1 ) (C2 )
S 
t  S
that is
D
Mj Mj
+ dA +  ( wdivD ) dA +   rot ( D  w )  dA
t
 Edl =  Edl = u M k , M j (27) S S  S 

um = iS + id S + ivS + iRS

Mk Mk
( C1 ) ( C2 ) (33)
  
The electric tension is therefore a scalar physical On the right side of Equation (33) we have four terms:
quantity referring to an ordered pair consisting of two ▪ The conduction current:
points from the space, while the electric potential is a
iS =  JdA (34)
physical scalar quantity associated to each point in the
S
space.
As relation (25) is a differential type relation, it means ▪ The displacement current:
that electric potential is defined up to an arbitrary additive D
id S =  dA (35)
constant. This constant represents the value  t
V ( M 0 ) = VM 0 , arbitrary, of potential M 0 from the space,
S 

where,
arbitrary, considered to be reference value for all D
potentials. Then, the potential of any point from the space, = Jd (36)
t
for example M j , is:
is the displacement current density;
Mj ▪ The convection current:
( )
V M j = VM j = VM 0 −  Edl (28) ivS =  ( w  divD) dA =  w  v  dA (37)
M0 
S S
If one considers VM 0 = 0 , it is said that point M 0 is where,
“grounded” or “earthed” and in an electric circuit it has a w  v = J v (38)
specific symbol (Figure 5). is the convection current density;
In these conditions ▪ Roentgen current
M0
iRS =   rot( D  w)  dA =  ( D  w) dl
( )
V M j = VM j =  Edl (29) 
( S ) ()
(39)
Mj
The magnetic circuit law emphasizes two causes that
2.1.4. The Magnetic Circuit Law (Ampere) can generate the magnetic field: conductive bodies
Statement: The magnetomotive force (mmf) um transited by conduction currents and/or time variable
electric fields (by displacement currents, convection and
along any closed curve  is equal to the sum between the
Roentgen currents).
conduction electric current iS  through an open surface

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For continuity domains, the equality (32), true for any electromagnetic field. Therefore, the bodies are
surface S  , leads to: characterized by material quantities ε and μ independent
of the field.
D
rotH = J + + wv + rot( D  w) (40) We define the electromagnetic energy as the term in the
t most general expression of the total energy of a physical
relation that represents the local form of the magnetic system that depends exclusively on the quantities of
circuit law. electrical and magnetic states of the system. It is obvious
For stationary media w = 0 the local form becomes: that this form of energy is always associated with the
D electromagnetic field and is canceled once the
rotH = J + (41) electromagnetic field disappears. Therefore, for the linear
t
and it shows that the closed lines of the magnetic field fields, one chooses - if possible - as a reference state in
surround the conductors transited by conduction currents, relation to which the electromagnetic energy is calculated,
respectively the lines of the time variable electric field that the state characterized by zero values of the local state
generate them. quantities E , D , H and B of the electric and magnetic
In steady state regime the magnetic circuit law field.
becomes the Ampère theorem, and it has the local form: To the physical system consisting of bodies and the
rot H = J (42) electromagnetic field from the domain v , the energy
and, respectively, the global form conservation law for an elementary transformation is: in a
um = is (43) time, interval dt, the decrease (–dW) of the electromagnetic
field energy in the considered domain is equal to the sum
In the particular cases of the point from the space for
of the electromagnetic energy dW leaving through the
which the vector field H is a non-rotational ( rot H = 0 ), surface  from the domain v and the energy dWt
according to the vector identity which states that the curl transformed into other forms of energy in the domain v:
of the gradient of any scalar field is zero, the scalar − dW = dW + dWt (45)
quantity Vm , can be introduced, called scalar magnetic
If (45) is divided at elementary time intervals dt, the
potential, using the relation [3, 13, 14]: following equivalent relationship in powers is obtained:
H = −gradVm (44) −dW
= P + Pt (46)
dt
2.2. Electromagnetic Energy Theorem dW
According to the nature of the state quantities on which where, P = is the electromagnetic power which is
each of the additive terms in the general expression of the dt
total energy of a system depends, the energy is mechanical, transmitted inside the considered domain through the
electrical, magnetic, etc., each of these terms being a form dWt
surface  and, respectively Pt = is the power
of energy. Mechanical work is not a form of energy, dt
because it does not characterize physical systems, but their transformed into other forms of energy, non-
interactions and their transformations; therefore, the heat electromagnetic, inside the considered domain.
that a body exchanges with its exterior is not a form of The transformation of electromagnetic energy into
energy either. other forms of energy can be done through the process of
The close-up action theory states that physical actions electrical conduction, through the variation of electrical
are localized, and because energy is a function of the state polarization, through the variation of the magnetization of
of physical systems, it follows that energy depends bodies with hysteresis and through the movement of
exclusively on local state quantities. In this sense, the most bodies.
general expression of energy is an algebraic sum of the Because, in the considered field, the bodies have linear
elementary energies (energy densities) contained in the and constant properties and ε, µ and σ are immobile, it
field. The part of the total energy of a physical system that results that the only possibility of transformation of the
depends only on the relative positions in relation to the electromagnetic energy remains in the process of electrical
outside is called potential energy; according to the conduction. According to the law of transformation of
quantities of state that intervene in its expression, the electromagnetic energy in the conduction process, it
potential energy is electrical, mechanical, etc. The part of results that:
the total energy of a physical system that depends only on
Pt = PJ =  PJ dv =  EJdv (47)
its internal state quantities is called internal or internal
v v
energy. If the physical system is isolated, its total energy
is equal to its inner energy. In the macroscopic theory of Similarly, the electromagnetic power transmitted
the electromagnetic field, it is considered that the inner outside the considered domain through by the surface 
energy is susceptible exclusively to continuous variation. can be defined as the flux of a power density vector
Let us assume a system of immobile, linear and through this closed surface:
isotropic bodies, without permanent electric polarization P =  SdA (48)
and permanent magnetization, which is in a domain v 
bounded by the closed surface  in interaction with an the vector S being called the Poynting vector.

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The Poynting vector is defined with the approximation i.e., the electromagnetic field theorem. Intuitively the two
of an arbitrary solenoidal field. Therefore, the vector: terms form (53) of the energy volume density are called
S  = S + rotG volume density of electric energy:
where, G is an arbitrary vector, has the same flux through ED
We = (55)
a closed surface. This does not introduce an un- 2
determination of the considered surface  because the and the volume density of the magnetic energy:
Poynting vector intervenes by definition only in the HB
integrals on closed surfaces, i.e., through its divergence. Wm = (56)
2
In concordance with the concept regarding the close-
The two names being valid only in the static regime of
up theory of the actions, one introduces the concept of
the electromagnetic field, the only one in which the two
volume density of the electromagnetic energy w, to
fields are studied separately, without the electric and
consider its space distribution in the volume v : magnetic quantities and phenomena influencing each
W dW other.
w = lim = (49)
v →0 dv dv
Using (47), (48) and (49), the Equation (46) becomes: 2.3. Theorem of Ponderomotive Actions Developed by
d Electromagnetic Field
−  wdv =  EJ dv +  SdA (50) It is considered an infinitely large domain, v “filled”
dt v 
 v with a linear, isotropic environment, without permanent
The first term of the right side of the above relation is electrical polarization and permanent magnetization, in
calculated, i.e., the volume density of the power which there is a system of bodies that have a gradual
transformed in the conduction process, taking into account variation of mass density at the surface and not a sudden
the law of the magnetic circuit and the law of variation of through clear borders. Therefore, mass density
electromagnetic induction, as follows: is a continuous function of point and time,  =  ( r , t ).
 D 
 = div ( H  E ) +
The environment is supposed to be inhomogeneous in
pJ = EJ = E  rotH − terms of electrical and magnetic properties and the
 t 
(51) electrical and magnetic permittivity depend on point and
D  B D 
+ HrotE − E = div ( H  E ) +  H +E 
time, exclusively as a function of mass density:
t  t t   =  ( r , t ) =  ( )
The medium is linear, therefore:  =  ( r , t ) =  ( )
D
=E
E
=
( )
 E2   ED 
= 
The environment is moving, and the bodies are
E 
t t t t  2  deformable, their movement being described by the
and continuous field of velocities: v = v (r , t ).
The determination of the force density f exerted by the
B H  ( H 2 )  HB
H = H = = ( ) electromagnetic field on the body system, starts from the
t t t t 2 application of the law of energy conservation, on the
Finally, the total power transformed in the conduction closed system formed by bodies and the electromagnetic
process in the whole domain v is equal to: field, which is considered to be extended to infinity. In this
 ED HB case, the rapid decrease of the electric field intensity and
PJ =  p j dv =  div( H E )dv −  ( + )dv the decrease of the magnetic field intensity with distance,
v v v
t 2 2
   lead to the conclusion that the Poynting vector cancels
If the Gauss-Ostrogradski theorem is applied to the indefinitely and there is no power transmission outside the
first term in the right member of the previous relation and considered range, through its boundary. Therefore, the
the terms are arranged to compare them with those in the balance of power becomes:
relation (51), we obtain: dWv
 ED HB − = PJ ,v + PM ,v
− ( + )dv =  p j dv +  ( E H )dA (52) dt
v
 t 2 2 v  and shows that the decrease of the electromagnetic energy
 

Because the domain v is arbitrary chosen, by in the elementary unit of time in the considered field is
comparing the relationships (51) and (52), it results the equal to the sum between the power developed in the
expression of the volume density of the electromagnetic electrical conduction process ( PJ ,v  ) and the power
energy: transformed into mechanical energy ( PM ,v ) .
ED HB
w= + (53) The expression of the electromagnetic energy theorem
2 2 is used:
respectively of the flux density of the power transmitted ED HB
through electromagnetic field (Poynting vector): Wv =  ( + )dv
2 2
S = EH (54) v 

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relation of the law of energy transformation in the process energy and the theorem of the ponderomotive actions
of electrical conduction: developed by the electromagnetic field, lead to the
PJ ,v =  EJdv determination of the expressions of energies and forces in
v
the stationary electrostatic and magnetic field.
and the expression of the mechanical power as a function
3.1.1. Electrostatic And Magnetic Quasi-Stationary
of the force density f and the velocity v:
Field Energies
PM ,v =  f vdv Starting from the integration of the relation (55) on a
v finite domain from space v, considered as a linear,
finally obtaining an equation of the form: homogeneous and isotropic dielectric medium, uncharged
ED HB and electrically non-polarized in which there are n
− ( + )dv =  EJdv +  f vdv immobile conductors, charged with electric charges Qk
v
2 2 v v
   with potentials Vk. Applying the local forms of electric flux
The development of this relationship and the law, it is shown that the total electrostatic energy of the
calculation of the volume density of the force f are quite electrostatic field created by the n conductor system is
laborious. Therefore, only the conclusion of this equal to the half-sum of the products between the
demonstration is presented, which additively separates the potentials and charges of the conductors:
force density f into two types of force densities. So, one 1 n
obtains: We =  QkVk (60)
2 k =1
f = fe + f m
For example, the electrostatic energy of a capacitor of
The volume density of the electric force is: capacitance C, assimilated to a two-conductor system with
1 1 d equal charges of opposite signs Q1= Q, Q2 = –Q and with
fe = v E − E 2 grad + grad( E 2   ) − D  rotE (57)
2 2 d potentials V1, V2 is:
The volume density of the magnetic force is: 1 1 1 1 Q2
We = (V1Q − V2Q) = QU = CU 2 = (61)
1 1 d df D 2 2 2 2 C
f m = J  B − H 2 grad + grad( H 2  ) +  B (58)
2 2 d dt Similarly, from relation (56), it is shown that the total
where, the terms in each right member of the previous energy of the quasi-stationary magnetic field of a system
relations are interpreted as representing different forms of of n filiform, immobile conductors, crossed by electric
action of the electromagnetic field on the bodies, as conducting currents ik and located in a finite domain and a
follows: linear magnetic medium, homogeneous and isotropic,
without permanent magnetization, is equal to the half-sum
• The v E is the density of the force exerted by the
of the products between the current intensities and the
electromagnetic field on the electrically charged bodies; magnetic fluxes Φk that chain the respective conductors:
• J  B is the density of the force exerted by the 1 n
electromagnetic field on the bodies in the electro-kinetic Wm =  ik  k (62)
state;
2 k =1
1 1 For example, for n = 1, the magnetic energy of its own
• − E 2 grad and − H 2 grad is the density of the inductance L of a coil is obtained
2 2
force exerted by the electromagnetic field on the 1 1 1 2
Wm = i = Li 2 =
inhomogeneous bodies from the point of view of 2 2 2 L
permittivity or permeability; the last two terms in relations where, for n = 2, i.e., for a system of two coils, of own
(57) and (58) are negligible for sufficiently slow variations inductances L11 and L22, magnetically coupled by the
of the electromagnetic field. mutual inductance L12 = L21 = M, the magnetic energy is
These densities of forces, also called equivalent obtained:
densities of forces, because they determine only the total 1 1
force exerted on a body by the electromagnetic field and Wm = L11i12 + L22i2 2 + Mi1i2
2 2
not its exact location, lead to the calculation of the total
force F exerted on a body, which is the only 3.1.2. Forces in Electrostatic Field and in Quasi-
experimentally observable quantity [3], [13-15]: Stationary Magnetic Field
F =  fdv =  ( f e + f m ) dv (59) If the total energy of the electromagnetic field is
vcorp vcorp known, its interaction with any physical system consisting
of bodies can be described by means of electromagnetic
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC EQUIPMENT forces.
Thus, the total force exerted by the electromagnetic
3.1. Energies and Forces in Electromagnetic field in a range v, delimited by the closed surface , can
Equipment be written as:
The last two general theorems presented in the F =  fdv + F (63)
previous Section, the theorem of the electromagnetic v

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where, F is the resultant of electromagnetic forces acting,

in the form of mechanical stresses, on portions of the
closed surface , when they constitute discontinuity
surfaces for field properties, and the volume density of the
electromagnetic force exerted on the bodies in the
considered field is defined as:
F dF
f = lim = (64)
v →0 v dv
where,  F the elementary force acting on the unit Figure 6. The field created by the capacitor armatures
volume element v.
The volume densities of the electric and magnetic The field created by the capacitor armatures is assumed
forces were from the theorem of the ponderomotive to be in stationary regime, and the distance x is considered,
actions developed by the electromagnetic field [13-16]. in this case, to be the generalized coordinate (Figure 6).
The area of the armatures A and the permittivity  of the
3.2. Analytical Computation of Forces in dielectric between the armatures are known.
Electromagnetic Equipment By applying the two theorems of generalized forces in
the electrostatic field, the same value for the generalized
3.2.1. Forces in Electrostatic Field force will result, as follows:
Starting, either from the expression of the volume
 W    Q2 
density of the electric forces, or from the expression of the X = F = − e  = −   =
energy of the electrostatic field, the forces exerted by the  x Q =ct x  2C Q =ct
T1: (67)
electrostatic field on the bodies in the field can be
U2   A U2 A
calculated, a result which is called generalized force =  =−
theorems in the electrostatic field. 2 x  x  2 x2
We consider a system of n conductors, with charges Qk,  W e    CU 2 
potentials Vk, located in an electrically uncharged X =F =  =   =
dielectric medium and admitting that their relative  x V =ct x  2 V =ct
T2: (68)
positions can be described by m generalized coordinates U 2 C U2 A
x1,x2,...,xm (distances, angles), the force capable of = =−
2 x 2 x2
modifying only one of these coordinates, leaving the
values of the others unchanged, called the generalized This example leads to the following conclusions:
force Xk, which modifies the generalized coordinate xk, can 1. The sign “–” in front of the expression of the normal
be calculated using the theorems of generalized forces in force on the capacitor armatures shows that this force tends
the electrostatic field, whose statements are: to decrease the distance x (being therefore an attractive
• T1: The generalized force Xk that tends to increase the force). The modulus of force is proportional to A and
generalized coordinate xk is equal to the partial derivative inversely proportional to x2.
with changed sign of the electrostatic energy of the system 2. The dependence (67) or (68) of the force of attraction
in relation to the generalized coordinate xk, at constant between the armatures of a capacitor underlines the basic
charges: construction principle of the electrostatic measuring
W devices used to measure very high DC voltages (Thomson
X k = −( e )Qk = ct (65) electrometer). This measuring device consists of a balance
xk having mounted, on one arm the movable plate of a
• T2: The generalized force Xk that tends to increase the capacitor and on the other arm, a plate for weights (Figure
generalized coordinate xk is equal to the partial derivative 7).
of the electrostatic energy of the system in relation to the
generalized coordinate xk, at constant potentials:
W
X k = ( e )Vk = ct (66)
xk
The two theorems lead similar results, as presented in
the in the following examples of analog calculation of
electric forces.
➢ Example 1: Calculation of the force normally exerted
Figure 7. The measuring device
on the armatures of a capacitor, of capacity C, with the
voltage at terminals U, charged with the load Q and having
At equilibrium the moments of forces are equal:
the distance between the armatures x.
1 2 A
Fa = Gb or U
2 X2

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If the equilibrium force is measured by a mechanical

process, it is observed that the voltage value can be
determined:
2Gb
U=x (69)
a A
So that, by balancing this force, the distance between
the reinforcements remains unchanged. In conclusion, by
measuring the equilibrium force by some mechanical
process, it is observed that it is dependent on U2, being,
therefore, a measure of this voltage.

3.2.2. Quasi-Stationary Magnetic Field Forces

Starting, either from the expression of the volume
density of the magnetic forces, or from the expression of
the quasi-stationary magnetic field energy, the forces
exerted by the magnetic field on the bodies in the field can
be calculated, a result called by the theorems of
generalized forces in the quasi-stationary magnetic field. Figure 8. The electromagnet
Analogous to those presented in the electrostatic field,
we consider n conductors crossed by currents ik, each First, calculate the reluctance Rm of the magnetic
chained by the magnetic flux k and, assuming that there circuit:
are m generalized coordinates x1,...,xm that define the 2 1
Rm = +
relative position of the wire conductors, the calculation of 0 A  A
the interaction forces between these conductors is made on or, in direct relation to the number of turns of the coil and
the basis of the theorems of the generalized forces in quasi- the inductance of the coil,
stationary magnetic field, knowing the energy Wm of the
N2
system: L=
• T1: The generalized force Xk that tends to increase the Rm
associated generalized coordinate xk is equal to the partial In this case, the magnetic energy of the system can be
derivative of the magnetic energy of the system in relation expressed in equivalent forms:
to that generalized coordinate, taken with changed sign 1 2 1  2 1 1
Wm = = ( ) Rm =  2 f  Rm = Li 2
calculated at constant fluxes: 2 L 2 N 2 2
W The load-bearing force exerted by the magnetic field
Xk = −( m ) (70)
 xk  =ct created by the normal coil on the moving armature, is
k
obtained with the relations of the two theorems of the
• T2: The generalized force Xk that tends to increase the generalized forces in the magnetic field, the results being
associated generalized coordinate xk is equal to the partial similar. So, we get:
derivative of the magnetic energy of the system in relation T1:
to generalized coordinate, calculated at constant currents: W 1 R B2 A
W X = F = −( m )m = ct = − f 2  m = − (72)
Xk = ( m ) (71)  2  0
 xk i =ct and T2:
k

As in the previous example of electrostatic forces, the   Wm  1 L

X = F = −  = i2 =
two calculation theorems of magneto-stationary forces   i =ct . 2 
give similar results, as shown in the following example. (73)
➢ Example 2: Computing the portent force of an 1 2 2   1  B2 A
= i N =−
electromagnet. It is considered an electromagnet, 2   Rm  0
represented in Figure 8, having a fixed armature on which The conclusions that emerge from this calculation
is located the excitation coil separated from the mobile example are the following, [13-16]:
armature by a double gap, width , in which there is air 1. The load-bearing force is a force of attraction, which
and which represents, in this case, the generalized tends to reduce the air gap  and is proportional to B2A and
coordinate. inversely proportional to 0.
In Figure 8, there were noted with: 2. The principle of operation of electromagnetic
l- Average fiber length of the magnetic circuit measuring instruments is the calculation of this force. They
A- Area of the magnetic circuit section are used for alternating current measurements, the force
 - Permeability of the magnetic circuit being proportional to the square of the effective value of
0 - Vacuum permeability B, which is proportional to the square of the effective value
i- Current through the coil of the current that causes it.
N- Number of coils turns

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4. SIMULATION AND RESULTS OF Thus, a voltage of 10 V is established between the two

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS FOR plates. This electric potential difference creates an electric
MECHANICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC charge which accumulates on the plates.
FIELDS In electrostatics all conducting bodies are
In this section are analyzed three applications of equipotential, so the imposed potential is the same in each
numerical computation of electromagnetic forces using the point on the plate surface. Thus, the potentials of 10 V and
results of simulations performed in FEM software 0 V had been imposed as Dirichlet boundary conditions on
environment. These computational examples were chosen the plates. Because FEM operates with finite computation
from real devices that are used in complex systems to domains, two horizontal artificial boundaries which
generate electromagnetic forces dependent on mechanical connect the ends of plates were introduced, having
displacements or variable electrical quantities. The Neumann boundary conditions, as seen in Figure 10. This
dependence between the electromagnetic and the ensures the electric field is concentrated only in the
mechanical field is synthesized, through the direct analysis dielectric.
of the forces generated by the electromagnetic field.

4.1. Plate Capacitor

First application refers to analysis of the force
generated by the electric field of a plate capacitor and to
its dependence on the distance between the plates when
one is fixed and the other mobile. This device, shown in
Figure 9, is used as a position sensor in complex electrical
systems. The plate capacitor model was implemented in Figure 10. Mesh and boundaries
the electrostatics module of FEMM. A 2D parallel plane
problem had been solved. The considered dimensions of After creating the mesh that is represents in Figure 10,
the plates are 50 cm in length, respectively 10 cm in depth, and solving the problem, the results obtained in the post-
therefore the area of the plates is 500 cm2. processing stage are shown in Figures 11, 12 and 13. Table
Between the plates, the considered dielectric material 1 contains the values of the electric force for each distance
is air, having the relative electric permittivity (εr=1). One between the plates. The force variation with the distance is
plate is considered fixed, while the other one is mobile. shown in Figure 14 [38, 39].
The distance between the plates varies between 1 cm and
10 cm. The purpose of the simulation is to compute the
variation of electric force between the two plates of the
capacitor depending on the distance between the plates.

Figure 11. Density plot of electric potential

Figure 9. 2D planar model of the plate capacitor

In the pre-processing stage, one drew the geometry of

the capacitor, imposed the boundary conditions, and
created the mesh. To produce the electric field, one needs
to impose the electric potential on the two plates or the
electric charge distribution upon the plates. Because in the
differential equation which describes the electrostatic
regime the unknown is the electric potential, it is more
convenient to impose the electric potential. Thus, on the
fixed plate a potential of 10 V was imposed, while on the
mobile plate a reference potential of 0 V had been Figure 12. Electric equipotential lines
considered.

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The coil is winded on the central column and has 2000

turns. In parallel plane problems, the current density has a
component on only one direction, “in the page or out of the
page” (on the Oz axis). Thus, in the Coil (+) subdomain
the current has a positive value (out of the page) and in the
Coil (–) subdomain the current has the same value, but
negative (in the page).
For the iron core, a linear ferromagnetic material had
been considered, having the relative magnetic
permeability µr=5000. The purpose of the simulation is to
Figure 13. Electric flux density vectors compute the variation of magnetic force upon the mobile
iron core in two cases:
Table 1. Plate distance vs force 1. Fixed current, variable air gap
Plate distance [cm] Force [nN] 2. Fixed air gap, variable current
10 2 In the pre-processing stage, one drew the geometry,
9 3 imposed the boundary conditions, and created the mesh,
8 3 seen in Figure 16.
7 5
6 6
5 9
4 14
3 25
2 55
1 221

Figure 16. Mesh network

To produce the magnetic field, one imposed the current

through the coil. A stationary magnetic regime (DC
Figure 14. Force variation depending on distance
current) had been considered. Because FEMM operates
with finite computation domains, four artificial boundaries
4.2. DC Electromagnet which surround the electromagnet were introduced, having
The second application refers to analysis of the force Dirichlet boundary conditions. The imposed boundary
generated by the magnetic field of an electromagnet condition consists in assigning a null value to the magnetic
excited by a DC current. When the air gap between the vector potential A . This ensures the magnetic field is
mobile and fixed iron core is variable or the value of the concentrated only in the finite domain. After creating the
excitation current is changed then the force has been mesh, the problem is solved and the post-processing stage
changed. This device is used as a position sensor or is used to show the results.
actuators in complex electrical systems.
The current excited dc electromagnet model was 4.2.1. Case 1: Fixed Current, Variable Air Gap
implemented in the magnetic module of FEMM. A 2D The current through the coil is fixed at 2 A and the air
parallel plane problem had been solved. The considered gap varies from 1 to 10 mm. For a 1 mm air gap, the results
dimensions of the electromagnet are shown in Figure 15 are shown in Figures 17, 18, 19, 20. Table 2 contains the
and are expressed in cm. values of the magnetic force for each value of the air gap.
This dependence is presented in Figure 21.

Figure 15. 2D model of electromagnet Figure 17. Magnetic flux density absolute value (legend values in T)

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Table 3. Force vs current

Force [kN] Current [A]
2.52423 1
10.0969 2
22.718 3
40.3876 4
63.1057 5
90.8721 6
123.687 7
161.55 8
Figure 18. Magnetic field strength absolute value (legend values in 204.462 9
A/m) 252.423 10

Figure 19. Current density absolute value (legend values in MA/m2)

Figure 22. Force variation depending on current

5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents some application for electro –
mechanical fields related to the transformation of
electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy.
Electromagnetic phenomena analysis takes into account
the side effects of associated phenomena, such as
Figure 20. Equipotential lines and magnetic flux density vectors
mechanical, chemical, optical or thermal. In engineering
Table 2. Force vs airgap practice, an electromagnetic field analysis problem
Force [kN] Air gap [mm]
consists in determining the electromagnetic field
10.0966 1 corresponding to given conditions of uniqueness
2.62523 2 Therefore, the mechanical forces and moments or the
1.19401 3 ponderomotive interactions exerted on the bodies in a
0.681467 4 closed domain together with the electromagnetic field
0.439802 5
prove the transformation of the electromagnetic energy
0.306505 6
0.225328 7 into mechanical energy respecting the law of energy
0.172021 8 conservation. If the total energy of the electromagnetic
0.135105 9 field is known, its interaction with any physical system
0.108462 10 consisting of bodies can be described by means of
electromagnetic forces. The additive separation of the
electromagnetic force, in volume density of the electric
and magnetic force is used as a basis of the applications
developed in this paper.
The readers are familiarized with theoretical notions
related to quantities and of the general laws of the
macroscopic theory of the electromagnetic. Then, the
electromagnetic energy theorem is stated and proved.
Many engineering applications imply the calculation of
force generated by the electric field of a plate capacitor or
Figure 21. Force variation depending on air gap the carrying force of an electromagnet these examples
being found in many electromechanical equipment.
4.2.2. Case 2: Fixed Air Gap, Variable Current Therefore, a special Section is dedicated to briefly describe
In this case, a constant air gap of 1 mm was considered, the constructive and functional characteristics of some
and the current varies from 1 to 10 A. Table 3 contains the equipment.
values of the magnetic force for each value of the current. The last Section is dedicated to numerical calculation
The force variation with the current is seen in Figure 22, methods of the electromagnetic field and of the
[40-42]. electromagnetic energy. The FEMM programming

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environment has all the modules necessary to use the finite f m : Volume density of magnetic force
element method, for any linear and nonlinear structures.
Wm: Magnetic energy
There are analyzed three applications of numerical
We: Electric energy
computation of electromagnetic forces using the results of
L: Inductance
simulations performed in FEMM software environment.
M: Mutual inductance
These computational examples were chosen from real
Xk: Generalized force
devices that are used in complex systems to generate
Rm: Reluctance
electromagnetic forces dependent on mechanical
N: Number of coils turns
displacements or variable electrical quantities. The
V: Electric potential
dependence between the electromagnetic and the
C: Capacitance
mechanical field is synthesized, through the direct analysis
U: Voltage
of the forces generated by the electromagnetic field.
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[40] P. Andrei, M. Maricaru, S. Marinescu, M. Sciences Electrotechnical and Energetic Series), member
Stanculescu, F.I. Hantila, “An Efficient Procedure to of the editorial board of The Scientific Bulletin of the
Assess the Static Magnetization Relationship”, Rev. Electrical Engineering Faculty - SBEEF and a reviewer for
Romaine Sci. Tech. Electrotechnics and Energy, Vol. 61, international and national conferences. She has published
Issue 2, pp. 101-105, 2016. more than 70 scientific publications, more than 10 books
[41] P. Andrei, “Device for Determining the First and chapter books, and she has involved in different
Magnetization Characteristic for Ferromagnetic national and international projects.
Materials”, PhD. Thesis, Polytechnics University of
Bucharest, Romania, 2015. Sorin Deleanu received a five-year B.S.
[42] H. Andrei, C. Fluerasu, E. Virjoghe, Co. Fluerasu, D. and a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from
Enescu, D. Popovici, Adela Husu, P. Andrei, G. Predusca,
Polytechnics University of Bucharest,
E. Diaconu, “Numerical Methods, Modelling and
Romania in 1990. He worked as an R&D
Simulation in Electrical Engineering”, Electra Press,
engineer from 1990 to 1997 for Romanian
Bucharest, Romania, 2011 (in Romanian).
Electricity Authority. In parallel, he was
BIOGRAPHIES an Adjunct Faculty within the Machines, Materials and
Electric Drives Department at the same university he
Paul Andrei was born in Bucharest, graduated from. Since 2002, he has been an
Romania, on May 30, 1988. He received instructor/senior faculty researcher with the Northern
the B.Sc., M.S.E. and Ph.D. degrees all in Alberta Institute of Technology, Edmonton, Canada. His
Electrical Engineering from Polytechnics main research areas are electric machines, power
University of Bucharest, Romania in converters, power systems and the computational
2010, 2012 and 2015, respectively. electromagnetic field. He has co-authored three books, six
Currently, he is a Senior Lecturer at Department of book chapters and more than 60 journal and conference
Electrotechnics, Polytechnics University of Bucharest. His papers. Between 2009 and 2014, he was the principal
current research interests include the broad area of investigator for several applied research projects with
computation and modeling of electromagnetic field, grants regarding the electrical installations utilized in
electric circuits’ computation and design, renewable transportation and their impacts on surroundings. He is a
energy sources and data acquisition systems. He has Professional Engineer in Alberta, Canada, an IEEE
authored or coauthored of several papers (over to 70) Member since 2003, and serves as a reviewer for several
WOS, SCOPUS or INSPEC indexed in Journals and WoS-ISI Journals.
international conference proceedings, and more than 15
books and book chapters. He has been involved in several Emil Cazacu received his M.D. and
national and international projects and he has more than Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
230 citations. from Polytechnics University of
Bucharest, Romania, in 1998 and 2004
Marilena Stanculescu was born in respectively. Since 1998, he lectures
Bucharest, Romania in 1977. She electrical engineering at Polytechnics
received the B.E. degree in electrical University of Bucharest, Romania. His main research
engineering and computers and Ph.D. scientific activity concerns include electromagnetic field
degree in electrical engineering from computation, magnetic levitation, nonlinear circuits,
Faculty of Engineering, Polytechnics measurement and interpretation of power quality
University of Bucharest, Romania in 2000 and 2009, parameters for low-voltage consumers that operates in
respectively. In 2002, she became project manager, distorted and/or unbalanced states. Additionally, his
following the specialization studies from Economical research activity comprises numerous electro-energy
Sciences Academy of Bucharest, Romania. In 2009, she audits for a large class of consumers (common and critical)
joined the Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty too, along with performing the predictive maintenance of
of Electrical Engineering, Polytechnics University of various electric equipment by dedicated power quality
Bucharest, and in 2019 became Associate Professor. Her measurements, infrared thermography inspection and
current research interests include power electronics, vibration analysis. He is also a first class authorized energy
electrical machines and drives, electromagnetic field auditor (max. installed power up to 1 MW) and electrical
computation, non-destructive testing, flaw shape installation designer for any technically feasible installed
reconstruction, research in thermal field computation and power with rated voltage up to 1 kV. He has published
radio frequency heating, electromagnetic field inverse more than 100 scientific publications, 10 books and
problem computation. She was involved in the organizing chapter books, and he has involved in different national
committees for several international and national and international projects. The results of his research were
conferences. She is a reviewer and part of the editorial cited in more than 150 papers. He served as reviewer for
member of an ISI journal (Romanian Journal of Technical several WoS-ISI Journals.

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Marian Gaiceanu earned the B.Sc., Technical University of Cluj-Napoca an “Advanced

M.Eng.Sc. and Ph.D. (Magna Cum Research and Education University”, where is currently
Laude) degrees in Electrical Engineering Professor, Director of Energy Transition Research Center,
from the University of Galati, Romania, Ph.D. Supervisor and President of TUCN Research
in 1996, 1997, and 2002, respectively. He Committee. Between 2006-2010, he was Scientific Expert
is with the Department of Automation and at Managerial Agency of Scientific Research at Romanian
Electrical Engineering, “Dunarea de Jos” Ministry of Research and Innovation and staring from
University of Galati, as Full Professor, Ph.D. supervisor in 2020, he has been selected as a Scientific Officer at the
Electrical Engineering. From March 2016, he is the Head National Council for Scientific Research at the same
of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Ministry. He lectured at more than 50 universities all over
Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, the world. In 2017-2018, he was a Fulbright Senior Fellow
Romania. Currently, he is the Member of National Council at University of Florida, US. Since 2019, he works also as
for Scientific Research within Ministry of Research, a part-time Professor at Beijing Jiaotong University,
Innovation and Digitization. His research interests are China. He has authored and coauthored more than 250
primarily in microgrids, advance power converters and scientific papers published in peer-reviewed journals and
motor drives, power quality issues and active power filter presented at international conferences. He was project
development, power converters for fuel cell, micro- manager at 15 research grants obtained by international
turbine, wind energy systems, and power electronic competitions (8 Horizon 2020 Projects) in the field of
control for battery and ultra-capacitor type energy energy analytics numerical tools and energy efficiency in
storage/discharge devices for ride-through and utility buildings & industry, numerical methods.
interface issues, power systems. Injection of electrical
power into the grid is currently his major interest. He has Horia Andrei was born in Moreni,
authored more than 200 technical papers (62 in WOS Dambovita, Romania, on May 15, 1954.
journals and conferences proceedings), reports, and over He received the degree in Control
20 books or book chapters in this area. He has also Systems and Computer Sciences in 1979,
managed research projects in the development of PEM and and the Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering in
SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities and marine 1996, from Polytechnics University of
applications at Department of Electrical Engineering, Bucharest (PUB), Romania. Since 1982,
Polytechnics of Turin, Italy. He was with Department of he has been Assistant Professor, Senior Lecturer and
Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. and Polytechnic of Associate Professor at Electrical Engineering Department
Turin, Italy (2002-2004) as a recipient of a Marie Curie of PUB until 2002, and from 2002 until 2019 he has been
Post-Doctoral Fellowship, being responsible for technical a Professor at Doctoral School of Engineering Sciences
direction and management of several research projects in (DSES), University Valahia Targovishte (UVT), Romania.
the area of power converter systems for AC drives and Currently, he is a Consulting Professor, Ph.D. Supervisor
Power Quality. He is IEEE member since 2003 and a at DSES, UVT. His research activities include the design
founded member of IEEE Power Electronics Romanian and computation of circuits, power systems,
Chapter. He has been General Chair of the IEEE-ISEEE electromagnetic field modeling, renewable energy sources
2021, 2019, 2017, 2013, and 2010 editions. and data acquisition systems. He has authored or
coauthored of over to 400 papers (92 in WOS journals and
Dan Micu received his M.D. and Ph.D. conferences proceedings), 107 books and book chapters.
degrees in electrical engineering from He has been involved in more than 40 national and
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, international projects and he has more than 750 citations.
Romania, in 1998 and 2004, respectively. He serves as Associate Editor and Reviewer of several
In 2003, he received the B.Sc. degree in WOS Journals, and he is an IEEE-Senior Member.
mathematics from Babes Bolyai
University of Cluj. Since 1998, he is with

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