NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, WARANGAL-506004

(An Institute of National Importance)

TELANGANA – INDIA

Fundamentals of Network Analysis

By
Dr. Ramulu Chinthamalla
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
N.I.T.Warangal

10 September 2020
[email protected]

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❖ Why study Network Analysis?
✓ Electrical energy is the great driving force and the supporting
pillar for modern industry and civilization.

✓ Our everyday life would be unthinkable without electricity or the

use of electronic products.

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Network/Electric circuit analysis: is the collection of methods
and tools to determine the voltages and currents as well as the
power consumption and generation in electric circuits and
components.

The relations among the electric elements depend on the elements

of the circuit and their configuration or topology. That is how the
circuit elements are connected together.

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✓ Technology has dramatically changed the way we do things; we
now have Internet-connected computers and sophisticated
electronic entertainment systems in our homes, electronic
control systems in our cars, cell phones that can be used just
about anywhere, robots that assemble products on production
lines, and so on.

A first step to understanding these technologies is electric circuit

theory.
✓ Circuit theory provides you with the knowledge of basic
principles that you need to understand the behavior of electric
and electronic devices, circuits, and systems.

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✓ These examples are chosen to give you a concept of the scope of the
application of electrical and electronic technology and its integration
with other technical disciplines. To illustrate this breadth, we have
chosen illustrative applications from the fields of home entertainment,
health care, and industrial manufacturing processes.

FIGURE 1–1 A home theater installation. This system incorporates

many aspects of electrical and electronic technology.

FIGURE 1–2 An innovative Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) suite.

This suite features a movable high field MR machine, a surgical
information management system, a data display system, and more.
The suite is engineered to permit image-guided therapy without
having to move the patient between machines during the process.

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 Machines/Phones dc supply
✓ A wide variety of systems in the home and office receive their dc
operating voltage from an ac/dc conversion system plugged right
into a 120 V ac outlet.
✓ Laptop computers, answering machines/phones, radios, clocks,
cellular phones, CD players, and so on, all receive their dc power
from a packaged system such as shown in Fig. 2.37.

✓ The conversion from ac to dc occurs within the unit, which is

plugged directly into the outlet. The dc voltage is available at the
end of the long wire, which is designed to be plugged into the
operating unit. As small as the unit may be, it contains basically the
same components as in the battery charger in Fig. 2.35.

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BASIC DEFINITIONS

1. ELECTRICITY:
➢The invisible energy which constitutes the flow of
electrons through a circuit to do work is called electricity.

➢It is used for lighting ,heating, cooling, radio & TV

broadcasting, computers, transportation etc.

2. ELECTRIC CHARGE:
➢ We know from elementary physics that all matter is
made of fundamental building blocks known as ATOMS
& that each atom consists of electrons, protons &
neutrons.
 electorn (e ) → (negatively charged ) - 1.602  10 -19 C
proton ( p ) → ( positively charged ) + 1.602  10 -19 C
neutron (n ) → neutral

So,

➢The most basic quantity of electricity is the electric

charge.

➢Is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which

matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).

➢The presence of equal no.of protons and electrons

makes an atom neutrally charged.
 ➢ Note: The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1C of
charge there are
1
−19
= 6 .24  1018
electons
1.602 10

3. ELECTRIC CURRENT:
Charge in motion represents a current.
➢Electric Current (I) is the charge (q) flowing per unit time
(t) i.e the rate of flow of charge through a conductor.
q
I= I denotes current ✓ Current is the time rate of flow of electrical
t charge. Its units are amperes (A), which
are equivalent to coulombs per second (C/s).
q denotes charge
t denotes time
 One ampere = One coulomb per second

➢The continuous flow of free electrons constitute an

electric current and is defined as rate of flow of electrons
or charges.

Charge flowing across any cross - section

 Electric Current =
Time taken to crossing the section

→ Mathematically, the relationship b/w current i,

charge q and time t is
 dq
i=
dt
 ➢where current i is measured in amperes (A), and
1 A = 1C / 1Second
➢A steady-current can be expressed as:
Current, I = (A )
Q
t
➢where current I is measured in amperes (A).

Fig .1. Electric current due to flow of electronic charge in a

conductor.
 ✓The flow of conventional current is called ‘ELECTRIC
CURRENT’.

✓ The current is the number of electrons passing through a cross

section of the conductor per unit of time, 1 s. Precisely, the
current of 1 ampere i = 1 A equals the charge of q = 1 C coulomb
passing a conductor in t = 1 s.

✓ A continuous movement of electric charges is called electric

current. Conventionally, the direction of a current flow is selected
as the direction of movement of positive charges.
❖TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT:
➢ According to its magnitude and direction electric current
is of two types:
(i) DIRECT CURRENT:
✓ A direct current is a current that remains constant with
time.
✓ It’s magnitude and direction do not change with time.
Exs: A solar, battery (or) dc dynamo are the sources of
direct current.

Fig. 1.Two common types of current: (a) direct current (dc), (b) alternating current (ac).
(ii) ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC):
✓ An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies
sinusoidally with time.
(or)
✓An electric current whose magnitude changes
continuously and changes its direction periodically
is called alternating current.
Exs: AC dynamo is source of alternating current.
4. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (OR VOLTAGE):

✓ Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy

required to move a unit charge through an element,
measured in volts (V).
 ✓ The voltage Vab b/w two points ‘a’ & ‘b’ in an electric ckt
is the energy needed to move a unit charge from point
‘a’ to ‘b’.
→ Mathematically,it is expressed as,
work done W
electric potential/voltage = = joules/coulomb
chrage Q
✓The unit of electric potential (or) voltage is volt.
(or)
✓ Voltage is the electrical force that causes current to flow
in a circuit. It is measured in volts.
✓ A Steady voltage can be expressed as,
W
Voltage,V = ,volts
Q
Fig.2. Polarity of voltage vab
✓ A time-varying voltage can be expressed as,
dw
Voltage, v = , volts
dq
where w = energy in joules (J),
q = charge in coulombs
1 Joule
1 volt =
1 Coulomb

✓ Like electric current, a constant voltage is called dc-

voltage and a sinusoidally time-varying voltage is called
ac voltage.
✓ Voltage from a battery is dc voltage, and an ac voltage is
produced by an ac electric generator.
5. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
✓ The difference b/w the electric potential at any two
given points in a circuit is known as potential difference
(p.d).
✓ This is also called voltage b/w the two points and
measured in volts.
➢ Note:
(i) In electrical terminology the p.d. is called voltage.
(ii) No current can flow, if the p.d. b/w two points is zero.

✓ The difference in potential energy between two points in a circuit

creates a voltage across the points. This means that a potential
energy exists that can force the electrons to move. This movement
is from the higher potential to the lower potential points.
6. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E.M.F.):
✓ An electromotive force is that force which tends to
produce an electric current in a ckt and the unit of
e.m.f. is volt.

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✓ Electromotive force (EMF): An electric pressure or force supplied
by a voltage source causing current to flow in a circuit.

✓ The force which requires to convert chemical (or) any other form
of energy into electric energy is known as electromotive force
(e.m.f.),denoted by E.
The battery is one example of a voltage source that produces
electromotive force (EMF) between its two terminals.

● EMF moves electrons around the circuit or causes current to flow

through the circuit since EMF is actually ‘‘the electron-moving force.’’

● EMF is the electric pressure or force that is supplied by a voltage

source, which causes current to flow in a circuit.

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7. ELECTRIC POWER

✓ Power is related to energy, which is the capacity to do work.

✓ Formally, power is defined as the rate of doing work or,

equivalently, as the rate of transfer of energy.

✓ The symbol for power is P. By definition,

W
P=  watts, W  J / S
t

where W is the work (or energy) in joules and t is the

corresponding time interval of t seconds.
✓Power is the rate at which work is done (or) power is rate
of energy transfer.
(or )
✓Power is the time rate of expanding (or) absorbing
energy.

→ Mathematically,instanstaneous power,

J/S (or ) watt

dw
p=
dt
where w = Energy in Joules (J),
t = Time in secods (S).

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 dw dw dq
Also, p = = 
dt dq dt
p = v  i - - - - - instantaneous power
W
 Avg.power , P = watts
t

8. ELECTRICAL ENERGY:

✓Energy is defined as the ability to perform work.

(or )
✓It is the capacity to do work.
✓Unit is Joules (J).
 t t
Mathematically,W =  p.dt =  vi.dt
to to

➢ Note: The electrical utility companies measure electrical

energy in watt-hours (Wh).
1 Wh = 3600 Joules.

✓ The relationship b/w power and energy is

Energy
Power =  Energy = Power  Time
Time
E = p.t
= vit watt - sec ( Joules )
 ❖ BASIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS/ ELEMENTS:
✓The basic circuit components are resistor, inductor and
capacitor.
(i) RESISTANCE: The property of opposition to flow of
current is called resistance and it is denoted by R.
✓ Measured in ohm(Ω).
(ii) INDUCTANCE: The property of opposition to change
in current is called inductance and it is denoted by L.
✓ Measured in henry (H).

(iii) CAPACITANCE: The property of opposition to change

in voltage is called resistance and it is denoted by C.
✓ Measured in farad(F).
 ❖ RESISTANCE:
✓The resistance ‘R’ of an element denotes its ability to
resist the flow of electric current.

✓Resistance ‘R’ offered by a conductor

(i) Is directly proportional to its length(l)
(ii) Is inversily proportional to its area of cross-section (a)
(iii) depends upon the nature of material

(iv) changes with temperature.

Mathematically,it can be expressed as :
l
R =  , where  = Resistivity of the material in ohm - meter.
a
l = Lenth of the conductor
a = Cross - sectional area of the conductor.

❖ CONDUCTANCE:
✓The conductance of any material is reciprocal of its
resistance and is denoted as G.

✓It is the indication of easy with which current can flow

through the material.
✓It is measured in Siemens (or) Mho ()
 a 1 a a
G= 1 = =   = 
R l   l  l

❖ OHM’S LAW:
✓It states that, the current I flowing in a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely
proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature
remains constant. Thus,
V
Current I  V (or) I =
R
where R is the proportionality constant and is called as resistance R
✓ Ohm’s law states that current through a conductor in a circuit is
directly proportional to the voltage across it and inversely
proportional to the resistance in it, i.e.,
V E
I= or I =
R R

✓ Any form of energy conversion from one type to another can be

expressed as the following equation:

Cause
Effect =
Opposition

✓ In an electric circuit, it is the voltage that causes current to flow, so

current flow is the result or effect of voltage, and resistance is the
opposition to the current flow.
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✓ Replacing voltage, current, and resistance into the above
expression will obtain
Ohm’s law:

Voltage V
Current = or I =
Re sis tan ce R

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❖ APPLICATIONS OF OHM’S LAW:

✓Ohm’s law can be applied to a complete circuit or to any

part of the circuit, provided that V, I and R relate to the
same part

✓When Ohm’s law is applied to an entire circuit, values of

V,I and R must be used for the entire circuit.

✓When used for a certain part of a circuit, values of V,I

and R must be used from only that part.
❖ LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW:
✓Not applicable to Non-linear devices like diode, zener
diode, voltage regulator etc.

✓It does not hold good for non-metallic conductors.

✓ I–V characteristics of Ohm’s law: Using a Cartesian coordinate
system, voltage V (x-axis) is plotted against current I (y-axis); this
graph of current versus voltage will be a straight line, as shown in
Figure 1.14

✓ The straight line in Figure 1.14 describes the current–voltage

relationship of a 10- Ω resistor.

10 V
− When voltage V is 10 V and current is 1 A, R = = 10 
1A
5V
− When voltage V is 5 V and current is 1 A, R = = 10 
0.5 A

• The different lines with different slopes on the I–V characteristic represent the different
values of resistors. For example, a 20- Ω resistor can be illustrated as in Figure 1.15.
• Since I–V characteristic shows the relationship between current I and voltage V for a
resistor, it is called the I–V characteristic of Ohm’s law.

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✓ The I–V characteristic of the straight line illustrates the behavior of a linear resistor, i.e.,
the resistance does not change with the voltage or current. If the voltage decreases from
10 to 5 V, the resistance still equals 20 Ω as shown in Figure 1.15.

✓ When the relationship of voltage and current is not a straight line, the resultant resistor
will be a non linear resistor.

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❖ IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BASIC
ELEMENTS:
Circuit Voltage (V) Current(A) Power (W)
Element
R(Ω) V = IR I=
V P = I2R
V2
R =
R

L(H) di di
v=L 1
i =  v  dt + io p = Li
dt L dt

C(F) dv dv
1
v =  i  dt + vo i=C p = Cv
dt
C dt
 ❖ TERMINOLOGY OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS:
✓All electrical systems can be represented by electric
circuits.
❖ CIRCUIT ELEMENTS:
(i). CIRCUIT / NETWORK ELEMENT:

✓ An element is the basic building block of a circuit.

✓ Circuit element refers to the mathematical model of

a physical device.
✓ The individual components such as a resistor, inductor,
capacitor, voltage source and current source etc. that are
used in a circuit are known as ckt (or) n/w elements.
✓ There are two types of elements:
(a) Active elements and
(b) Passive elements.

(A) ACTIVE ELEMENT:

✓ An active element is capable of generating energy.

✓ Examples of active elements include generators, batteries, and

operational amplifiers.

(B) PASSIVE ELEMENT:

✓ A passive element is an element that does not
generate energy, however, they either consume (or)
store energy.
✓ Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.

✓ Inductors and capacitors can store energy and resistors

dissipate energy in the form of heat.

(ii). ELECTRICAL NETWORK:

✓ The interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements
forms an electrical network.
✓ A combination of various electric elements (Resistor,
Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source)
connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical
network.

✓ The interconnection of two (or) more circuit elements called

as electric network.
(or)
✓ An electrical network is an interconnection of electrical
components such as resistors (R), inductors, capacitors, or
their combinations, voltage sources, current sources, and
switches (S) with transmission lines.
(iii). ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT:
The interconnection of two or more simple circuit elements forms an
electrical network. If the network contains at least one closed path, it
is also an electric circuit.
Note: Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are circuits (see
Fig. 2.21)!

✓ A network that contains at least one active element, such as an independent

voltage or current source, is an active network. A network that does not
contain any active elements is a passive network.

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An electrical circuit consists of various types of circuit elements
connected in closed paths by conductors. An example is illustrated
in Figure 1.3. The circuit elements can be resistances, inductances,
capacitances, and voltage sources, among others.

Charge flows easily through conductors, which are

represented by lines connecting circuit elements.

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 ✓ An electrical circuit is a network that has a closed loop,
giving a return path for the current.
(or)
✓ The inter connection of two or circuit elements with at least
one closed path is called as electric circuit.

✓ Here ABCDA is a circuit i.e. closed path & R3 is open is not

a circuit, it is a part of network.

✓ Network is like a building where as the ckts are like rooms

in a building.
✓ A basic electric circuit consisting of a source of electrical energy, a
switch, a load, and inter-connecting wire is shown in Figure 2-1.
When the switch is closed, current in the circuit causes the light to
come on. This circuit is representative of many common circuits
found in practice, including those of flashlights and automobile
headlight systems.

Electric circuits are a method to demonstrate how an

electric device receives power and operates.
For instance, a flashlight has batteries to provide power
to a light bulb, wires to bring the power from batteries to
the bulb, and a switch to control the on-off action .

The operation of this flashlight can be model ed by its

electric circuit.

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(iv). NODE:
✓ A node in an electrical circuit is a point at which two or more
circuit elements are joined together.

✓ When two or more elements are connected together then the

common point is called as the node.

❖Simple Node: When two elements are connected together then

the common point is called as the simple node(no current division
at the simple node).

❖ Principle Node: When more than two elements are connected

together then the common point is called as the principle
node(current division is possible at the principle node).

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 Fig.1 Fig.2

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✓ A point in which terminals of more than two components
are joined.

Fig.3.

✓ This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot.

✓ The circuit in above fig. has nodes A, B, C, and D.

(V). BRANCH: ✓ It is a single path,i.e.one element
with node at each end.
✓ It represents single circuit element such as resistor,
inductor, voltage source etc.
 ✓ It is a single path,i.e.one element with
node at each end.

(or)
✓ A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a
circuit containing the electric elements.
✓ These elements could be sources, resistances, or other
elements.

✓ Fig. 3 contains the 5-branches.

(V). LOOP: The starting node and the ending node of a path is same.

✓ Any closed path in electrical circuit is called loop.

✓ As per above circuit we have 3-loops.

✓ A-B-D-A is 1st loop, B-C-D-B is 2nd loop and A-B-C-D-A is

third loop.
(V). MESH:
✓ A closed path that starts and ends at the same element
and contains no branches inside is called a mesh

✓ A closed path in the circuit which does not enclose any

other loop inside it is called mesh.

✓ A closed path that starts and ends at the same element and
contains no branches inside is called a mesh (Fig. 2.7).
❖ Network Analysis:
✓ It is the method of finding out the response when n/w and
excitations are known.

✓ In n/w analysis each problem has got the unique solution,

i.e., there will be single solution for each n/w analysis
problem.

✓ Since n/w is driven by energy source, so first we will discuss

about the types of energy sources used in the n/w analysis.

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 Energy Sources

Voltage Sources Current Sources

Independent Dependent Independent Dependent

Voltage Source Voltage Source Current Source Current Source
Ideal Voltage Source Ideal Current Source
Practical Practical
Voltage Source Current Source

Voltage Dependent Current Dependent Voltage Dependent Current Dependent

Voltage Voltage Source Current Source Current Source
Source(VCVS) (CCVS) (VCCS) (CCCS)
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✓ A source is a device which converts mechanical, thermal, chemical
or some other form of energy into electrical energy.

✓ Energy sources are broadly can be classified into two categories:

Voltage Sources & Current Sources.

Voltage Source:
✓ Voltage sources are the devices that will supply constant
terminal voltage.
Current Source:
✓ The device that will supply constant current.

✓ Voltage & Current sources can be further divided into two:

independent voltage source, dependent voltage source,
independent current source, dependent current source.
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✓ And these dependent sources further divided into categories:
voltage dependent voltage source & current dependent voltage
source.

✓ Similarly dependent current sources further divided into

categories: voltage dependent voltage source & current dependent
voltage source.

Independent Source:
✓ The element for which both voltage and current don’t depend on
the voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
Dependent Source:
✓ The element for which either voltage or current depends on the
voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.

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 ✓ For independent sources we use the
circular representations and we have
the polarities or direction of the
current depending on whether the
source is a V.S. or C.S.

✓ A diamond-shaped symbol is
used for dependent sources.
Independent Voltage Source:
✓ A source that supplies constant terminal voltage irrespective of
current drawn from it.

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INDEPENDENT VOLTAGE SOURCE:
Ideal and Practical Voltage Sources:
❑ Ideal Voltage Sources: has zero internal resistance and
it delivers the energy at a specified voltage, which
doesn’t depend on the current delivered by the source.

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❑ Practical Voltage Sources: has a finite internal
resistance and it delivers the energy at a specified
voltage, which depends on the current delivered by the
source.

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INDEPENDENT CURRENT SOURCE:
Ideal and Practical Current Sources:
❑ Ideal Current Sources: has infinite internal resistance
and it delivers the energy at a specified current, which
is independent of the voltage across the source.

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❑ Practical Current Sources: has finite(Rs≠∞) internal
resistance and it delivers the energy at a specified
current, which is dependent on the voltage across the
source.

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Kirchhoff’s laws:

✓ Kirchhoff’s laws are the most important fundamental circuit laws

for analyzing and calculating electric circuits after Ohm’s law.

✓ Physics Professor Kirchhoff: In 1847, a German physicist, physics

professor Kirchhoff (Gustav Kirchhoff, 1824–1887) at the Berlin
University developed the two laws that established the
relationship between voltage and current in an electric circuit.

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❖ KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW:
STATEMENT: Kirchhoff’s current law states that at any node or
junction summation of all the currents must be
zero. (or)

✓ The algebraic sum of the currents entering

any node is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that

N

i
n =1
n =0

where N is the number of branches connected to

the node and in is the n th current entering (or leaving) the node.
✓ Consider the node shown in Fig. Applying KCL gives:
I1+(-I2)+(-I3)+(-I4)+I5=0 -----------(1)

✓ Since currents I1 and I5 are entering the node, while currents I2, I3
and I4 are leaving it. By rearranging the terms, we get
I1+I5= I2+I3+I4 -----------------(2)
✓ Equation (2) is an alternative form of KCL:

• The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of

the currents leaving the node.

✓ Follows law of conservation of charge.

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 ❖ KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW:
STATEMENT: Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic
sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Mathematically, KVL states that
M
Around a closed path  vm = 0
m=1
where M is the number of voltages in the loop(or the number of branches in the loop)
and vm is the mth voltage.

Explanation:

Rearranging terms gives

which may be interpreted as

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

✓ Follows Energy conservation principle.

 Thank You
([email protected])

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