Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
What is meant when we refer to emotional intelligence? Well, let’s begin with a
look at ‘intelligence’. Intelligence refers to the unique human mental ability to handle and
reason about information (Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008). Thus, emotional intelligence
(EI): “concerns the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to
use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought” (Mayer et al., 2008, p. 511).
According to almost three decades of research, emotional intelligence (EI) results from the
interaction of intelligence and emotion (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). EI refers to an
individual’s capacity to understand and manage emotions (Cherry, 2018).
Models and Frameworks of the Emotional Intelligence Concept
Mayer and Salovey’s Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence (1997)
The mainstream model of EI as an ability is the four branch model introduced by
Mayer and Salovey (1997). The four-branch model identifies EI as being comprised of a
number of mental abilities that allow for the appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotion,
as well the integration of these emotion processes with cognitive processes used to promote
growth and achievement (Salovey & Grewal, 2005; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). The model is
comprised of four hierarchically linked ability areas, or branches: (Perceiving emotions,
Facilitating thought using emotions, Understanding emotions, and managing emotions).
Perceiving emotions (Branch 1): Refers to the ability to identify emotions accurately
through the attendance, detection, and deciphering of emotional signals in faces, pictures, or
voices (Papadogiannis et al., 2009). This ability involves identifying emotions in one’s own
physical and psychological states, as well as an awareness of, and sensitivity to, the emotions
of others (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999; Papadogiannis et al., 2009). This branch involves
the perception of emotion, including being able to identify emotions in the facial and postural
expressions of others. It reflects non-verbal perception and emotional expression to
communicate via the face and voice (Mayer et al., 2004).
Facilitating thought using emotions (Branch 2): Involves the integration of emotions
to facilitate thought. This occurs through the analysis of, attendance to, or reaection on
emotional information, which in turn assists higher-order cognitive activities such as
reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and consideration of the perspectives of others
(Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002; Papadogiannis et al., 2009).
Individuals with a strong ability to use emotions would be able to select and prioritize
cognitive activities that are most conducive to their current mood state, as well as change
their mood to the given situation in a way that would foster better contextual adaptation.
Understanding emotions (Branch 3): Comprises the ability to comprehend the
connections between different emotions and how emotions change over time and situations.
This would involve knowledge of emotion language and its utilization to identify slight
variations in emotion and describe different combinations of feelings. This branch represents
the capacity to understand emotion, including being able to analyze emotions and awareness
of the likely trends in emotion over time, as well as an appreciation of the outcomes from
emotions. It also includes the capacity to label and discriminate between feelings. Individuals
stronger in this domain understand the complex and transitional relationships between
emotions and can recognize emotional cues learned from previous experiences, thus allowing
them to predict expressions in others in the future (Papadogiannis et al., 2009). For example,
an understanding that a colleague is getting frustrated, through subtle changes in tone or
expression, can improve individuals’ communication in relationships and their personal and
professional performances.
Managing emotions (Branch 4): Refers to the ability to regulate one’s own and
others’ emotions successfully. Such ability would entail the capacity to maintain, shift, and
cater emotional responses, either positive or negative, to a given situation (Rivers et al.,
2007). This could be reacted in the maintenance of a positive mood in a challenging situation
or curbing elation at a time in which an important decision must be made. Recovering quickly
from being angry or generating motivation or encouragement for a friend prior to an
important activity are illustrations of high-level emotion management (Papadogiannis et al.,
2009).
Bar-On Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence
Bar-On (2006) defined emotional intelligence as understanding oneself and others,
relating well to people, and adapting to and coping with the immediate surroundings to be
more successful in dealing with environmental demands. Bar-On put forward the
suggestion that EI is a system of interconnected behavior that arises from emotional and
social competencies. He argues that these competencies have an influence on performance
and behavior.
Bar-On’s model of EI consists of five scales: self-perception, self-expression,
interpersonal, decision-making, and stress management. Bar-On model of emotional
intelligence relates to the potential for performance and success, rather than performance or
success itself, and is considered process-oriented rather than outcome-oriented (Bar-On,
2002). It focuses on a group of emotional and social abilities, including the ability to be
aware of, understand, and express oneself, and the ability to be aware of, understand, and
relate to others, the ability to deal with strong emotions, and the ability to adapt to change
and solve problems of a social or personal nature (Bar-On, 1997).
Bar-On mentioned that emotional intelligence develops over time and that it can be
improved through training, programming and therapy (Bar-On, 2002). Bar-On found that
individuals with higher than average EQ are in general more successful in meeting
environmental demands and pressures and deficiency in emotional intelligence can mean a
lack of success and the existence of emotional problems. In general, the model considers
emotional intelligence and cognitive intelligence to contribute equally to a person’s general
intelligence, which then offers an indication of ones potential to succeed in life (Bar-On,
2002).
Goleman’s model of EI
The notion of EI consisting of five different components was first introduced by
Daniel Goleman, a psychologist, and best-selling author. Goleman (1990) stated that EI
refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating
ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relations. Relationship
management provides inspiration, potential to influence, and the ability to help leaders grow
in managing conflict, and emotional competency. Goleman (1998) created an EI-based theory
of performance containing a set of guidelines for effectiveness and competencies for
individual worker development. He claimed that EI is the capability to understand and control
our emotions and feelings, and that this capability helps create effective, persuasive leaders.
The 5 components of EI are:
1. Self-awareness
Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand our moods and emotions
and the effect of these emotions on others. Self-awareness refers to the capacity to recognize
and understand emotions and to have a sense of how one’s actions, moods and the emotions
of others take effect. It involves keeping track of emotions and noticing different emotional
reactions, as well as being able to identify the emotions correctly. Self-awareness also
includes recognizing that how we feel and what we do are related, and having awareness of
one’s own personal strengths and limitations. Self-awareness is associated with being open to
different experiences and new ideas and learning from social interactions.
2. Self-regulation
This aspect of EI involves the appropriate expression of emotion. Self-regulation
includes being flexible, coping with change, and managing conflict. It also refers to diffusing
difficult or tense situations and being aware of how one’s actions affect others and take
ownership of these actions. It is the ability to control emotions and reactions of oneself.
3. Social skills
This component of EI refers to interacting well with other people. It involves
applying an understanding of the emotions of ourselves and others to communicate and
interact with others on a day-to-day basis. Different social skills include – active listening,
verbal communication skills, non-verbal communication skills, leadership, and developing
rapport.
4. Empathy
Empathy refers to being able to understand how other people are feeling. This
component of EI enables an individual to respond appropriately to other people based on
recognizing their emotions. It enables people to sense power dynamics that play a part in all
social relationships, but also most especially in workplace relations. Empathy involves
understanding power dynamics, and how these affect feelings and behavior, as well as
accurately perceiving situations where power dynamics come into force.
5. Motivation
Motivation, when considered as a component of EI, refers to intrinsic motivation.
Intrinsic motivation means that an individual is driven to meet personal needs and goals,
rather than being motivated by external rewards such as money, fame, and recognition.
People who are intrinsically motivated also experience a state of ‘flow’, by being immersed
in an activity. They are more likely to be action-oriented, and set goals. Such individuals
typically have a need for achievement and search for ways to improve. They are also more
likely to be committed and take initiative.
Research on EQ Characteristics/ EI and Positive Outcomes
EQ and Academia
A number of studies have looked at predicting grades at school and intellectual
problem-solving in relation to EQ (Mayer et al., 2004). It has been shown that the correlation
between EI and grades of college students is between r = .20 and .25 (Mayer et al., 2004).
One study of gifted students in Israel found that they scored more highly on EI than those
students who were not so academically gifted. However, the incremental prediction of EI and
general intelligence has only been modest to slight (Mayer et al., 2004).
EQ and Success
It has been previously suggested that EQ is the most important determinant of success in life.
Whilst this is not necessarily true, EI has nevertheless been related to success (Cherry, 2018).
Research has found an association between EI and a broad range of skills such as making
decisions or achieving academic success (Cherry, 2018).
EQ and Development
EI has been increasingly studied in samples of children and adolescents (Mayer et al., 2008).
EI has been shown to consistently predict positive social and academic outcomes in children
(Mayer et al., 2008). A longitudinal study of three to four-year-old children conducted by
Denham et al. (2003) used ratings of children’s emotional regulation and emotion knowledge.
Higher levels of emotional regulation and emotion knowledge predicted social competence at
ages three to four and then, later, in kindergarten.
EQ and Perceptions
A range of studies has found that those with high levels of EI are actually perceived more
positively by other people (Mayer et al., 2008).
EQ and Wellbeing
EI has been found to correlate with enhanced life satisfaction and self-esteem
(Mayer et al., 2008). Furthermore, EI correlates with lower ratings of depression (Mayer et
al., 2008).
EQ and Pro-social/Positive Behaviors
Research has found a positive correlation between scores in Managing Emotion
and the quality of interactions with friends (Mayer et al., 2004). Individuals scoring more
highly on EI have also been shown to be ranked as more liked and valued by members of the
opposite sex. Emotion regulation has been found to predict social sensitivity and the quality
of interactions with others (Mayer et al., 2004).
EQ and Leadership/Organizational Behavior
Studies have consistently shown that customer relations are positively influenced
by EI (Mayer et al., 2004). Even after personality traits have been controlled for, individuals
rated as higher EI generated vision statements of higher quality than others (Mayer et al.,
2004).