Charge: Voltage

1/6/2020
Lecture 1: ECE110 Introduction to Electronics:

Key Intro Concepts
Charge
Current
Voltage
Computer
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Recommended learning opportunities
• Workshops (as announced each week)

• Office Hours Room 1005 (near lab), TBD
• CARE (Center for Academic Resources in Engineering) Grainger Library
• Honors projects targeting James Scholars, ECE110+ECE120
Encountering various difficulties? Contact your Instructor, lab TA, or the

advising office on the second floor (2120 ECEB)!
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The Field of Study Defined

“Engineers use the knowledge of mathematics and natural
sciences gained by study, experience, and practice, applied
with judgment, to develop ways to economically utilize the
materials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.“
- ABET (Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology)
Electrical engineering (EE) is a field of engineering

that generally deals with the study and application of
electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.
- WikiPedia
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A short history of Electrical Engineering
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Charge
• Charge is measured in coulombs (𝐶)
• Capital or lowercase “Q” is the variable typically used to represent charge
• an electron is a charged subatomic particle
• the coulomb is extremely large compared to the charge of a single electron
−1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 (𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) −1.6 e − 19 𝐶

𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
• Electronics is much more than just movement of electrons

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Current: the rate at which Charge moves

• Current is measured in units of amps (𝐴)
• Capital or lowercase “I” is the variable typically used to
represent current…it means intensity.
• Electric current is the flow of electric charge in time (𝐶/𝑠)
𝑑𝑞 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 Image is public domain.
• The ampere is the unit of electric current

1 𝐴 = 1 𝐶/𝑠
• Current is measured by an ammeter
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“DC” Current
For constant rates called “Direct Current” or “DC”, we typically use capitalized
variables and can replace the differential with observations in some time, Δ𝑡.
𝐼 = Δ𝑄/Δ𝑡
the Δ means "the change in"
Help Sheet: Charge and Current

−1.6 e − 19 𝐶 Question: What is the charge of 1 billion electrons? A. 160 e-12 C
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 B. 16 e-12 C
C. 1.6 e-12 C
D. 1.6 C
E. 160 C
Δ𝑄
𝐼=
Δ𝑡
Q: A “typical” electronics circuit might have 1 billion A. 0.00000016 A

1𝐶 electrons pass a cross section of a wire every B. 0.160 A
1𝐴= nanosecond, what is the electric current in amps? C. 1A
1𝑠 D. 1e-9 A
E. 160e-12 A
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The Ammeter
To use an ammeter to measure current, the circuit must first be “broken” and
the ammeter inserted between the detached wires. The ammeter repairs the
circuit and the current being measured is forced to flow through the ammeter.
Ammeter circuit schematic:
The Ammeter
We say the ammeter is connected in series. Any devices connected in a way
to force them to share the same current are said to be connected in series.
insert Red
Black
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Voltage
• Voltage across two points in space is the energy it requires to move each “unit” of charge
between those two points. Alternately, it is the energy released when one unit of charge is
allowed to move between two points in space (moving from a higher potential to a lower
potential).
• As an example, it should take no energy (0 volts) to move charge through an ideal conductor
(zero-resistance) connected in a loop. As a second example, a 9-volt battery delivers 9 Joules
of energy to each Coulomb of charge it moves.
• Voltage, as seen by the description above, is differential (measured between two points) and
not absolute (cannot be measured at a single point without a reference).
• In many circuits, voltage potential is provided by a battery. Think of a battery “pushing”

electrons through a circuit (perhaps a light bulb).
ΔE
• Voltage is measured with a voltmeter in units of volts [𝑉]. 𝑉=
Δ𝑄
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The Voltmeter
To use voltmeter, the meter’s probes are placed across the device whose
voltage value is desired. The circuit is not broken-and-repaired when using the
voltmeter. The meter is merely placed between two circuit locations.
“probing”
Voltmeter circuit schematic:
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The Voltmeter
We say the voltmeter is connected in parallel. Any devices connected in a way
to force them to share the same voltage are said to be connected in parallel.
Red
Black
Red probe Black probe
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(A) Series, (B) Parallel,

(C) Neither, or (D) Both?
Q: Q:
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(A) Series, (B) Parallel,

(C) Neither, or (D) Both?
Q: Q:
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ECE110 Laboratory
• Measure device data

• Model behavior
• Make interesting circuits
• Master design of your own circuits
The laboratory provides a hands-on opportunity to both learn and

Photo by C. Schmitz, 2016
to showcase your skills!
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Required Recommended
• ECE Supply Center
• ECE Supply Center
– Voltmeter
– ECE110 Electronics Kit
– Multipurpose wire stripper
– i>clicker/app
– Arduino (or RedBoard) + cable
• Online (courses.engr.Illinois.edu/ece110)
– ECE110 Lecture Slides (IUB bookstore)
– ECE110 Lab Procedures (IUB bookstore)
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Schedule
• Homework
– First assignment due on 2nd Wednesday of the semester
– Online via PrairieLearn
– Discussion of problems and course announcements on Piazza- Do not post solutions! Enter hints and
links to materials that will help other students understand the material better!
– Due Wednesdays at 11:59 pm. Get it done early!
– Office Hours…To be posted soon
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Schedule
• Lab
– Labs start on Monday, January 27
– Purchase ECE110 Electronics kit in ECE Supply Center
– Purchase Lab Procedures at IUB
– Prelab assignments due at the beginning of each meeting
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L1 Learning Objectives
a. (L1a) Compute relationships between charge, time, and current.
b. (L1b) Define voltage.
c. (L1c) Identify series and parallel elements in a circuit.
d. (L1d) Describe how to insert an ammeter and a voltmeter into a circuit.
Δ𝑄 ΔE
𝐼= 𝑉=
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑄
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Lecture 2: Current and Voltage Measurements

• Measuring current: galvanometer
• Measuring voltage: comparators 𝐼
• Current-vs-Voltage plots
• IV characteristics
• Ohm’s Law 𝑉
• Cylindrical Conductors
• IV-based modeling
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Electric current deflects a compass needle

In History…
Hans Christian Oersted’s

observation of this effect in 1820
may have surprised him during
his lecture demonstration to
advanced students. Detailed
experiments followed
later.
Image in Public Domain
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Galvanometer measures current
• Each of N windings in coil adds to magnetic field, B

• B counteracts Earth’s magnetic field
• More current – bigger angle of needle
• More sophisticated galvanometers came later
Image from book: Electrical Measurement

and the Galvanometer: Its Construction and Uses,
by T. D. Lockwood, New York: J. H. Bunnell and Co., 1890
Image in Public Domain.
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Inside a Voltmeter
• Compares the input voltage to known

voltages.
• Uses “voltage dividers” and “comparators”
• This is stuff we will understand through
ECE110!
Image from https://www.nutsvolts.com/questions-and-answers/led-voltmeter
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Current vs Voltage Measurements

• Current-vs-Voltage plots
• IV characteristics 𝐼
• Ohm’s Law
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Ohm’s law models the current and voltage

relationship in conductors
Motivated by applications of long-distance telegraphy, Georg Ohm (~1825)
conducted careful experimentation to find this widely-used approximate
mathematical model:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑙
where 𝑅 = 𝜌 is resistance of a conductor (e.g. wire)
𝐴
with length, 𝑙, and area 𝐴, and where 𝜌 is resistivity - a material parameter
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Resistors also known as Conductors

𝑉 𝑙
𝐼= 𝑅=𝜌
𝑅 𝐴
Question: Find the diameter of one mile of Cu A. 1.7 𝜇𝑚
(𝜌 = 1.7 × 10−8 Ω 𝑚) wire when 𝑅 = 10 Ω. B. 1.9 𝑚𝑚
C. 1 𝑐𝑚
Our ohmmeter uses the same
D. 19 𝑐𝑚 connections but different settings
E. 1.7 𝑚 than the voltmeter! Polarity
doesn’t matter for Ohms. Why?
Q: If the resistance of one wire is 10 Ω, what A. 2.5 Ω
is the resistance of two such wires in parallel? B. 5Ω
C. 10 Ω
D. 20 Ω
E. 40 Ω
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The Relationship between Current and Voltage

is very revealing for many devices
Devices composed of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors have
“IV” relationships described by a simple line:
𝐼 ≈ 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏
where 𝑚 is the slope and 𝑏 is the intercept of this line on the I (current)
axis.
𝐼
𝑉
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Linear IV Characteristics
Example: For a “resistor”, zero voltage means zero

current and the intercept is at the origin (𝑏 = 0).
Physical Circuit schematic
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Example: For an ideal current source, 𝑚 = 0 such
that 𝐼 = 𝑏 independent of 𝑉 (the voltage across the
current source).
?
(later…)
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“Banana” cables and “alligator” clips
are used to make connections to the
Example: For an ideal voltage source, 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆 and sources and meters in the lab.
the current through the source is unconstrained (the
limit as 𝑚 → ∞, 𝑏 → −∞).
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Example: What happens with a non-ideal voltage

source, for example, a battery?
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Resistance can be used in device models
• Lengths of wire
• Incandescent bulbs
• Heating elements
models
• Battery terminals
• Stalled motors
• Fuses, etc.
Q: If a 9 V battery provides (at maximum) a A. 0Ω

current of 2 A, what is its modelled “internal” B. 2Ω
C. 4.5 Ω
resistance, 𝑅𝑇 ? D. 18 Ω
E. ∞Ω 33
Physical Circuit schematic IV plot IV equation
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏
Q: For what region of the empirical data might we want the model to best fit?
A. Near the intersection with the I-axis.

B. Near the intersection with the V-axis.
C. Halfway between the two axis.
D. Minimize the average error between the equation’s prediction and all data.
E. Minimize the maximum error between the equation’s prediction and all data.
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Feeling Sick? Can’t make class?
Please, don’t risk infecting others.

Lab: Notify your lab TA (not me!) before lab to request an
excused absence. Up to two may be granted.
Lecture: Do nothing. Missed lectures will be counted
towards your 20% excused absences.
Forgot your i>clicker? Do nothing; will be counted
towards your 20% excused absences.
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a. Compute resistance of a cylindrical conductor given dimensions.
b. Relate voltage and current for an “Ohmic” conductor.
c. Use Ohm’s Law to model the internal resistance of a physical battery.
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Lecture 3: Professional Development;

Circuit Models and Schematics
• Professional Development: Teamwork and Growth
• Circuit Modeling and Schematics
• Model and solve very simple (one loop) circuits
• Examples: Broadcast Telegraphy, Decorative Lights
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Teamwork
• Contrary to the movies, most engineers do not work in isolation!
• Design teams must be functional to be effective
image credit: https://culclzha.wordpress.com/2017/10/09/

the-challenges-of-managing-a-diverse-team/
CATME is a tool we will use in lab to

assist in team formation and feedback
to help students learn how to move
more quickly to the “performing” stage
of the team activities!
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IEEE Code of Ethics (2012)

IEEE – Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the

importance of our technologies in affecting the quality of
life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal
obligation to our profession, its members and the
communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the
highest ethical and professional conduct and agree:
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IEEE Code of Ethics

1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the
safety, health, and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly
factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
2. to avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible,
and to disclose them to affected parties when they do exist;
3. to be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on
available data;
4. to reject bribery in all its forms;
5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate
application, and potential consequences;
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IEEE Code of Ethics

6. to maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake
technological tasks for others only if qualified by training or experience,
or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
7. to seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to
acknowledge and correct errors, and to credit properly the contributions
of others;
8. to treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion,
gender, disability, age, or national origin;
9. to avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by
false or malicious action;
10. to assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development
and to support them in following this code of ethics.
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Avoid Dilemmas and Grow Professionally!

Picking Up the Slack…search at Santa Clara University:
http://www.scu.edu/
 Often called a “hitch-hiker” scenario…
Q: What do you feel Greg should do?

A. Value the relationship, grade Natalie the same as the group.
B. Greg is not a babysitter…give Natalie the grade she earned.
C. Give Natalie a worse grade than the group, but better than she deserved.
D. Talk to Natalie before deciding which grade to give.
E. Talk to the Instructor before deciding which grade to give.
Q: What would you have done differently?
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Circuit Model For a Telegraph Loop

Q: If a 9 V battery with 4 Ω contact
resistance is used and the relay has
80 Ω and the wire has 10 Ω/mile, what
9𝑉 relay
is the maximum telegraph distance
which will result in a 50 mA current
through the relay circuit loop?
A. 0.5 miles
B. 5 miles
(This wire is sometimes
replaced by earth)
C. 10 miles
D. 100 miles
E. 500 miles
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Broadcasting: multiple ways to wire relays

A.
B.
i>clicker Q:
Which method (A, B, or C) is a C.
parallel combination of towns? 44
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Decorative lights: multiple ways to

connect bulbs to the wall power plug
Q: Draw a circuit for 12 lightbulbs connected in series in one loop.

Q: Draw a circuit for 12 lightbulbs connected in two parallel branches.
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a. Identify five stages of team building
b. Explain how a code of ethics can aide in professional growth
c. Develop a plan to avoid an ethical dilemma in the laboratory
d. Draw source and resistor circuits to model real-world problems
Explore More!
ECE 329 Fields and Waves I
ECE 350 Fields and Waves II
A wave traveling rightward along a lossless transmission line.

Black dots represent electrons, and arrows show the electric field.
Image in Public Domain under CC0
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line
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Policies
• Lab attendance is mandatory, each and every week
• No food/drink in 1001 ECEB
• Food and drink allowed in 1005 ECEB, only. Since this room is used for
office hours, take your book bag with you into the lab.
• Lecture attendance is semi-mandatory…see next slide
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Electrical Engineering
inseparable focus areas
Computer
Information & Engineering
Digital
Communications
Signals
Electro- Device Micro/NanoFabrication

Imaging magnetics Physics
System Electronic
Power &
Control Circuits
Energy
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Lecture 4 : Power and Energy

• Relationship between Voltage and Energy
• Relationship between Power and Energy
• Energy Efficiency
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Voltage and Energy

• Energy is the ability to do work, measured in joules (𝐽), BTUs, calories,
kWh, etc.
• Voltage is the work done per unit charge (eg. 𝐽/𝐶) against a static
electric field to move charge between two points ΔE
𝑉=
Δ𝑄
• Also, 1 volt (1 𝑉) is the electric potential difference between two points that
will impart 1 𝐽 of energy per coulomb (1 𝐶) of charge that passes through it.
A. 1.5 V
Δ𝐸 = Δ𝑄 𝑉 B. 3V
Q: A certain battery imparts 480 pJ to every C. 6V
1 billion electrons. What is its voltage? D. 9V
E. 12 V
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Voltage and Energy

𝐸=𝑄𝑉
Tesla Model S
Q: What is the charge moved through 400 V (EV battery) to provide 800 kJ of energy?
A. 2 𝑚𝐶
B. 2 𝐶
C. 2 𝑘𝐶
D. 2 𝑀𝐶
E. 2 𝐺𝐶
Q: What is the average current if the energy in Q4 is provided in five seconds?

A. 1 𝜇𝐴
B. 4 𝑚𝐴
C. 4 𝐴
D. 10 𝐴
E. 400 𝐴
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Energy and Power

Power is the rate at which energy is transferred.
Power is 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 × (𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Power is 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
∆𝐸 ∆𝑄
𝑃= = 𝑉=𝐼𝑉
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Q: A flashlight bulb dissipates 6 𝑊 at 2 𝐴. What is the supplied voltage?
A. 1.5 V
B. 3 V
C. 6 V
D. 9 V
E. 12 V
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Energy in General
• Energy is ability to do work
• Energy comes in many forms
• Energy is conserved (can change forms)
Examples: heat, light, electrical energy,

chemical, mechanical (e.g. potential,
kinetic), mass, etc…
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What is “work” ?
• drive to Chicago
• move a couch
• cook an egg
• lift a camel
• launch a satellite
• stay awake in lecture (try!)
• electrocute somebody (don’t!)
• send an email (to Brazil or Urbana?)
• write down some of your own ideas
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Energy Storage
• Mechanical Energy
Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
• Electrical Energy Storage

Capacitors Batteries
• Conservation of Energy
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 + 𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒
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Efficiency
• Distance: 200 km
Explore More!
• Elevation Drop: 44 m
• Where is the waste? Elon Musk is in the news much these
days with Hyperloop One. What are
some benefits of Hyperloop technology?
𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝐸𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 + 𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 = 𝜂𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 1 − 𝜂 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 What are some cons?
𝜂 is called “efficiency”
1−𝜂 is called “losses”
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Driving to Chicago…accounting
Q: What minimum energy does it take to accelerate a 2200 kg A. 8 𝑚𝐽
mass (car) from 0 to 60 mph? B. 1𝐽
C. 80 𝐽
D. 1 𝑘𝐽
E. 800 𝑘𝐽
Q: What is the energy input needed if the engine/drive train A. 2.6 𝑚𝐽

losses are 70%? B. 2.6 𝐽
C. 26 𝐽
D. 2.6 𝑘𝐽
E. 2.6 𝑀𝐽
Q: A certain gas car gets 50 km/gal (avg). How much energy A. 500 𝑚𝐽
does it take to get to Chicago? B. 500 𝐽
C. 500 𝑘𝐽
D. 500 𝑀𝐽
E. 500 𝐺𝐽 57
Loading camels: different power; same E!

∆𝐸
Definition of power: 𝑃 = is rate of energy…
∆𝑡
Loading Camels: What is the average power A. 160 𝑚𝑊

B. 160 𝑊
needed to lift 500 kg by two meters every minute? C. 160 𝑘𝑊
Acceleration of Tesla car: What is the power D. 160 𝑀𝑊
needed to expend 800 kJ in five seconds? E. 160 𝐺𝑊
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a. Compute power, energy, and time, given two of three
b. Solve energy transfer problems involving mechanical potential and kinetic energy as well as efficiency
(or wasted energy) considerations
c. Perform unit conversions for energy, charge, etc
d. Use a power vs. time plot to describe the difference between power and energy
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Lecture 5: Circuit Devices in the Lab

• Describe resistors and discuss power limitations of physical
resistors
• Describe capacitors and the amount of energy they can store
• Describe batteries and how to compute usage based on their
energy rating
• Describe the Transistor and why it is important to us
• Describe the MOSFET and a simple model for it
• Describe an Invertor and a simple model for it
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Uses of Resistors
• Current limiting
– Examples: Preventing LED burnout; slow your motor
• Prevent a node from “floating” by either “tying it high” or “tying it low”
– Example: Using a button for binary input
• Divide a voltage by a known fraction
– Example: Voltage comparison in a digital voltmeter
• Divide a current by a known fraction
– Example: Scaling current to the range of a galvanometer in an ammeter
• Tune a circuit’s “time constant”
– Example: RC filter design
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Resistors are devices that obey Ohm’s Law

• Resistors always dissipate power; they heat up In History…
• Resistors do not store or deliver (DC) energy Henry Cavendish conducted
• Using Ohm’s Law… similar experiments over 40
years earlier than Georg Ohm
𝑉2 using Leyden jars for voltage
𝑃=𝐼𝑉= = 𝐼2𝑅 sources and the shock felt by
𝑅 his body as an ad hoc
ammeter!
63
Resistors
𝑉2
𝑃=𝐼𝑉= = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑅
Q: What power is dissipated by a 100 Ω resistor A. 360 𝑚𝑊

when a 6 V drop is measured across it? B. 160 𝑊
C. 360 𝑘𝑊
D. 160 𝑀𝑊
E. 360 𝐺𝑊
Q: A 100 Ω resistor is rated at 0.25 W. What is A. 50 𝑚𝐴

its maximum rated current? B. 400 𝑚𝐴
C. 50 𝐴
D. 400 𝐴
E. 50 𝑘𝐴
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Capacitors: store electrical energy

In History…
𝐶 = 𝑄/𝑉 – capacitance is the charge-to-
Yes, Benjamin Franklin collected
voltage ratio of a capacitor electrostatic charge from a storm
1 using a kite in 1752, but also
𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐶𝑉 2 formulated the principle of
2 conservation of electric charge and
coined the
In History…
terms “positive”
and “negative”
The first device for storing electrical energy
with respect to
became known as Leyden Jar after the city
the charge
in which it was built (1745). It had a
carriers (current).
capacitance of about 1 𝑛𝐹.
65
Capacitors
Q: At what voltage would a 1 𝑛𝐹 capacitor have the energy to lift 100 𝑘𝑔 (a camel,
perhaps?) by 2 𝑐𝑚?
A. 200 𝑚𝑉
B. 250 𝑚𝑉
C. 200 𝑉
D. 250 𝑉
E. 200 𝑘𝑉
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Example Uses of Capacitors

• Smoothing out voltages
• Separating or combining AC and DC
67
Efficiency of Charging a Capacitor
• Δ𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 = Δ𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 + Δ𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒

1
• Δ𝐸𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 ≥ 𝐶𝑉 2 Physics 212
2
1 1
• Δ𝐸𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 ≈ 𝐶𝑉 2 + 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝐶𝑉 2
2 2 68
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Special Capacitor: Defibrillator

Q: How much energy, 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝 , is in the 42 µF defibrillator capacitor charged to 5 kV? 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝 =
A. 5.25 𝑚𝐽
B. 5.25 𝐽
C. 525 𝐽
D. 525 𝑀𝐽
E. 525 𝐺𝐽
𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝
Q: Half of the A. 8
𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝
capacitor’s charge, 𝑄, B.
4
is then drained off. 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝
C.
How much energy 2
does it hold now? D. 𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝
E. 2𝐸𝑐𝑎𝑝
69
Batteries store and generate electrical

energy with a chemical reaction
In History…
Alessandro Volta published the invention of

the battery around 1790. The unit of electric
“pressure”, the volt, is named in his honor.
Unlimited electric
energy… If only it
could be of some use!
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Explore More! on Batteries
Image from Wikipedia, The original uploader

was Ohiostandard at English Wikipedia -
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons
by Burpelson AFB using CommonsHelper.,
CC BY-SA 3.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid=11236033
Read more:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanic_cell
Chemistry 102 and 103!
71
Batteries
Q: How much charge moves through a 9-V A. 0.33 𝐶
battery to provide 3 J of energy? B. 3𝐶
C. 27 𝐶
D. 330 𝑀𝐽
E. 27 𝑘𝐶
Q: If a battery is labeled at 9 V and 500 mAh, A. 18 𝑚𝐽

B. 56 𝑚𝐽
how much energy does it store in joules? C. 4.5 𝐽
D. 18 𝐽
E. 16 𝑘𝐽
A. 0.1 ℎ𝑟
Q: For how long can such battery power an B. 1 ℎ𝑟
LED if that draws 50 mA of current? C. 5 ℎ𝑟
D. 10 ℎ𝑟
E. 50 ℎ𝑟 72
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Circuit model for car window defroster

Q: What is the resistance of the car window defroster if it dissipates 60 W?
(Consider that the car battery has a max available current of 500 A)
A. 24 𝑚Ω
B. 120 𝑚Ω
C. 2.4 Ω
switch D. 5Ω
E. 42 Ω Q: What percentage of the
available battery current is sent
to the rear window heater?
rear window heater A. 1%
B. 10%
C. 50%
D. 75%
E. 95%
73
A coil with current acts as a magnet

Q: For how long can Energizer 522
(~500 mAh) 9 V battery operate a relay
(JQX-15F) which draws 100 mA?
A. About 1.5 hours

B. About 3 hours
C. About 5 hours
D. About 9 hours
E. About 45 hours
Relay principle: 1. Coil, 2. Armature, 3. Moving contact
Source: Wikimedia Commons
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The Transistor
• The transistor changed the world!
• Prior to the transistor, we had the vacuum tube:

– Large
– Hot
– Low efficiency
– High failure rate
– Could not be integrated into an IC
75
The MOSFET (a transistor)

Physical Circuit schematic IV Plot (for fixed 𝑉𝐺𝑆 ) Linear Model
Interpretation: Terminals D and S may be considered to contain a current source whose

current is controlled by 𝑉𝐺𝑆 . The controlling side is generally much lower power than the
current source side making the controller easier to design and lower cost.
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The MOSFET In Practice

In lab, we will use the MOSFET as an efficient method of
motor control…
77
The (Logical) Inverter

The invertor is a powered IC, meaning that it will need something like a battery to make it work. In the
circuit schematic, it is assumed that the voltage at input A and the output G are measured relative to the
negative side of the battery, referenced as “ground” in the Linear Model.
Physical Circuit schematic IV Plot (for output G) Linear Model (for G)
or
Interpretation: The output, G, of the invertor will look like either a voltage source (when the
input voltage at A is low or a wire (short to ground) when the input voltage is close to the
supplied battery voltage.
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The Invertor in Practice

In lab, we use an inverter as the power source to drive an LED as ambient light is blocked from
a photoresistor (by a hand or a cloud). The invertor, itself, gets power from a battery attached
between pins 7 and 14. The inverter buffers the control circuit from the LED which the light-
detection circuit is unable to power directly.
79
a. Compute current/voltage rating for a resistor based on its power rating
b. For a capacitor, compute stored energy, voltage, charge, and capacitance
given any of the two quantities.
c. Compute energy stored in a battery and discharge time.
d. Identify features of the Transistor that make it an improvement over vacuum
tubes
e. Describe the MOSFET and a simple model for it
f. Describe an Invertor and a simple model for it
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Lecture 6: Kirchhoff's Laws in Circuits

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) – Conservation of Charge
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) – Conservation of Energy
• Solving Circuits with KCL, KVL, and Ohm’s Law
• Power Conservation in Circuits
81
Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Current in = Current out
Conservation of charge!
(What goes in must come out, or…

Image source: MONGABAY.COM
…the total coming in is zero)

𝑁
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛 , ෍ 𝐼𝑘 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑡. 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑛.
𝑘=1
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KCL equations are often used at nodes, but

can also be used for a sub-circuit
Q: Which of the equations is NOT a
correct application of KCL?
A. 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼4
B. 𝐼4 = 𝐼5 + 𝐼6
C. 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼6
D. 𝐼3 + 𝐼5 = 𝐼2
E. 𝐼6 − 𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼2
83
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The sum of all voltages around any closed path (loop) in a

circuit equals zero
Conservation of Energy!
With voltage, what goes up, must come down

𝑀
𝐴𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ ෍ 𝑉𝑘 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑊 𝑎𝑙𝑡. 𝐶𝐶𝑊 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝.
𝑘=1
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KVL and Elevation Analogy
Picture: https://www.explore-share.com/blog/what-is-mountaineering/
One can add up elevation changes as we go in a complete loop from city to city.
The result should be zero, independent of the path taken. 85
Keeping track of voltage drop polarity is

important in writing correct KVL equations.
Q: Which of the equations is NOT a
correct application of KVL?
A. 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 = 0
B. 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 𝑉5 + 𝑉6
C. 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 = 𝑉6
D. 𝑉3 + 𝑉2 = 𝑉1
E. 𝑉3 + 𝑉5 = 𝑉6
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Missing voltages can be obtained using KVL.

Explore More!
In History…
The conceptual theories

of electricity held by
Georg Ohm were
generalized in Gustav
Kirchhoff’s laws (1845).
Later, James Clerk
Maxwell’s equations
(1861) generalized the
work done by Kirchhoff,
Ampere, Faraday, and
others.
Maxwell's equations in Integral Form
ECE 329 Fields and Waves I Image Credit: Wikipedia.org
Q: What are the values of the voltages 𝑉1, 𝑉2 and 𝑉6 if 𝑉3 = 2 𝑉, 𝑉4 = 6 𝑉, 𝑉5 = 1 𝑉?

87
Examples
Q: Find the value of 𝐼. Q: Find the value of 𝑉.
A. −3 𝐴 A. −12 𝑉
B. −2 𝐴 B. −6 𝑉
C. −1 𝐴 C. −3 𝑉
D. 1𝐴 D. 6𝑉
E. 2𝐴 E. 12 𝑉
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Circuits solved with Ohm’s + KCL + KVL
Q: What is the value of the source voltage?
Q: How much power is the source supplying?
Q: How much power is each resistance consuming?

89
a. Identify and label circuit nodes; identify circuit loops

b. Write node equation for currents based on KCL
c. Write loop equations for voltages based on KVL
d. Solve simple circuits with KCL, KVL, and Ohm’s Law
e. Calculate power in circuit elements, verify conservation
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Lecture 7: Circuit Tools

• Equivalent Resistance Defined
• Voltage Divider
• Current Divider
• Power Dissipation in Series and Parallel Resistive Loads
• Example Problems and Practice
91
Series Connection
Series connections share the same current
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 because of KCL
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Equivalent Resistance
Equivalent Resistance is the resistance value you get when
you place an entire resistive network into a (virtual) box
and characterize it as an Ohmic device (a new resistor).
𝑅𝑒𝑞
93
Equivalent Resistance of Series Resistors

Resistances in series add up
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯ + 𝑅𝑁
This can be intuitive: think of telegraphy wires in series.

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Voltage Divider Rule (VDR)

When a voltage divides across resistors in
series, more voltage drop appears across
the largest resistor.
𝑇
𝑅𝑘
𝑉𝑘 = ⋅𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑇
𝑇
Q: Can 𝑉1 be a larger value than 𝑉𝑇 ?
A. Yes
B. No
C. Not sure 95
Q: If 𝑅1 < 𝑅2 , which of Q: Use VDR to find 𝑽𝟏 .

the following is true?
+
𝑉1
−
+
𝑉2
−
A. 𝑉1 < 𝑉2 and 𝐼1 < 𝐼2 A. 𝑉1 ≤ −6 𝑉

B. 𝑉1 < 𝑉2 and 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 B. −6 < 𝑉1 ≤ −2 𝑉
C. 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 and 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 C. −2 < 𝑉1 ≤ 2 𝑉
D. 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 and 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 D. 2 < 𝑉1 ≤ 6 𝑉
E. 𝑉1 > 𝑉2 and 𝐼1 > 𝐼2 E. 6 𝑉 < 𝑉1
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VDR Derivation
𝑉 𝑉𝑘 𝑅𝑘
Since 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑘 , = by Ohm’s Law. So, 𝑉𝑘 = ⋅𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝑘 𝑅𝑒𝑞
97
One VDR Application
Image from https://www.nutsvolts.com/questions-and-answers/led-voltmeter
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Parallel Connection
Parallel connections share the same voltage potentials at

two end nodes (shared by the elements)
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 because of KVL
A. B.
Q: Are appliances in your house/apartment connected in series or in parallel?
99
Equivalent Resistance of Parallel Resistors
=
1 1 1 1 Q: Which statement is true in general?
= + + ⋯+ A. 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ≈ 𝑅1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑁 B. 𝑅𝑒𝑞 < 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 C. 𝑅𝑒𝑞 > 𝑅1
If 𝑁 = 2, 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = D. None of these is true
𝑅1 +𝑅2
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Resistors
Q: Which statement is true regarding a single 50-Ohm resistor and two 100-Ohm resistors
used as shown above in the same circuit?
A. The 100-Ohm parallel combination has twice the power rating.
B. The 100-Ohm parallel combination has a resistance of 200 Ohms.
C. The 100-Ohm parallel combination has twice the probability of failure.
D. None of these are true.
E. All of these are true.
101
Current Divider Rule (CDR)
When a current divides into two or more paths, a greater

amount of current will go down the path of lower resistance.
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝐼𝑘 = ⋅𝐼
𝑅𝑘
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One CDR Application

• High-current Ammeter
• Use a high-power shunt resistance 𝑅𝑆 to carry most of the current
• Measure the current through 𝑅𝑀 (the meter resistor) using a galvanometer.
Q: Which is true in this application?
A. 𝑅𝑆 ≪ 𝑅𝑀
B. 𝑅𝑆 ≫ 𝑅𝑀
C. 𝑅𝑆 ≈ 𝑅𝑀
Q: Give the formula for 𝐼 (the current we want measured) in

terms of 𝐼𝑀 (the current we did measure).
103
Q: If 𝑅1 < 𝑅2 , which of the following is true?

A. 𝐼1 < 𝐼2 < 𝐼𝑠
B. 𝐼1 < 𝐼𝑠 < 𝐼2
C. 𝐼2 < 𝐼1 < 𝐼𝑠
D. 𝐼2 < 𝐼𝑠 < 𝐼1
E. 𝐼𝑠 < 𝐼2 < 𝐼1
A. B.
Q: In a parallel connection, does a smaller or larger resistor absorb more power?
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VDR and CDR for Two Resistances
𝑅1
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝐼 𝐼2 = 𝐼
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Bad Idea: try to memorize these formulae.
Good Idea: try to note trends and understand concepts !
Example, if 𝑅1 = 1 Ω and 𝑅2 = 2Ω, then 𝑉2 : 𝑉1 will be in a 2: 1 ratio for the series circuit.
If 𝑅1 = 1 Ω and 𝑅2 = 2Ω, then 𝐼2 : 𝐼1 will be in a 1: 2 ratio for the series circuit.
Why?
105
Q: If 6V falls across a series combination of 1kΩ and 2kΩ, what is V across 2kΩ?
Q: If 0.15A flows through a parallel combo of 1kΩ and 2kΩ, what is I through 2kΩ?
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Q: If a source supplies 60W to a series combination of 10Ω and 30Ω, what is the power
absorbed by the 10Ω resistor? What power is absorbed by the 30Ω resistor?
Q: If a source supplies 300mW to a parallel combination of 3kΩ and 2kΩ, what is the
power absorbed by the 3kΩ resistor? What power is absorbed by the 2kΩ resistor?
107
L7 Learning objectives
a. Identify series and parallel connections within a circuit network

b. Compute power ratings of resistor networks
c. Find equivalent resistance of circuit networks
d. Estimate resistance by considering the dominant elements
e. Apply rules for current and voltage division to these networks
f. Apply conservation of energy to components within a circuit network
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Lecture 8: Application of Circuit Laws

109
Find the value of the current 𝐼3 .
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Find the value of the current 𝐼3 .
111
Grading policies
Laboratory 30% 1
Lecture Total 70% 1
3 midterms 30%
Final Exam 25% 2
Homework 10%
Attendance 5 %
1You must obtain 50% of the lecture score and

50% of the lab score to avoid failing the course!
2The Final Exam can have an effective weight of
35% by replacing the lowest midterm grade.

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Seeking advice and help?

• Talk to us! Instructors, graduate TAs, undergrad course aides want to know you!
• CARE: the Center for Academic Resources in Engineering provides study periods
and tutoring options in many STEM courses.
• ECE Advising Office (2120 ECEB) provides all kinds of advice. They can also
recommend others:
– U of I Counseling Center for time management, study skill, test-taking skills, and
confidential personal counseling. Plus, Dr. Ken at Engineering Hall!
– DRES: the Disability Resources & Educational Services center for aid in overcoming unique
challenges that you may encounter through your education
113
Learning Objectives
• Series and Parallel resistance
• Equivalent Resistance
• More Problems and Practice
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Lecture 9: AC and Time-average Power

• AC and DC
• Time-average Powre
• Root-Means-Square (RMS) Voltage
• The Meaning of Current and Voltage Sources
• Labeling of Current and Voltage and Sign of Power
115
Alternating vs. Direct Current
Have you ever heard of the “Current Wars”?

A. Yes
B. No
116
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In Practice: Time-varying signals

In lab, we use the output of the invertor to change the input in a feedback loop.
A “high” output drives the input high and a low input drives the input low. The
invertor’s function causes “oscillation” to occur and the LED to flash. Note how
the capacitor allows for changing input voltage.
117
Power
For time-varying signals, power is a time-varying signal.
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑣(𝑡)
The time-average power is often of interest. Time average is
computed by the equation
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑡
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Power
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑡
• If v(t) and i(t) are periodic, then 𝑝 𝑡 is periodic with period 𝑇
‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑝 ׬‬
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑇 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑇 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑇
𝑇
• If v(t) and i(t) are constant (DC), then 𝑝(𝑡) is constant
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≡ 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
For non-periodic signals (e.g. constant white noise)

‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑝 ׬‬
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≈ 𝑇
𝑇
Where 𝑇 is a sufficiently-long observation time
119
Voltage from the wall plug is sinusoidal

In History…
In the 1880’s and 1890’s, Nikola

Tesla played a large role in
improving DC motors,
developing AC motors and
generators, and developing
many high-frequency/high-
voltage experiments including
many in the area of remote
control and wireless telephony.
Marconi’s 1901 cross-Atlantic
Q: What is the peak instantaneous A. 1W wireless transmission likely
power absorbed by a 250Ω light bulb? B. 10 W infringed upon a few of Tesla’s
C. 100 W nearly 300 patents.
D. 1 kW
E. 10 kW
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Time Average Power: What’s RMS??

∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑣 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∞ Define 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ≝ ∞ so that 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑅
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑡
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑡
∞ (for a resistor)
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑣 𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
= ∞ Important Comment: RMS voltage helps us find
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑡
time-averaged power. We don’t want RMS
∞ 𝑣2 𝑡 power…what does that even mean??
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 (for a resistor)
= ∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑡 Important Comment #2: for things that are not
∞ resistors, we may need to look at 𝑝 𝑡 directly
1 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑣 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= as 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 doesn’t tell the whole story.
𝑅 ‫𝑡𝑑 ∞׬‬
−∞
1 Important Comment #3: You can use both
= 𝑎𝑣𝑔{𝑣 2 𝑡 } 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 , 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 , and something called a power factor
𝑅
in more-advanced circuit courses. Eg. ECE342
121
Root-Mean-Square averages
RMS is meaningful when interested in power
production/dissipation in AC.
𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣 2 𝑡
1. Sketch 𝑣 2 (𝑡)
2. Compute 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣 2 𝑡
3. Take of the value found in part 2.
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Calculating Pavg and Vrms

1
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑔 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦: cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = cos 𝛼 − 𝛽 + cos 𝛼 + 𝛽
2
USA “Mains voltage”

Q: What is the average power absorbed by a 250Ω light bulb if A = 170V?
123

𝑇𝑂𝑁
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑇
Q: What happens to power and Vrms when TON is halved while T is unchanged?
124
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Q: Why isn’t the RMS voltage of the signal above generally equal to 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 / 2?
125
a. Compute the time-average power from 𝑝 𝑡 plots
b. Compute the rms voltage from 𝑣(𝑡) plots
c. Explain the meaning of 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 and relationship to 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔
126
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Lecture 10: Signed Power and Design

• Exercises under constraints on components
127
Which of the sources are delivering power?
A. The voltage source only

B. The current source only
C. Both
D. Neither
E. Not enough information to tell
128
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Polarity labels for Kirchhoff are Arbitrary
Q: Find the value of 𝑉3 .
Q: Find the power, 𝑃3 .
129
Polarity labels for Kirchhoff are Arbitrary
Q: Find the value of 𝑉3 .
Q: Find the power, 𝑃3 .
Q: Does the sign of 𝑃3 have any meaning?
130
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Polarity Labels for Power MATTERS!
Standard convention means to assign current arrow as flowing from voltage’s + to –

labels. Alternately, you assign voltages + and – labels at the tail and point of the current
arrow, respectively.
Although you can use ANY polarity labels to apply KVL and KCL…
• Use Standard (also called “passive”) convention if computing power
• Use Standard convention if applying Ohm’s Law
131
Ohm’s Law: V=IR Assumes Standard Convention
“Current downhill” is “Current uphill” can be

preferable for resistors convenient for sources. Universal Ohm’s Law:
If a resistor, then…
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑉 = −𝐼𝑅 𝐼+→− =
𝑅
132
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Power Equation: P=IV Assumes Standard

Using the standard polarity labeling: 𝑃 = 𝑉 𝐼+→−
𝑃 < 0 ⇒ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑃>0 ⇒ 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
133
Recap of labeling implication

This way, power is
defined such that it is
negative when it is
supplied (sourced) and
𝑉 𝑉
𝑅= 𝑅=− positive when it is
𝐼 𝐼 absorbed (sinked).
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 𝑃 = −𝑉𝐼
“Standard Reference” “Non-Standard Reference” Universal:
𝑉
Ohm’s Law: 𝐼+→− = 𝑅
L7Q6: With power defined as above,
Power Eqn: 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼+→−
what is the sum of powers for all circuit elements?
134
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Which of the sources below absorbs power?
B.
A. C.
D. E.
135
Either or Both Sources Can Supply Power
Q: For what values of Is do both sources supply power?
Q: For what values of Is does only the current source supply power?
Q: For what values of Is does only the voltage source supply power?
136
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Exercise
Q: What is the maximum value of 𝐼𝑆 for which the voltage source supplies power?
A. -3 A
B. -1.5 A
C. 0A
D. 1.5 A
E. 3A
137

a. Assign polarity of current and voltage
b. Properly apply Ohm’s Law to conditions of standard and non-standard
polarities
c. Properly apply the signed-Power formula to to conditions of standard
and non-standard polarities
d. Derive solutions of circuits under specific power constraints.
138
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Lecture 11: IV Characteristics

• Measuring I-V Characteristics of Circuits
• Calculating I-V Characteristics of Linear Circuits
• Operating (I,V) point when Sub-circuits are Connected
• Power and the I-V Characteristics
139
What’s in the Box?
140
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Measuring IV Data
Q: What is the voltage drop across an ideal current-meter (ammeter)? 141
Measuring IV Data
Q: What is the voltage drop across A. 0 V

an ideal current-meter (ammeter)? B. 1 V
C. Depends on the ammeter’s
internal resistance
142
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Measuring IV Data
Q: When would this technique be a A. When 𝐶2 is another voltage source

bad idea? B. When 𝐶2 is a current source
C. When 𝐶2 is a resistor
143
Measuring IV Data
Q: What is the current flow through A. 0 A

an ideal voltmeter? B. 1 A
C. Depends on the voltmeter’s
internal resistance
144
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Measuring IV Data
Q: When would this technique be a A. When 𝐶2 is another voltage source

bad idea? B. When 𝐶2 is a current source
C. When 𝐶2 is a resistor
145
Measuring IV Data
Q: When would this technique fail? A. When 𝐶2 is another voltage source

B. When 𝐶2 is a current source
C. When 𝐶2 is a resistor network
146
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Measuring IV Data
Q: Would this work? A. Yes

B. No
147
Linear I-V curves

Q: Which set of graphs corresponds to pure resistances?
A. I B. I
V V
I I
C. D.
V V
148
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Simple Series Circuit

Show that the circuit has a linear IV characteristic.
𝐼
Q: Find 𝑚 and 𝑏 such that 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏 and then graph it.
149
Embedded Voltage Source

Show that this circuit also has a linear IV characteristic.
𝐼
Q: Find 𝑚 and 𝑏 such that 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏 and then graph it.
150
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Embedded Voltage Source

Show that this circuit also has a linear IV characteristic.
Q: If both circuits produce the same 𝐼 = A. Yes

𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏 plot, can the IV data be used to tell B. No
which of the two circuits is “in the box”? C. Other
151
Why we care
• Allows easy calculation of I and V when two sub-circuits are connected together
• Allows creating a simpler model of a given sub-circuit
• Helps understand nonlinear devices
Many Common Methods to find IV lines

• Use circuit analysis for variable V (like before)
• Find two points (usually open and short)
• Use Reff and either open or short (Wednesday)
152
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Linear I-Vs of source-resistor circuits

Any combination of current or voltage sources with resistor
networks has a linear I-V (between any two nodes).
𝐼
Q: What are the current values of 𝐼 when 𝑉 is equal to 0V, 2V, and 4V? 153
Connecting two sub-circuits
or
𝐼(mA) = V/3-3
154
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3 𝑘Ω
Q: What are the IV characteristics of a 3 kΩ resistor?

155
3 𝑚𝐴
Q: What are the IV characteristics of a 3 mA current source?
156
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𝐼(mA) = V/3-3
157
Connecting two sub-circuits (cont’d)
Q: Considering the three choices for circuit #2, what is the operating point when the
two sub-circuits are connected? Which sub-circuit supplies the power? 158
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159

a. Given one of the three sub-circuit descriptions (IV equation,
IV line, diagram), find the other two
Note that more than one circuit diagram fits an IV description
b. Quickly identify the IV representations of voltage and

current sources, resistors, and combinations
c. Find (V,I) operating points of connected sub-circuits
d. Calculate power flow between connected sub-circuits
160
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Lecture 12: Thevenin Equivalents
• Review of I-V Linear Equation

• Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
• Effective Resistance in Linear network
• Calculating Reff by Removing Sources
• Problem Strategy and Practice
161
Relating I-V Line to Equation

I
+ 𝑉𝑜𝑐
C V 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
𝐼𝑠𝑐 1
- 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 − 𝑉
I 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓
I
+
C V
- 𝑉𝑜𝑐 1
I 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 = − 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 + 𝑉
𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝐼𝑠𝑐
Universal: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 − 𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑐
162
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Thevenin Equivalent
Any linear IV 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏 can

be matched by the circuit on
the left with proper selection of
𝑉𝑇 and 𝑅𝑇 .
𝐼𝑠𝑐
• The Thevenin will have the same universal formula 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 − 𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑐
• It will contain all information on how original circuit interact with others
• However, it loses information on power dissipation WITHIN the circuit
163
Example
Q: Discuss different ways can you find 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑉 + 𝑏 for
this circuit.
Q: What is the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit?
164
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Effective Resistance:
Reff = RT = RN is Req with sources “zeroed”
1. Short-circuit all voltage sources (i.e. set them to zero)
2. Open-circuit all current sources (i.e. set them to zero)
3. Find resulting 𝑅𝑒𝑞 using parallel and series relationships
⇒ ⇒
Q: How is 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 related to the slope of the I-V line?
165
Finding Reff is easy in multi-source circuits

Q: What is 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 , for the circuit?
A. 8 Ω
B. 5 Ω
C. 4 Ω
D. 2 Ω
E. 0.8 Ω
Q: Besides 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 , is it easier to find 𝐼𝑆𝐶 or 𝑉𝑂𝐶 ?

A. 𝐼𝑠𝑐
B. 𝑉_𝑜𝑐
166
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One can find a circuit given a line

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓
Q: What is 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 , for the circuit with the given I-V line? A. 2.5 mΩ
B. 4 𝑚Ω
C. 4 Ω
D. 2.5 𝑘Ω
E. 4 𝑘Ω 167
Practice makes perfect!

In History…
Leon Charles Thevenin was a

telegraph engineer. In 1883, his
theorem expanded modelling of
circuits and simplified circuit
analysis based on Ohm’s Law
and Kirchhoff’s Laws.
The dual “Norton’s theorem”

didn’t arrive until 1926 with the
Q: What is the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit above? efforts of Bell Labs engineer,
Edward Lawry Norton.
168
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Flashback! Use Thevenin to solve.
Q: For what values of Is does only the voltage source supply power?
169
170
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Summary
• Any linear network can be represented by a simple
series Thévenin circuit [or, equivalently, by a simple
parallel Norton circuit]
• There are several methods for determining the quantities

and depending on what is given about the original
circuit
• It is the same resistance, 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 , value for both the

Thévenin and the Norton circuits, found as 𝑅𝑒𝑞 with the
sources removed (SC for V-sources, OC for I-sources)
171

a. Represent any (non-horizontal) linear IV characteristic
by a series combination of a voltage source and a
resistor (Thévenin equivalent circuit).
b. Represent any (non-vertical) linear IV characteristic by
a parallel combination of a current source and a resistor
(Norton equivalent circuit).
c. Find the parameters of Thévenin and Norton equivalent
circuits, 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑓 , 𝑉𝑇 , and 𝐼𝑁 when given a circuit.
172
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Lecture 13: Norton and IV tools

• Norton
• Source Transformations
• Superposition
173
Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
The circuit on the left and

the circuit on the right can
be made to behave identically
by the choice of values as seen
through the terminals.
𝐼𝑠𝑐
• Either can be used to represent universal: 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑠𝑐 − 𝑉
𝑉𝑜𝑐
• Contain all information on how circuits interact with other circuits
• Loses information on power dissipation WITHIN the circuit
174
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Norton
Q: What is the Norton equivalent for the circuit above?
175
Source Transformations
“Source transformations” involve changing
Thevenin subcircuits into Norton and Norton
subcircuits into Thevenin to gain an advantage
in absorbing another part of the circuit. Continue
until the entire circuit has been reduced to either
a Thevenin or Norton equivalent.
Q: Use “source transformations” to find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit above.
176
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Explore More! Superposition

Q: Find I for all three circuits and discuss.
Superposition Theorem. The total current in any part of a linear circuit equals the algebraic sum of the currents
produced by each source separately. To evaluate the separate currents to be combined, replace all other voltage
sources by short circuits and all other current sources by open circuits.
From: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/suppos.html
177
What are the possible strategies to find 𝐼?
Q: Is one of the resistors in parallel with the voltage source? If so, which?
Q: What is the value of the labeled current? 178
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More…
179

a. Explain equivalency of Thevenin and Norton by matching points on the IV.
b. Solve circuits for the Norton Equivalent
c. Use Source Transformations to reduce a circuit to Thevenin and/or Norton
d. Use Superposition to reduce a tougher circuit analysis to analysis of two or
more single-supply circuits.
180
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Lecture 14: Node Method For Circuit Analysis
• Review of circuit-solving strategies
• Node Method steps
• Node Method with a “floating” source
• Practice with the Node Method
181
The Node Method

1. Identify or pick “ground” (0 V reference)
2. Label all the node voltages

(use values when you can; variables when you must)
3. Use KCL at convenient node(s)/supernode(s)
4. Use voltages to find the currents

182
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Try Node Method
183
Node method is a good strategy for this

problem because it contains two sources
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
Q: How many nodes are in the circuit?

184
Q: What is the value of the labeled current?
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A floating voltage source: relates two nodes

but has no known relationship to ground
Q: How many nodes are in the circuit?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
Q: What is the value of the labeled current?
185
Voltage across a current source is unknown

Q: What is the power supplied or consumed
by each element?
186
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Sometimes two or more node voltages

are unknown (more challenging!)
Q: What is the value of I in the circuit above? 187
a. Outline (list, describe) steps of the Node Method

b. Use these steps to speed the process of performing circuit
analysis via KCL/KVL/Ohm’s
c. Identify circuit patterns in which different techniques might
simplify the process of finding a solution (Practice!)
188
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L15: Exercises; Characterizing Sensors
• More exercises on Node Method

• Keys to characterizing sensors for your Final Project!
189
Q: What is the value of I in the Q: What is the value of 𝑉𝐴 in the

circuit above? circuit above?
190
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Characterizing Resistive Sensors

• A resistive sensor changes resistance as its environment changes
around it. Examples:
– Photoresistor: resistance decreases as light intensity increases
– Thermistor: resistance decreases as it warms
– Flex sensor: resistance increases as it bends
• The obvious part of the characterization is to measure the
resistance under various conditions.
• The less obvious task is to use your data to PREDICT how it will
behave in the final circuit and to VERIFY your prediction!
191
Example: Resistive Sensors

Consider a photoresistive sensor used in a voltage divider. Sketch
below the steps to characterizing it…
192
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193

a. Understand sensor types
b. Provide a complete measure-model-and-predict analysis of sensors
194
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Lecture 16: Introduction to Diodes
• Diode IV characteristics
• Connecting diode to a linear circuit
• Piecewise linear models of diodes
Recommended: https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/diodes
195
Diode as a two-terminal device

I Q: Based on the exponential
equation for IV, can the diode
supply power?
A. Yes
B. No
V
Made out of semiconductor materials
like Si, Ge, AlGaAs, GaN with
𝐼 ≈ 𝐼𝑆 𝑒 𝑉/𝑛𝑉𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚 − 1
some additives called dopants.
Major applications: lighting, electronics
196
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Connecting diode to a linear circuit

Q: What is the current flowing
through the diode if VT < 0?
I
A. Large and negative
B. Tiny and negative
C. 0
D. Tiny and positive
E. Large and positive
We can solve graphically for an operating point.

For an LED more current means more light.
197
Modeling diode with linear IV segments

Q: What is the minimum
Instead of looking for graphical solutions, I VT of the connected linear
we can approximate the diode with two circuit which causes
line segments, corresponding to diode’s current to flow through
the diode assuming the IV
regimes of operation. model?
A. 0 𝑉
B. 𝑉𝑇
C. 𝑉𝑜𝑐
D. 𝑉𝑂𝑁
E. None of these.
V
198
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Different diode types have different VON

Q: What is the power
Diode Type VON(V) Applications dissipated by a Ge
diode if 30 mA is
Silicon 0.6-0.7 General; integrated circuits; switching, circuit flowing through it?
protection, logic, rectification, etc.
A. 3 𝑚𝑊
Germanium ~0.3 Low-power, RF signal detectors
B. 9 𝑚𝑊
Schottky 0.15- Power-sensitive, high-speed switching, RF C. 30 𝑚𝑊
0.4 D. 90 𝑚𝑊
Red LED ~2 Indicators, signs, color-changing lighting E. 900 𝑚𝑊
(GaAs)
Blue LED ~3 Lighting, flashlights, indicators
(GaN)
“Ideal” 0 Can neglect VON for high voltage applications
199
Diode circuit examples (offset ideal model)

Assume offset-ideal model with VON = 0.7
(common Si diodes)
Q: What is the current through the diode?

A. 15 mA
B. 11.5 mA
C. 5 mA
D. 1.15 mA
E. 0 mA
200
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Assume offset-ideal model with VON = 0.7
(common Si diodes)
Q: What is the current through the diode?

A. 15 mA
B. 11.5 mA
C. 5 mA
D. 1.15 mA
E. 0 mA
201

Assume offset-ideal model with
VON = 0.7 (common Si diodes)
Q: What is the current through

the diode in the circuit?
𝐼𝐷 =
A. −11.5 𝑚𝐴
B. −2.5 𝑚𝐴
C. 0 𝑚𝐴
D. +2.5 𝑚𝐴
E. +11.5 𝑚𝐴
202
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Back-to-back diodes in series are modeled by

OIM as an open circuit
Q: Assume OIM with VON = 0.7 V (Si)
What is the current through the left-most diode?
A. 0 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
B. 0.2 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
C. 0.33 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
D. 0.4 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
E. 3.3 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
203
a. Draw a “typical” diode IV curve and describe its shape

b. Explain how to use graphical analysis to find the operating point
of a diode connected to a linear circuit
c. Describe the offset ideal diode model (open, V-source)
d. Solve simple circuit problems with one diode, given VON
204
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Lecture 17: Diode Circuits
• Guess-and-check for diode circuits

• Current-limiting resistors and power dissipation
• Voltage-limiting (clipping) diode circuits
205
Guess-and-check example
Assume OIM with VON = 2 V (red LED)
D1
Q: What is the current supplied by the voltage source?
D2
Q: What is the power dissipated in each diode?

D1: D2:
A. −20 𝑚𝑊 A. −20 𝑚𝑊
B. −10 𝑚𝑊 B. −10 𝑚𝑊
C. 0 𝑚𝑊 C. 0 𝑚𝑊
D. 10 𝑚𝑊 D. 10 𝑚𝑊
E. 20 𝑚𝑊 E. 20 𝑚𝑊
206
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Another guess-and-check example

ECE Spotlight…
Q: How many red
2 4
LEDs are turned on The first visible-light LED was
in the circuit? developed by University of Illinois
A. 1 alumnus (and, later, professor) Nick
5
B. 2 Holonyak, Jr., while working at General
1 3 Electric in 1962 with unconventional
C. 3
6 semiconductor
D. 4
E. 7 materials.
He immediately
7 predicted the
widespread
𝑉𝑜𝑛 = 2 𝑉, all diodes OIM application
of LED lighting
in use today.
207
Current-limiting resistors for LEDs

Assume OIM with VON = 3.3 V (blue LED) A. 1
Q: How many 1.5 V batteries are B. 2
needed to turn on the LED? C. 3
D. 4
E. 5 A. 5Ω
Q: What is the series resistance, 𝑅𝑆 , B. 10 Ω
needed to get 16 mA through the LED? C. 25 Ω
D. 50 Ω
A. 19 𝑚𝑊 E. 75 Ω
Q: What is the resulting power B. 32 mW
dissipation in the diode? C. 53 𝑚𝑊
D. 100 𝑚𝑊
E. 320 𝑚𝑊
208
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Setting voltage limits with diodes

Assume OIM model with VON = 0.3 V (Ge diode)
Q: What is the possible range of Q: What is the possible range of

the output voltages? the output voltages?
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∈ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∈
A. (−∞, 𝑉𝑆 + 0.3] A. (−∞, 𝑉𝑆 + 0.3]
B. [𝑉𝑆 + 0.3,0] B. [𝑉𝑆 + 0.3,0]
C. [𝑉𝑆 − 0.3, 𝑉𝑆 + 0.3] C. [𝑉𝑆 − 0.3, 𝑉𝑆 + 0.3]
D. [𝑉𝑆 − 0.3, ∞) D. [𝑉𝑆 − 0.3, ∞)
E. [𝑉𝑆 + 0.3, ∞) E. [𝑉𝑆 + 0.3, ∞)
209
a. Solve circuit analysis problems involving

sources, resistances, and diodes
b. Estimate power dissipation in diode circuits
c. Select appropriate current-limiting resistors
d. Determine voltage limits and waveforms at
outputs of diode voltage-clipping circuits
210
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Lecture 18: Diode Applications
• Voltage clipping
• Rectifiers
• Flyback diode (lab)
• Instructor option…
211
A voltage-clipping circuit sets maximum or

minimum output voltage
R
i + +
+ vD KVL:
VIN = 100 sint – VOUT
– VOUT = 60 + vD
60 V
–
𝑉𝐼𝑁
Q: If the input voltage waveform is shown, what is the output

waveform, assuming an ideal diode model (VON = 0 V)? 212
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Half-Wave Rectifier
Q: Assume 𝑉𝑜𝑛 = 0 𝑉.
Then 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 when
A. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 >0.
B. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 <0.
C. Neither of these conditions
cause 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.
213
Full-Wave Rectifier
Q: Assume 𝑉𝑜𝑛 = 0 𝑉 for both diodes.
A. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 >0.
B. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 <0.
Q: Discuss limitations on this device
when 𝑉𝑜𝑛 > 0.
214
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Flyback Diode: Motor protection

Q: Assume 𝑉𝑜𝑛 = 0 𝑉 for both diodes.
A. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 >0.
B. 𝑣𝑖𝑛 <0.
Q: Discuss limitations on this device
when 𝑉𝑜𝑛 > 0.
This diode is known by many other names, such as

kickback diode, snubber diode, commutating diode,
freewheeling diode, suppression diode, clamp diode, or
catch diode. -Wikipedia on Flyback Diode
215
Instructor Option
216
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Instructor Option
217
a. Determine voltage limits and waveforms at

outputs of diode voltage-clipping circuits
218
1/6/2020
L19: The Bipolar Junction

Transistor (BJT)
• BJT is a controlled current source… ECE Spotlight…
– current amplifier
John Bardeen, the co-inventer
of the transistor, was also the
• The three operating regimes of a BJT Ph.D. advisor at the University
of Illinois for Nick Holonyak, Jr.
• Controlling a resistive load with a BJT of LED fame.
• Solving for saturation condition
C: Collector
B: Base
E: Emitter
219
IV Characteristic of a 3-terminal
Device??
No single way to connect three-terminal device to a linear circuit.

220
1/6/2020
ECE110 considers only the “common-

emitter” configuration
If we fix 𝐼𝐵 , we can measure the resulting 𝐼 and 𝑉 at the other side.
221
The BJT’s “common-emitter NPN” model
Constraints:
• Limited current range: 𝛽𝐼𝐵 ≥ 0
• Limited voltage range: 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 > 0
Q: Given these constraints, can this “dependent” current source deliver power?
A. Yes, all current sources can supply power
B. No, this current source cannot supply power
C. Neither A or B is correct. 222
1/6/2020
Two Loops Coupled by Current Equation
Constraints:
• Limited current range: 0 ≤ 𝛽𝐼𝐵 ≤ 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 (implied by 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
• Limited voltage range: 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≥ 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≈ 0
Q: Right-side KVL: Find an equation relating 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 to 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 .
Q: Left-side KVL: Find the smallest 𝑉𝑖𝑛 such that 𝐼𝐵 > 0 (if Von = 0.7 𝑉)?
Q: What is 𝐼𝐵 if 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 3 𝑉 and 𝑅𝐵 = 4.6 𝑘Ω?
Q: Let 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 6 𝑉, 𝑅𝐶 = 580 Ω, 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.2 𝑉, 𝛽 = 100. What is 𝐼𝐶 under the same
input settings as the previous question? 223
BJT in Active Region
BJT datasheet
parameters:
• 𝛽 = 100
• 𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 = 1 𝑉
A. 𝐼𝐵 = 0 𝜇𝐴
• 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2 𝑉 B. 𝐼𝐵 = 1 𝜇𝐴
C. 𝐼𝐵 = 2 𝜇𝐴
Q: Find 𝐼𝐵 . D. 𝐼𝐵 = 10 𝜇𝐴
Q: Find 𝐼𝐶 . E. 𝐼𝐵 = 100 𝜇𝐴
224
1/6/2020
BJT in Cutoff
BJT datasheet
parameters:
• 𝛽 = 100
• 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2 𝑉
Q: Find 𝐼𝐵 .
Q: Find 𝐼𝐶 .
225
BJT in Saturation
BJT datasheet
parameters:
• 𝛽 = 100
Q: Find 𝐼𝐵 .
Q: Find 𝐼𝐶 .
226
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BJT Exercise
BJT datasheet
parameters:
• 𝛽 = 100
Q: Find 𝐼𝐶 and identify in which regime the transistor is operating.
227
BJT Exercise
BJT datasheet
parameters:
mA
• 𝛽 = 100
Q: Find 𝐼𝐶 and identify in which regime the transistor is operating.
Q: Determine the power consumed by the transistor.
228
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229

a. Identify B, E, C terminals on an npn-BJT symbol
b. Explain BJT’s three regimes of operation
c. Calculate active-regime 𝐼𝐶 using 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛 in the BE loop
d. Calculate maximum 𝐼𝐶 based on 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 and CE loop
e. Calculate 𝐼𝐶 given complete biasing conditions and
transistor parameters, no matter which regime
f. Calculate the power dissipated by a transistor
230
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Lecture 20: BJT IV Characteristics

“Transistor. This is an abbreviated combination of the words
“transconductance” or “transfer”, and “varistor”. The device
logically belongs to the varistor family, and has the
transcondutance or transfer impedance of a device having
gain, so that this combination is descriptive.” Bell Labs memo
• Interpreting CE junction IV curves for transistor parameters
• Interpreting load line IV curves
• Analysis of IV curves for the (I,V) operating point
• Explore the saturation condition
• Solving transistor-regime problems
231
BJT IV curves of the CE junction

Constraints: Q: Use the IV plots
to estimate the
• 0 ≤ 𝛽𝐼𝐵 ≤ 𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 value of 𝛽.
• 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ≥ 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 > 0 A. 10
𝐼𝐶 (𝑚𝐴) 𝐼𝐵 = 40𝜇𝐴 B. 20
C. 50
2.0 D. 100
𝐼𝐵 = 30𝜇𝐴 E. 200
1.5
1.0 𝐼𝐵 = 20𝜇𝐴
0.5 𝐼𝐵 = 10𝜇𝐴
1
𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 2 3 4 5 6 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (𝑉)
232
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Extracting information from the

(𝑚𝐴) IV curve(s)
4 𝐼𝐵 = 40𝜇𝐴
3 𝐼𝐵 = 30𝜇𝐴
𝐼𝐵 = 20𝜇𝐴
2
𝐼𝐵 = 10𝜇𝐴
1
(𝑉)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Q: What is 𝛽 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 ?
Q: What is 𝑉𝐶𝐶 ? A. 𝐼𝐵@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 40𝜇𝐴
Q: What is 𝑅𝐶 ? B. 𝐼𝐵@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 30𝜇𝐴
Q: What is 𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 ? C. 𝐼𝐵@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 20𝜇𝐴
Q: Which 𝐼𝐵 results in saturation? D. 𝐼𝐵@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 10𝜇𝐴
E. 𝐼𝐵@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 0𝜇𝐴 233
BJT Exercise
𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 𝑉
𝑉𝑖𝑛
7.5 𝑉
(𝑚𝐴)
40 𝐼𝐵 = 400 𝜇𝐴
30 𝐼𝐵 = 300 𝜇𝐴
20 𝐼𝐵 = 200 𝜇𝐴
10 𝐼𝐵 = 100 𝜇𝐴
1 2 3 4 5 6 (𝑉) A. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 0.3 𝑉
B. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 0.7 𝑉
Q: Estimate the operating point (𝐼𝐶 , 𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) when 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1.7 𝑉. C. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 1.7 𝑉
D. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 2.5 𝑉
Q: What value of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 would drive the transistor to the edge of saturation? E. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑆𝐴𝑇 = 3.1 𝑉
234
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BJT Exercise
BJT datasheet
parameters:
• 𝛽 = 100
• 𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 𝑉
Q: What value of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 would drive the transistor to the edge of saturation?
Q: How does your answer change if 30 𝑘Ω were replaced with 60 𝑘Ω?
Q: How does your answer change if, instead, 350 Ω → 700 Ω?
Q10: Q11:
A. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑠𝑎𝑡 goes up A. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑠𝑎𝑡 goes up
B. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑠𝑎𝑡 goes down B. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑠𝑎𝑡 goes down
C. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑠𝑎𝑡 stays the same C. 𝑉𝑖𝑛@𝑠𝑎𝑡 stays the same 235
BJT circuit analysis: working back to 𝑽𝒊𝒏

BJT Datasheet: 𝛽 = 100, 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛 = 0.7𝑉, 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2𝑉
1 𝑘Ω
Q: Find 𝑉𝑖𝑛 such that 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 3 𝑉
236
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BJT circuit analysis

BJT Datasheet:
• 𝛽 = 100,
1 𝑘Ω
• 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛 = 0.7 𝑉
𝑅𝐵
4.2 𝑉
Q: Choose 𝑅𝐵 such that the BJT is driven to the edge of saturation.
237

a. Find 𝛽 and 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 for a given BJT IV characteristic
b. Find 𝑉𝐶𝐶 and 𝑅𝐶 from the IV characteristic of the load line
c. Compute 𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 from 𝑉𝐶𝐶 , 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 , and 𝑅𝐶
d. Identify the BJT CE operating point given IV characteristics
e. Solve numerically for unknown parameters among
𝑉𝑖𝑛 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝐼𝐵 , 𝛽, 𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 , 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 , 𝐼𝐶 , 𝑅𝐶 , 𝑉𝐶𝐶 , 𝐼𝐶,𝑠𝑎𝑡 when given some or all of the
other values
f. Determine settings to drive transistor into a desired regime
238
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Lecture 21: The BJT Voltage Amplifier

• Relating 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 to 𝑉𝑖𝑛
• Node notation for 𝑉𝐶𝐶
• Voltage transfer function
• AC signal amplification
239
Calculating 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 from 𝑽𝒊𝒏 (revisited)

BJT Datasheet: 6𝑉
• 𝛽 = 100
• 𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 = 0.7𝑉 1 𝑘Ω
• 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2𝑉
30 𝑘Ω
Q: What is 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 for 𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 0.3, 1, 2.5, and 3.5 Volts?
240
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Review of BJT operating regimes

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Q: What is the formula

for minimum 𝑉𝐼𝑁 which
𝑉𝑖𝑛 causes saturation?
𝑉𝐶𝐶 −𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡
Regime Vin IB IC VC A. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅𝐶
B. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 + 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛

C. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵
D. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝐼𝐶 𝑅𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 𝑅𝐵
𝑅
E. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛 + 𝛽𝑅𝐵 (𝑉𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 )
𝐶
241
Voltage transfer characteristics

6𝑉
𝛽 = 100
𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 = 0.7𝑉
𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0.2𝑉 1 𝑘Ω
30 𝑘Ω
Q: What are the four values 𝑉𝑜1 , 𝑉𝑜2 , 𝑉𝑖1 , 𝑉𝑖2 ?
∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Q: What is the slope in the active region?
∆𝑉𝑖𝑛
242
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Active regime for signal amplification

Consider Q: If 𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 1.2 + 0.2cos(2𝜋100𝑡),
• 𝑉𝑖1 = 0.7 𝑉 what is the equation for 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ?
• 𝑉𝑖2 = 1.7 𝑉
• 𝑉𝑜1 = 7.2 𝑉
• 𝑉𝑜2 = 0.2 𝑉
Q: What is different if
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1.2 + 0.6cos(2𝜋100𝑡)?
Q: What transistor regimes are entered if

𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 1.1 + 0.3cos(𝜔𝑡)?
A. Active only
B. Cutoff and active
C. Active and saturation
D. Saturation only
E. Cutoff, active, and saturation
243

a. Explain the voltage transfer curve (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 vs. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )
b. Find the transition points on the voltage transfer curve
c. Find the slope of the active region in the transfer curve
d. Determine the operating regions for an AC+DC input
e. Evaluate and AC+DC output for linear amplification
244
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Lecture 22: More on Transistors
• Exercises in BJTs
• Revisit MOSFET
245
Active regime for signal amplification

Consider Q: Derive an equation that gives 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 as a
• 𝑉𝑖1 = 0.7 𝑉 function of 𝑉𝑖𝑛 . Hint, find the equation of
• 𝑉𝑖2 = 1.7 𝑉 this line!
• 𝑉𝑜1 = 7.2 𝑉
• 𝑉𝑜2 = 0.2 𝑉
[This equation will be accurate only
accurate in the linear portion of the active
region.]
246
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BJT Datasheet Parameters

2N5192G
≈𝛽
𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝑉𝐵𝐸,𝑜𝑛 ≤
Q: Approximate the values of 𝛽, 𝑉𝐵𝐸𝑜𝑛 , and 𝑉𝐶𝐸,𝑠𝑎𝑡 from the datasheet.
247
Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)

• Advantages of MOSFETs for IC manufacturing
• A little physics of MOSFET operation
248
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The Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET

• MOSFETs are generally easier to
fabricate; also they scale down in size
better and use less power than BJTs.
• BJTs are still used in very high-speed
switching integrated circuits and they are
common as “discrete” devices.
Do you know? How many transistors are in a single modern microprocessor chip?
A. ~100,000
B. ~1,000,000
C. ~10,000,000
D. ~100,000,000
E. ~1,000,000,000 249
To Produce a Conductive “Channel”

Source and Body are tied together and 𝑉𝐺𝑆 > 𝑉𝑇𝐻 > 0
𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 n
+
m O m
e x e
𝐺𝑎𝑡𝑒 t I p t
a d a
l e l 𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 (𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘)
n
𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 +
250
1/6/2020
251

a. Derive an equation for 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑠. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 accurate in the
linear region of the transistor.
b. Be able to extract information from a transistor
datasheet
c. Name advantages/disadvantages of MOSFET vs BJT
d. Describe a diagram of MOSFET physics
252
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Lecture 23: Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)

• Advantages of MOSFETs for IC manufacturing
• A little physics of MOSFET operation
• MOSFET transistor regimes: operating voltages and current
253
BJT (NPN) vs. MOSFET (n-channel)

active region models
ECE Spotlight…
Prof. Rosenbaum
emphasizes the need for
physically-accurate circuit
models to
predict and
protect against
electrostatic
discharge.
Active: IC = β IB Active: 𝐼𝐷 = 𝑘 ( 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 )2 Elyse Rosenbaum
University of Illinois
Q: What happens to drain current when 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 Q1: the drain current…
doubles? A. halves
Q: What is the DC current into the gate of the B. stays the same
C. doubles
MOSFET model?
D. triples
Q: What are the units of 𝑘? E. quadruples 254
1/6/2020
Measuring nMOS IV-curves
“Active”
Explore More!
ECE342, ECE340
255
Family of nMOS IV-curves

𝐼𝐷 = 𝑘 (𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 )𝑉𝐷𝑆
𝐼𝐷 = 𝑘 ( 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 )2
Q: If 𝐼1 = 100 𝑚𝐴, what

is the value of 𝑘?
A. 𝑘 = 100 𝑚𝐴/𝑉 2
B. 𝑘 = 50 𝑚𝐴/𝑉 2
C. 𝑘 = 25 𝑚𝐴/𝑉 2
D. 𝑘 = 12.5 𝑚𝐴/𝑉 2
E. 𝑘 = 1 𝑚𝐴/𝑉 2
256
1/6/2020
nMOS Exercise
Q: At which operating point above would the MOSFET be in “cutoff”?

Q: At which operating point above would the MOSFET be “active”?
Q: At which operating point above would the MOSFET be “ohmic”?
257
FET datasheet: FET Exercise

𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟐 𝑽
𝒌 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 9 𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = 100 Ω
VGS = 5 V
Q: Use the IV plot to find the FET regime and operating point.
258
1/6/2020
FET datasheet: FET Exercise

𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟐 𝑽
𝒌 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨 𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 9 𝑉
𝑅𝐷 = 100 Ω
VDS = 5 V
Q: Find the Gate-to-Source voltage, 𝑉𝐺𝑆 .

259
L23. Learning Objectives

a. To recognize the physics of enhancing/creating a
channel in a MOS Transistor
b. To identify the regimes of nMOS with IV curves
c. To solve nMOS transistor problems using IV data
260
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Lecture 24: cMOS Logic

• cMOS logic and circuit models
• cMOS logic circuits and truth tables
• Switching a capacitive load
Idealized FET Model:
Logic Voltages
𝑉𝐷𝐷 𝑉𝐷𝐷
Logic “1”
Logic “0”
0𝑉 0𝑉
261
n-channel
MOSFET
Circuit Symbol Logic Symbol
262
1/6/2020
p-channel MOSFET
Circuit Symbol Logic Symbol Q: What happens when a logical “0” is

applied to the gate?
A. Electrons are attracted to the

gate and a channel forms.
B. Electrons are chased from the
gate and a channel is formed.
C. The voltage is too low to effect
the channel at all.
263
cMOS implementation of Inverter

Truth Table:
For each and every logical
combination of inputs, list the 𝐴=0 𝐴=1
resulting logical output
input output
A Z
𝐴
0
1
Q: What is the output voltage when the input is connected to 𝑉𝐷𝐷 ?
Q: What is the output voltage when the input is connected to GND?
Q: Complete the Logical “Truth Table”.

264
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A Two-Input cMOS Circuit

A B Z
0 0 1
0 1 ρ
1 0 γ
1 1 0
Q: Complete the Truth Table.
A. ρ = 0, γ = 0
B. ρ = 0, γ = 1
C. ρ = 1, γ = 0
D. ρ = 1, γ = 1
E. Cannot determine
265
A Three-Input cMOS Circuit
Q: Complete the Truth Tables.

266
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Improperly-Constructed cMOS Circuits
Q: Attempt to complete the Truth Tables.

267
cMOS Energy
Q: How much energy is stored in each gate (𝐶 = 1𝑓𝐹) if charged to 𝑉𝐷𝐷 ?
Q: How much energy is consumed from the voltage source to charge it?
268
1/6/2020
Power consumed by a single

switching FET
𝑃 = 𝑎 𝑓 𝐶 𝑉2𝑛 ECE Spotlight…
𝑎 – activity factor Prof. Hanumolu works to produce useful circuits

that “can be implemented in small area and with
𝑓– switching frequency minimal power consumption while
𝐶 – load capacitance operating at high [frequency].”
𝑉 – switching voltages
𝑛 – number of transistors switching
• Largest source of power consumption in computer chips
• Reduction of contributing factors is a technological goal
Q: How many 2 𝑓𝐹 caps are switched at 1 𝑉 every ns to dissipate 100 𝑊?
Q: If the total number of transistors on a chip is 1 billion, what is 𝑎?
269
L24. Learning Objectives

a. To explain operation of a cMOS inverter
b. To interpret cMOS logic and express in Truth Table form
c. To calculate power consumption due to cMOS switching
with capacitive loads
270
1/6/2020
Learn It!
Two-Input cMOS Circuit

271
Learn It!
Two-Input cMOS Circuit

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L25: Analog-to-Digital
• Noise-immunity motivation
• Describing waveforms by samples
• The sampling operation
273
How Would you Sketch this Waveform?

𝑣(𝑡)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 𝑡 (𝑠)
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
Q: What are the values at 𝑡 = 0, 2, 4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6 seconds?
Q: Is this enough information to reproduce the waveform?

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Enter Data Points of the Previous Waveform.

𝑣(𝑡)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
1 2 3 4 5 6 𝑡 (𝑠)
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
Q: How should one connect the data points?

A. Point-to-point with straight lines.
B. Point-to-point with curvy lines.
C. Point-to-point, but only with horizontal and vertical lines.
When storing these values using bits, how many should we use?
(NEXT LECTURE!)
275
Sampling: Sensing real-world data

at uniform intervals
𝑣(𝑡) [𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠] Sound
𝑇𝑠 : 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
1
𝑡[𝑠𝑒𝑐]
𝑓𝑠 = : 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑇𝑠
Sampled Sequence:
𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇𝑠 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 (𝑛 = −2, −1,0,1,2, … )
Example: 𝑦 𝑡 = 5𝑡 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑆 = 2
Answer: 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑦 𝑛𝑇𝑠 = 5n2 = 10n = ⋯ , −20, −10,0,10,20, …
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Sampling
Sampled Sequence:
𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇𝑠 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 (𝑛 = −2, −1,0,1,2, … )
Q: Let 𝑣1 𝑡 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑡 . Plot 𝑣1 𝑡 .
Q: Let 𝑣1 𝑡 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑡 .
If 𝑇𝑠 = 0.5 𝑠, what is 𝑣1 [6]?
𝜋
Q: Let 𝑣 𝑡 = 5 cos 𝑡 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋𝑡 .
3
If 𝑇𝑠 = 0.5 𝑠, what is 𝑣[6]?
277
Sampling: Sensing real-world data

at uniform intervals
Imaging
Think About It! How does sampling work in digital photography?
278
1/6/2020
Largest Sampling Period, 𝑻𝑺

If you sample fast enough to catch the highs/lows
on a wiggly waveform, then you can smoothly
reconnect the data points to recreate it.
Q: Speech is intelligible if frequencies up to 3.5 kHz are preserved. What should

we use for 𝑇𝑆 ?
1
A. < 7 𝑚𝑠
1
B. < 3.5 𝑚𝑠
C. < 3.5 𝑚𝑠
D. > 3.5 𝑚𝑠
E. > 7 𝑚𝑠
279
L25: Learning Objectives

a. Explain the motivation for digital signals
b. Determine reasonable sampling interval for plotted
waveforms
c. Sample an algebraic signal given a sampling interval
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L26: Preserving Information in A/D
• Nyquist Rate
• Quantization
• Memory Registers
• Binary Numbers
• Aliasing
• A/D block diagram
• D/A block diagram
281
Nyquist Rate: lower bound on 𝑓𝑠

A sampled signal can be converted back into its
original analog signal without any error if the sampling
rate is more than twice as large as the highest
frequency in the signal.
𝑓𝑠 > 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
No loss of information due to sampling
Interpolation: recreate analog with a special function!
Q: Speech is intelligible if frequencies up to 3.5 A. 1.75 kHz
kHz are preserved. What is the Nyquist rate? B. 3.5 kHz
C. 5.25 kHz
Q: Music is often filtered to include sounds up to 20 D. 7 kHz
kHz. What sampling rate should we use? E. 8 kHz
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Aliasing occurs when Sampling is sparse

When 𝑓𝑠 is too small (𝑇𝑠 is too large), high-frequency signals
masquerade as lower frequency signals…
cos 2𝜋7𝑡
⇒ 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 7 𝐻𝑧
Q: When sampling at 𝑓𝑠 = 8 𝐻𝑧, what is the frequency of the

signal above after reconstruction? 283
Quantization:
Round voltage values to nearest discrete level
1111
1110
1101
1100
1011
1010
1001
1000
0111
0110
0101
0100
0011
0010
0001
0000
Q: Assume we sample at the vertical lines. Digitize the waveform using four-bit samples.
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Computers are made of cMOS Circuits

• Registers are combinations of logic circuits that utilize
electrical feedback to serve as computer’s working memory.
• Each register element is a bit which can be 0 (low) or 1 (high)
• Example: An 8-bit register holds 8 binary values.
Choose the largest 8-bit binary value.
A. 00001011
B. 00010110
C. 00010000
D. 00001111
E. 00000101 285
Binary Numbers
Any number system has a base, N, with N digits 0, … , 𝑁 − 1 ,
and n-digit number representations with the distance from the
decimal point indication what base power each digit represents.
Base 10: What is the number 𝟓𝟏?
2 − 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 5 1
3-digit Binary integers:
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙): 10𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 1𝑠 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝟎: 0 0 0 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 : 5 × 10 + 1×1
𝟏: 0 0 1
𝟐: 0 1 0 Base 2: What is the number 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟐 ?
𝟑: 0 1 1 3 − 𝑑𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟: 1 0 1
𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙): 4 2 1
𝟒: 1 0 0
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 : 1 × 4 + 0 × 2 + 1×1
𝟓: 1 0 1
𝟔: 1 1 0
𝟕: 1 1 1
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More bits=More levels=

Less Quantization Error (Noise)
𝑣 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠]
11
10 𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑣 𝑛 − 𝑣𝑄 [𝑛]
01 𝑡
00
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: 2 − 𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟
Q: If the voltages 2.93 and 5.26 are quantized to the nearest 0.25 V, what
are the quantization errors?
287
3-Bit Quantizer
𝑣 [𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠]
111
110
101
100
011 𝑡
010
001
000
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: 3 − 𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑟
Q: How many levels in a 10-bit quantizer?

A. 4
B. 8
C. 10
D. 100
E. 1024 288
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Sampling + Quantization =Digitization
Q(⋅)
𝑛𝑇𝑠
• 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 1/(𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑) 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑇1𝑠
• ↑ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ⇒↑ 𝑀𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒
• ↓ 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 ⇒ 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛?
Q: Under what conditions on sampling and on quantization will you incur

a loss of information?
289
Analog-to-Digital Converter
Digital-to-Analog Converter
Sampling Quantization
ECE Spotlight…
ADC Prof. Haken is the inventor
Q(⋅) (A/D) “of the Continuum
𝑛𝑇𝑠 Fingerboard, a low-latency
polyphonic touch-sensitive
Zero-order surface for expressive
Smoothing musical performance.”
Hold
Students interested in
DAC music synth might consider
courses like
(D/A) ECE 395 and
ECE 402.
The zero-order hold results in an analog voltage. What circuit parts might a
smoothing filter contain?
A. Resistors B. Capacitors C. Diodes D. BJTs E. MOSFETs 290
1/6/2020
Exercises
Q: CD-quality music is sampled at 44.1 kHz with a 16-bit quantizer.
How much memory (in Bytes) is used to store 10 seconds of sampled-
and-quantized data?
291
Exercises
Q: CD-quality music is sampled at 44.1 kHz with a 16-bit quantizer. It is
stored on a 700 MB CD. How many minutes of music do you predict a
single CD can hold? (Does your answer account for stereo?)
292
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Exercises
Q: Digital voice mail samples at 8 kHz. 32 MB of memory is filled after
3200 seconds of recording. How many bits of resolution is the
quantizer utilizing?
293

a. Convert a voltage series to a quantized (bit)
representation
b. Solve problems involving sampling rate, quantizer size,
memory size, and acquisition time
c. Find the Nyquist rate of a signal given its highest
frequency
d. To be able write out binary integers numbers in increasing
value
e. Describe the implications for sound quality based on
sampling rate and quantization depth (# bits in quantizer)
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Lecture 27: Content Personalization

More of what you want to know! Instructor will choose the content
and learning objectives based largely on student surveys from early in
the semester!
295

a. Both the content and learning objectives of
this lecture will be determined by the
instructors during the semester. They will use
feedback provided by the students to tailor
their choices.
296
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Lecture 28: Photodiodes and Solar Panels

ECE Spotlight…
• The nature of light
ECE Professor Bayram conducts research at the
• Photon absorption in semiconductors intersection of Novel III-V materials/hetero-
structures and Photonic/electronic quantum devices.
• Photocurrent in diodes and its use He teaches ECE 443: LEDs and Solar Cells
– Detecting light and signals
– Generating electrical energy
• Energy from solar panels
297
Light consists of (Energetic) Photons

• Photons are sometimes called wave packets
• Each photon (of wavelength 𝜆 in nm) carries an amount of energy
1240 𝑒𝑉
𝐸= 1 𝑒𝑉 is equivalent to 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
𝜆 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
• The color of light depends on its wavelength, λ
Q: How many photons per second are provided by a 1 mW 650 nm laser?

298
1/6/2020
Available Solar Energy (Radiation Spectrum)

From Wikipedia
Pick the closest answer:

A. 1 𝑊/𝑚2
B. 10 𝑊/𝑚2
C. 100 𝑊/𝑚2
D. 1000 𝑊/𝑚2
E. 10 𝑘𝑊/𝑚2
Q: Estimate the solar irradiance (W/m2) at sea level (hint: total red area). 299
Creating electron-hole pairs in

Semiconductors
• An electron in a material can absorb a photon’s energy
• An electron can sometimes lose energy to emit a photon
• Semiconductor electrons have a gap in allowed energy, Eg
• Photons with energy bigger than the gap are absorbed
• Absorbed photons can create usable electrical energy
300
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Exercises
Q: What is the maximum wavelength absorbed by:
Si (𝐸𝑔 = 1.1 𝑒𝑉),
by GaN (𝐸𝑔 = 3.4 𝑒𝑉),
and by diamond carbon (𝐸𝑔 = 5.5 𝑒𝑉)?
301
Photodiode IV depends on impinging Light

I
• Reverse bias mode
– Photodetector
– Detecting light signals
– Energy is dissipated
• Forward bias mode V
– Photovoltaic cell
– Energy is generated
302
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Exercise
I
Q: Sparkfun’s BPW34 photodiode generates 50 μA of current when reverse-
biased and illuminated with 1 mW/cm2 at 950 nm. If a 1 mW 950 nm laser is
focused on the photodetector, what is the resulting photocurrent?
303
Photovoltaic operation collects Energy

E
• Forward-bias mode
• 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 is supplied
• Maximum power point D
• 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐹𝐹 𝐼𝑠𝑐 𝑉𝑜𝑐
• Typical FF = 70%
C
A
B
Q: Identify the 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 point above
Q: If Sparkfun’s BPW34 photodiode has 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 40 𝜇𝐴 and 𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 350 𝑚𝑉 when

illuminated with 1 mW/cm2 at 950 nm, and the fill factor is 50% what is the
maximum power produced?
304
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Solar panels as energy sources ECE Spotlight…
ECEB is aspiring to a Net

Zero Energy rating and
targeting LEED Platinum
certification from the U.S.
Green Building Council.
You should look into the
project to learn how it is
being achieved. Do some
of your own number
Q: Assuming 500 W/m2 solar irradiance and a 25% efficient solar panel, how crunching!
much roof area should be covered to supply 50A at 120V?
Q: Given an average of 5 hours of sunshine per day and a utility cost of

$0.11/kWh how much of the utility cost can such a solar panel save?
305
Lecture 28 Learning Objectives

a. Relate photon flux (photons/sec) to power and wavelength
b. Calculate maximum absorbed wavelength for a band gap
c. Sketch photodiode IV curve and explain operating regimes
d. Calculate reverse bias current for incident light power
e. Calculate maximum power from IV intercepts and fill factor
f. Estimate power (and its $ value) produced by a solar panel
306
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Lecture 29: Course Review
• If you have a request that a specific question or topic be

covered on this day, please email your instructor.
• Other questions will focus on muddy points.
• More info TBA.
307
308

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1/6/2020

Lecture 1: ECE110 Introduction to Electronics:

Recommended learning opportunities

• Workshops (as announced each week)

Encountering various difficulties? Contact your Instructor, lab TA, or the

The Field of Study Defined

Electrical engineering (EE) is a field of engineering

A short history of Electrical Engineering

−1.6 × 10−19 𝐶 (𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒) −1.6 e − 19 𝐶

• Electronics is much more than just movement of electrons

Current: the rate at which Charge moves

• The ampere is the unit of electric current

Help Sheet: Charge and Current

Q: A “typical” electronics circuit might have 1 billion A. 0.00000016 A

Ammeter circuit schematic:

• In many circuits, voltage potential is provided by a battery. Think of a battery “pushing”

Voltmeter circuit schematic:

(A) Series, (B) Parallel,

(A) Series, (B) Parallel,

• Measure device data

The laboratory provides a hands-on opportunity to both learn and

to showcase your skills!

Lecture 2: Current and Voltage Measurements

Electric current deflects a compass needle

Hans Christian Oersted’s

Image in Public Domain

Galvanometer measures current

• Each of N windings in coil adds to magnetic field, B

Image from book: Electrical Measurement

• Compares the input voltage to known

Image from https://www.nutsvolts.com/questions-and-answers/led-voltmeter

Current vs Voltage Measurements

Ohm’s law models the current and voltage

Resistors also known as Conductors

The Relationship between Current and Voltage

Example: For a “resistor”, zero voltage means zero

Example: What happens with a non-ideal voltage

Physical Circuit schematic

Resistance can be used in device models

Q: If a 9 V battery provides (at maximum) a A. 0Ω

A. Near the intersection with the I-axis.

Feeling Sick? Can’t make class?

Please, don’t risk infecting others.

Lecture 3: Professional Development;

image credit: https://culclzha.wordpress.com/2017/10/09/

CATME is a tool we will use in lab to

IEEE Code of Ethics (2012)

We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the

IEEE Code of Ethics

IEEE Code of Ethics

Avoid Dilemmas and Grow Professionally!

 Often called a “hitch-hiker” scenario…

Q: What do you feel Greg should do?

Q: What would you have done differently?

Circuit Model For a Telegraph Loop

Broadcasting: multiple ways to wire relays

Decorative lights: multiple ways to

Q: Draw a circuit for 12 lightbulbs connected in series in one loop.

A wave traveling rightward along a lossless transmission line.