Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Performance assessment of an inclined stepped solar still

integrated with PCM and CuO/GO nanocomposite as a nanofluid
Habib Ajdari, Abolhasan Ameri *
Department of Chemical Engineering, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Providing potable water for buildings through a reliable technique using sustainable and
CuO/GO nanocomposite renewable energies is crucial for saving fossil fuels. Desalination systems could afford fresh water
Inclined stepped solar still using solar energy. Nanofluids have been applied in solar stills to enhance their productivity. In
PCM this study, an inclined stepped solar still with baffles is fabricated to investigate the effect of CuO/
Distilled water GO nanocomposite wt. %, volume ratio of individual nanoparticles in the nanocomposite, pres­
Baffle
ence of paraffin wax as a phase change material (PCM), and input brine flow rate on the distillate
yield, glass, brine and bottom temperatures. The results showed that 0.03 wt % CuO and GO
boosted the freshwater yield by 48.12 and 81.59%, respectively. A nanocomposite with volume
ratio of 30/70 for CuO/GO increased the volume of the freshwater by 81.59%. Additionally, it has
been found that decreasing the brine flow rate from 30 to 8 L h− 1 increased the freshwater
production and conversely increasing to 68 L h− 1 caused reduction of the distillate yield. Finally,
application of paraffin wax as PCM under the steps of solar still caused an increase of 32.8% in
distillate yield. Generally, it is revealed that the nanocomposite of CuO/GO is a hopeful candidate
for application in solar stills to enhance their productivity.

1. Introduction
Water is one of the most abundant supplies on the Earth which covers about 75% of the Earth. However, lack of potable water has
become a great crisis in many countries. Providing freshwater in buildings with spending less cost has attracted much attention during
last decades. Dealing with fresh water shortage needs selection of an appropriate and economical method for desalination. One of the
sources to provide necessary energy for water desalination is solar energy. The main advantages of solar energy are its simplicity, low
cost, inexhaustibility, low depreciation, saving on fossil fuels consumption and no pollution of environment [1]. As a result, costly
energy sources could be replaced by solar energy as a cheap supplier of energy in various residential or commercial buildings.
Solar stills are equipment which apply solar energy for production of fresh water. They could be designed and constructed in
different sizes and scales. According to the building area and resident population, an appropriate type and size of solar still could be
designed and installed to provide the potable water needed in that specific building. The mechanism of solar stills is very simple. Brine
warms up in an insulated tank and evaporates. It condenses after collision to the basin walls and fresh water accumulates in a separate
reservoir [2]. Conventional solar stills almost have low fresh water rate. Due to high initial fabrication cost and low production rate,
using them is not affordable. Almost, the daily efficiency of conventional solar stills is about 2–3 L which is the minimum amount of
potable water for an adult suggested by World Health Organization (WHO) [3]. Many researches have been performed in recent years

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Ameri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104090
Received 14 December 2021; Received in revised form 18 January 2022; Accepted 19 January 2022
Available online 22 January 2022
2352-7102/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

Fig. 1. Schematic and picture of the inclined stepped solar still fabricated for experiments.

to promote the distillate yield in solar stills. Various factors like solar intensity [4], wind velocity [5], adsorbent surface area [6], initial
water temperature [7] and water depth [8] have impressive effect on the yield.
Nanofluids could enhance the heat transfer coefficient of the base fluid [9,10]. Among the mentioned parameters, application of
nanoparticles in the brine has attracted a great attention to enhance the adsorption of solar intensity. Various nanoparticles have been
applied for this purpose such as Al2O3 [11–20], SiO2 [21]. TiO2 [12–14], CuO [12–15,22], Cu2O [16,17,23], Cu [21], ZnO [18], SnO2
[18], graphene [24], graphite [25], SiC [26] and Fe2O3 [18,27].
Choi and Eastman enhanced the heat transfer of the fluids using nanoparticles for the first time. Metallic nanoparticles especially
copper showed the best results. They proposed application of these nanoparticles in the fluids of heat exchangers to reduce the
pumping power [28]. Sharshir et al. applied graphite and copper oxide nanoparticles in solar still to improve its yield. The productivity
enhancements were 53.95 and 44.91% for graphite and copper oxide nanoparticles, respectively [25]. The conventional solar still and
corrugated wick solar still were subjected to two cuprous and aluminum nanoparticles by Omara et al. to improve their productivity.
The yields obtained were 285.10 and 254.88% by application of cuprous and aluminum nanoparticles, respectively [17]. In another
study, Sahota and Tiwari inserted Al2O3 nanoparticles in the base fluid of a double slope solar still. Addition of 0.12% concentration
nanoparticle to 35 kg base fluid resulted in 12.2% enhancement in sill yield [11]. They also proposed an equation for productivity of
the double slope solar still using Al2O3, TiO2 and CuO nanoparticles which showed 50.34, 46.10 and 43.81%, respectively [12].
Elango et al. examined Al2O3, ZnO and SnO2 nanofluids in a single basin solar still. Their results revealed that the production rates
were subsequently 29.95, 12.67 and 18.63% higher than the case without nanoparticles [18]. Madhu et al. performed experiments by
addition of TiO2, Al2O3 and CuO nanoparticles to the brine in a conventional solar still. Al2O3 showed the highest increase in still
efficiency which was about 50% [29]. A non-metallic nanofluid containing carbon nanotubes was applied in a flat plate solar still. The
energy efficiency of the still with nanofluid was 95.12% compared to the still with water which showed 42.07% [30]. Hasanianpour
and Ameri showed that using γ-Al2O3 nanoparticles in the base fluid improved the production of potable water in a single slope solar
still up to 60.03% [19].
Recently, combination of different nanoparticles introduced as hybrid or nanocomposite such as Al2O3/Cu, TiO2/Ag, TiO2/Cu,
Fe3O4/carbon and CuO/graphene oxide (GO) were synthesized and applied for heat transfer enhancement in heat exchangers, solar
stills and other heat transfer equipment [31–35].
In this study, the effect of CuO/GO nanocomposite was investigated on the production rate of an inclined solar still. The effects of
various factors like nanocomposite concentration in the base fluid, volume ratio of CuO and GO nanoparticles in the hybrid nano­
composite, and the flow rate of brine into the solar still were experimentally analyzed. Also, the influence of presence of paraffin wax
under the steps of a solar still as a PCM was assessed on the fresh water productivity.

2. Experimental method
An inclined solar still was fabricated using 0.8 mm galvanized iron as an bottom surface with dimensions of 80 × 90 cm. Fourteen
black baffles with height of 3 cm and length of 75 cm were inserted on the bottom surface which caused a spiral movement of brine on
the surface. This resulted in increasing the residence time of brine in solar still and improving the adsorption of solar intensity and
evaporation. The latitude of Shiraz in Iran where the experiments were carried out was determinant of the inclination angle of the
surface as 32◦ in order to adsorb the maximum of received solar intensity. To enhance the adsorption rate of solar energy, black
painting was used for the still bottom and walls. A 6 mm transparent glass was applied as the adsorption surface on top of the solar still.
In experiments for investigation of the effect of PCM, paraffin wax was used as a latent storage material under the steps of the solar still.
An MDF insulation layer with 1.6 cm thickness was used on the bottom and walls of the solar still to prevent energy loss from the still.
Desalinated water was gathered at the end of the glass cover and poured out of the still into a graduated cylinder through a hole
inserted on the surface of the bottom. The last baffle was constructed with the height of 6 cm to prevent mixing of brine with fresh
water produced. Untreated water at the exit of the still was recycled to the initial brine container using an aquarium pump. The
schematic and figure of the fabricated inclined solar still with baffles is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Glass, brine and bottom temperatures were measured using CHY-110 laser noncontact thermometer and CHY-800A thermocouple
thermometer with accuracy of ±0.1 ◦ C. A digital balance (AS 220. R2 PLUS RADWAG, Poland) with accuracy of ±0.00001 g was used
for weighting of nanocomposite added to brine. A graduated cylinder (±1 ml) was used to measure the freshwater produced.
The uncertainty analysis of measuring instruments could be calculated as u = √a̅̅3, where u is defined as standard uncertainty and a is

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H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

Table 1
Details of operating conditions of experiments in inclined solar still.
1
Test No. Brine flow rate/L h− Wt. % of nanoparticle/nanocomposite Volume ratio of CuO/GO

1 30 without nanoparticles 0/0

2 30 0.01, CuO 100/0
3 30 0.02, CuO 100/0
4 30 0.03, CuO 100/0
5 30 0.01, GO 0/100
6 30 0.02, GO 0/100
7 30 0.03, GO 0/100
8 30 0.03, CuO/GO 30/70
9 30 0.03, CuO/GO 50/50
10 30 0.03, CuO/GO 70/30
11 68 0.03, CuO/GO 30/70
12 8 0.03, CuO/GO 30/70
13 8 0.03, CuO/GO and PCM 30/70

Table 2
Feed brine analysis.

Analysis Unit Result Analysis Unit Result

1
Conductivity μS cm− 77832.00 NO−3 mg L− 1 3.15
T.D.S mg L− 1 50914.18 Ca2+ mg L− 1 21.00
pH — 7.56 Na+ mg L− 1 703.87
CO2-3 mg L− 1 0.00 K+ mg L− 1 10.41
HCO−3 mg L− 1 3.41 Sum Cations meq L− 1 782.55
Cl−
mg L− 1 817.00 Total Hardness based on Calcium Carbonate (T.H) mg L− 1 6670.40
SO2-4 mg L− 1 56.89 Total Alkalinity based on Calcium Carbonate (T.A) mg L− 1 182.79
Sum Anions meq L− 1 780.43 Turbidity (NTU) — 1.770

known as an instrument uncertainty [36,37]. As a result, the computed uncertainties for glass, brine, and bottom temperatures,
freshwater volume and weight of nanocomposite equal to 0.0577 ◦ C, 0.0577 ◦ C, 0.0577 ◦ C, 0.5774 ml and 5.77 × 10− 6 g, respectively.
The CuO and GO nanoparticles and CuO/GO nanocomposite were synthesized and characterized in the previous study which could
be found in the literature [35]. The CuO/GO nanocomposite added to the brine in each test was first mixed with a little amount of brine
on a magnet stirrer before starting the test at the morning to obtain a homogenous mixture for better dispersion in the brine and
prevention of aggregation and deposition in the still. Then, it was poured into the initial brine tank to be pumped into the still.
The temperatures of glass, bottom and brine and also distilled water volume were measured and hourly recorded from 8:00 a.m. till
18:00 p.m. The effect of nanoparticle (CuO, GO and CuO/GO nanocomposite), weight percent of nanoparticle or nanocomposite, and
brine flow rate were investigated in this study. First, an experiment was performed in the absence of nanocomposite. Then, individual
nanoparticles of CuO and GO were added to the brine with 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt percent. The effect of volume ratio of CuO and GO
nanoparticles in the nanocomposite was studied in 30/70, 50/50 and 70/30 vol ratios of CuO rather than GO nanoparticle. It should be
noted that the volume of the initial brine tank was always kept constant by addition of fresh brine to the tank after recycling the
untreated water exited from the still into the initial tank to maintain the concentration of nanocomposite constant in the tank during
each test from morning to evening. Also, three different flow rates, namely 8, 30 and 68 L h− 1 were investigated to analyze the effect of
brine flow rate on the performance of the inclined stepped solar still. A valve was inserted between the pump and inlet of solar still in
order to set the inlet brine flow rate. Finally, the experiments with the best result of nanocomposite, the volume ratio of nanoparticles
and brine flow rate was selected for investigation of the effect of application of paraffin wax as PCM. This comparison was made by
performing experiments from 8:00 a.m. till 24:00 p.m. Table 1 shows the details of operating conditions of the experiments performed
in this study.
The experiments were carried out using the saline water from Persian Gulf which analysis is shown in Table 2. As it is obvious, the
salinity of the brine especially the Na+ and Cl− concentrations are high. Also, conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids (T.D.S), Total
Hardness (T.H), Total Alkalinity (T.A) and turbidity values indicate non-drinkable property of the brine before desalination process.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Effect of wt. % of CuO and GO nanoparticles
Fig. 2 illustrates the effect of wt. % of CuO nanoparticle on the distillate yield and temperatures of glass, bottom and feed water.
These tests were performed at feed water flow rate of 30 L h− 1. The fresh water produced increased from morning to the maximum
value at noon and then decreased at evening hours of the day (Fig. 2 (a)). This is due to increase in solar intensity at hours of midday. As
a result, brine evaporates more and more condensation takes place and much fresh water is produced and gathered at the end of glass
cover. This effect could also be seen in Fig. 2 (b). The maximum temperature of glass is seen at 14:00 p.m., which were 59, 61.5, 62.5
and 65 ◦ C for 0, 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt % of CuO nanoparticle, respectively. Black color of the bottom of the solar still caused proper
adsorption of solar energy. The adsorption was maximized at 14:00 p.m. which could be observed in Fig. 2 (c) as 68.5, 69.5, 72 and

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H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

Fig. 2. Effect of CuO nanoparticle on distillate yield, glass, bottom and brine temperatures.

73.5 ◦ C which showed ascending trend by increasing the amount of CuO nanoparticle. Higher bottom temperature caused more
evaporation of brine. This accumulates the vapor in the space of solar still which rises the glass temperature. Fig. 2 (d) shows the feed
water temperature which is slightly less than the bottom temperature. For experiments with 0–0.03 wt % CuO nanoparticle, the
maximum feed water temperature were reported 64, 67, 69.5 and 71.5 ◦ C, subsequently. Due to the heat loss to the environment
during the recycling of the outlet residual brine from the inclined solar still to its inlet, the brine temperature showed lower values than
bottom temperature.
After addition of 0.01 wt % of CuO nanoparticle, the adsorption of solar intensity increased due to heat characteristics of nano­
particle. It enhanced the thermal conductivity and heat storage capacity of the brine. Two mechanisms are introduced for thermal
conductivity enhancement using nanoparticles, (1) Brownian motion and (2) aggregation of nanoparticles [38,39]. Conventionally,
adsorption of solar energy by suspended nanoparticles in the brine and its temperature increase and causes more evaporation.
This phenomena was improved by increasing the wt. % of CuO nanoparticle to 0.02 and 0.03 wt %. The volume of freshwater with
0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt % of CuO nanoparticle increased by 17.57, 35.15 and 48.12% compared to the test without application of
nanoparticle. The accumulative volume of freshwater were 3.73, 4.39, 5.05 and 5.53 kg m− 2 h− 1 for tests with 0, 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03

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H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

Fig. 3. Effect of GO nanoparticle on distillate yield, glass, bottom and brine temperatures.

wt %, respectively. The trend of variation of distillate yield and different temperatures was similar to the case without nanoparticle.
The parameters boosted to a maximum value at midday and then decreased till 18:00 p.m. CuO is defined as a metal oxide nano­
particle, which reveals an efficient optical absorption of solar energy in the range of visible and infrared spectrum. This fact helps to
enhance the productivity and yield of the inclined solar still.
In a similar manner, three tests were carried out by addition of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt % of GO nanoparticle to the brine at flow rate
of 30 L h− 1 for brine. Subsequently, the fresh water produced increased by raising the amount of GO nanoparticle. The increase
percentage of fresh water volume compared with the test without GO, were 30.96, 51.46 and 81.59% for 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt % of
GO nanoparticle, respectively. It shows that GO could enhance the productivity of solar still more than CuO nanoparticle. This is
attributed to higher thermal conductivity of GO rather than CuO nanoparticle. Fig. 3 (a) compares the variations of freshwater volume
for experiments performed with GO nanoparticle with the test without GO. The accumulated freshwater produced for these four cases
were 3.73, 4.89, 5.66 and 6.78 kg m− 2 h− 1. Also, the temperature changes are depicted in Fig. 3(b–d) as were shown in tests with CuO
nanoparticle. GO nanoparticles would adsorb higher solar energy and the bottom and glass temperatures were higher than tests of CuO

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H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

Fig. 4. Effect of volume ratio of CuO and GO in CuO/GO nanocomposite on distillate yield, glass, bottom and brine temperatures.

nanoparticle. The maximum temperature of glass, bottom and brine for 0.03 wt % GO were 71, 72 and 76 ◦ C compared with 64.5, 71.5
and 73.5 ◦ C for 0.03 wt % of CuO nanoparticle.

3.2. Effect of volume ratio of CuO and GO in CuO/GO nanocomposite

Separate utilization of CuO and GO nanoparticles into the base fluid showed that 0.03 wt % had the highest efficiency and yield.
Hence, application of hybrid of CuO and GO nanoparticles as a single nanocomposite was only tested with wt. % of 0.03. Instead,
different volume ratios of these two nanoparticles, namely 30/70, 50/50 and 70/30 of (CuO/GO) were studied to investigate the effect
of different volume ratios of individual nanoparticles in a hybrid nanocomposite. Increasing the volume percent of GO in the nano­
composite from 30 to 70% improved the distillate yield. The results (Fig. 4 (a)) showed that the volume of freshwater produced were
53.85, 60.25 and 69.04% higher than the test without nanocomposite for CuO/GO volume ratios of 30/70, 50/50 and 70/30. This
shows the impressive and crucial role of GO in the nanocomposite in comparison with CuO.
The same results obtained for glass, bottom and brine temperatures as are depicted in Fig. 4(b–d). All temperatures increased to a
maximum values of 67, 68 and 73 ◦ C at midday for 30/70 vol ratio of CuO/GO and then decreased to lower values at evening hours.

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Fig. 5. Effect of brine flow rate on distillate yield, glass, bottom and brine temperatures.

It is noteworthy that the productivity of the experiment with 0.03 wt % CuO/GO nanocomposite with various 30/70, 50/50 and
70/30 vol ratios was higher than all wt. % of CuO nanoparticle, but was higher than 0.02 and less than 0.03 wt % of GO nanoparticle
(which can be considered as 0/100 vol ratio of CuO/GO). The advanced effect of CuO/GO nanocomposite rather than individual
nanoparticles on the solar still productivity could be related to the especial thermal and rheological characteristics of CuO as a metal
oxide nanoparticle with high thermal conductivity and GO as a black nanoparticle with high capacity of adsorption of light and solar
energy and high stability. Moreover, storage of solar energy by nanocomposite and releasing it to the brine at hours of afternoon and
even after sunset would improve the desalination process and distillate yield, as could be observed in Fig. 4 (a). Much difference is
relevant between productivity curves of experiments with and without nanocomposite at afternoon hours relative to morning hours of
a day which indicates liberating stored energy by nanocomposite at final hours of the day.

3.3. Effect of brine flow rate

The highest value for freshwater volume was achieved in the experiment with 0.03 wt % nanocomposite with volume ratio of 30/70
for CuO/GO. The effect of inlet brine flow rate was studied under these conditions for 8, 30 and 68 L h− 1. Increasing the flow rate to 68
L h− 1 decreased the productivity by about 88.54% compared with the flow rate of 30 L h− 1. This is attributed to higher velocity of brine

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H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

Fig. 6. Effect of PCM on distillate yield.

Table 3
Freshwater analysis after desalination process.

Analysis Unit Result Analysis Unit Result

1
Conductivity μS cm− 121.00 NO−3 mg L− 1 0.87
T.D.S mg L− 1 98.34 Ca2+ mg L− 1 0.16
pH — 6.90 Na+ mg L− 1 0.88
CO2- 3 mg L− 1 0.00 K+ mg L− 1 0.01
HCO−3 1 mg L- 0.70 Sum Cations meq L− 1 1.32
Cl −
mg L− 1 0.80 Total Hardness based on Calcium Carbonate (T.H) mg L− 1 22.00
SO2- 4 mg L− 1 0.03 Total Alkalinity based on Calcium Carbonate (T.A) mg L− 1 38.15
Sum Anions meq L− 1 1.48 Turbidity (NTU) — Not Detected

in the still and lower residence time. As a result, brine has less time for adsorption of solar energy and less evaporation takes place. As a
result, only 0.94 kg m− 2 h− 1 was gathered at the rate of 68 L h− 1 relative to 8.24 kg m− 2 h− 1 for 30 L h-1 flow rate. It is clearly seen that
augmentation of flow rate would dramatically decrease the yield of the inclined solar still as could be seen in Fig. 5 (a). Conversely,
decreasing the flow rate to 8 L h− 1, increases the residence time in the inclined solar still. Brine moves more slowly between the baffles
through the still and evaporates more and distilled water produced about 13.86% higher than flow rate of 30 L h− 1. The effect of brine
flow rate on various temperatures were also similar. Increasing the flow rate from 8 to 68 L h− 1 decreased the maximum glass tem­
perature from 68 to 56 ◦ C based on Fig. 5 (b). Maximum temperatures for bottom at midday were 74, 73 and 66 ◦ C, whereas for feed
water 73, 72 and 65 ◦ C were recorded for flow rates of 8, 30 and 68 L h− 1, respectively based on Fig. 5(c and d).

3.4. Effect of paraffin wax as PCM

The highest yield from before experiments was obtained in the experiment with 0.03 wt % nanocomposite with volume ratio of 30/
70 for CuO/GO and inlet brine flow rate of 8 L h− 1. This test was performed from 8:00 a.m. to 24:00 p.m. with and without paraffin wax
under the steps of solar still as PCM. The presence of PCM caused storage of thermal energy during morning hours, from 8:00 a.m. to
13:00 p.m. compared with the test without PCM. This leads to less evaporation and fresh water production in the presence of PCM
before 13:00 p.m. This procedure becomes adverse from 14:00 p.m. to 24:00 p.m. Because the PCM recovers the thermal energy stored
in it to the brine during the afternoon hours and specially the hours after sunset [40]. Fig. 6 illustrates the comparison of distillate yield
with and without PCM in the experiments. The maximum yields were related to 14:00 p.m. and the results showed 1.71 and 1.49 kg
m− 2 h− 1 with and without PCM, respectively. Application of paraffin wax increased the yield by 32.8% compared with the test without
PCM. The daily freshwater production were 16.99 and 12.79 kg m− 2 h− 1 with and without PCM, subsequently.

3.5. Analysis of freshwater produced

An analysis was performed on the freshwater produced from an inclined solar still which is reported in Table 3 to compare with the
results of brine analysis in Table 2. As it is obvious, the values of anions or cations have been severely decreased to a standard level.
Reduction of other parameters like conductivity, T.D.S, T.H, alkalinity and turbidity shows an improved performance of inclined solar
still with application of CuO/GO nanocomposite as an effective additive to brine for enhanced adsorption of solar energy.

4. Conclusions
In this study, an inclined solar still was fabricated and the effects of individual CuO and GO nanoparticles and CuO/GO nano­
composite on the freshwater volume, glass, bottom and brine temperatures were experimentally assessed. Also, the effect of brine flow
rate in the circulation system of the still was studied. The main conclusions are as following:

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H. Ajdari and A. Ameri Journal of Building Engineering 49 (2022) 104090

• Addition of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt % of CuO nanoparticle to the initial brine with 30 L h− 1 flow rate, increased the volume of
freshwater by 17.57, 35.15 and 48.12%, respectively.
• Addition of 0.01, 0.02 and 0.03 wt % of GO nanoparticle to the feed brine with 30 L h− 1 flow rate resulted in rising the distillate
yield by 30.96, 51.46 and 81.59%, respectively.
• CuO/GO nanocomposite with 0.03 wt % and 30/70, 50/50 and 70/30 vol ratio improved the volume of the fresh water by 53.85,
60.25 and 69.04% compared with the experiment without nanocomposite.
• Increasing the brine flow rate to 68 L h− 1 decreased the production rate by 88.54% and decreasing the flow rate to 8 L h− 1 would
increase the yield by 13.86%.

Author statement
Habib Ajdari: Investigation, Resources Abolhasan Ameri: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing - Original draft preparation,
Writing - Reviewing and Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project administration.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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