ELL 101 - Introduction to Electrical Engineering

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
OUTLINE

• Negative Feedback Review

• Voltage Follower
• Summing and Difference Amplifier
• Integrator and Differentiator
• Active filters (low-, high- and band-pass)

2
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Definition: A negative feedback is achieved when a part of the output
is fed back to the inverting (−) input terminal of the op amp.

Why Negative Feedback?

When device's gain is simply A→∞
too large (unknown) and its
bandwidth too narrow,
negative feedback is used to
set the gain to a specific β<1
precise value (irrespective of
internal gain) and increase
the bandwidth of operation.
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 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Input voltage Vi = Ve + Vf …(1) Output voltage Vo = AolVe …(2)
Feedback voltage Vf = βVo = βAolVe …(3) => Vi = (1 + βAol)Ve …(4)

Vi
Closed loop gain: Ve V
Vi e Aol
Acl = Vo/Vi = Aol /(1 + βAol) Vo
Vf iload
For βAol >> 1, Acl ~ 1/β
Vo
Vf Feedback
Sacrifice factor S = Aol / Acl ~ βAol β
4
Effects of Negative Feedback
• Fixes the gain at a precise value using external circuit elements, thus
becoming immune to variations of op-amp open-loop gain.
• Tends to stabilize operations and reduce fluctuations.
• Reduces the effect of device nonlinearities.
• Increases the bandwidth of the system by factor of S.
• Exercises control over the input and output impedances of the circuit.
• The system gain decreases by factor of S. Thus, there’s a tradeoff
between bandwidth and gain.

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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: The open loop gain (Aol) of an amplifier is 200, operating from
DC (f1 ~ 0) to an upper cutoff frequency (f2-ol) of 10 kHz. If the feedback
factor (β) is 0.04, what are the closed loop gain (Acl) and new upper cutoff
frequency (f2-cl)?

Aol 200
Soln: Acl = => Acl = = 22.22
(1+ β Aol ) 1+ 0.04*200
Aol 200
Sacrifice factor S = = =9
Acl 22.22

f2−cl = f2−ol S => f2−cl = 10k *9 = 90kHz

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VIRTUAL GROUND CONCEPT +VCC

ro Vo
VD rd
AVD
• Vo ≤ |VCC| ~ 5 - 15 V
Iin
• e.g. for Vo = 10 V & A = 105,
VD = 0.1 mV -VCC

• VD ~ 0 is a very good approximation in most cases (“virtual ground”).

• Thus, at the op-amp input terminals, there exists a virtual short circuit.
• Also, there is no current through the input terminals to a very good
approximation i.e. Iin ~ 0. 7
 VIRTUAL GROUND
CONCEPT Rf if

i1 R1 i
v

vi v
vo

By the concept of virtual ground, i = 0 => i1 = −if and, v = v’ = 0

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 OP-AMP “GOLDEN RULES”
• When an op-amp is configured in any negative-feedback
arrangement, it will obey the following two rules:

– The inputs to the op-amp draw or source no current

– The op-amp output will do whatever it can (within its limitations)
to make the voltage difference between the two inputs zero

Winter 2012 9
 DOGS IN THE FEEDBACK

− “there is no dog”
Vin +

inverse dog dog

• Op-amp creates inverse dog at output may with dog in

feedback loop
• Lesson: you can compensate for nonlinearities in the
feedback loop and the op-amp will “do the right thing”

This priceless metaphor is from Hayes & Horowitz, Art of Electronics

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 POSITIVE FEEDBACK PATHOLOGY
• In the configuration below, if the + input is even a smidge higher than Vin, the
output goes way positive
• This makes the + terminal even more positive than Vin, making the situation
worse
• This system will immediately “rail” at the supply voltage
– could rail either direction, depending on initial offset

Vin −
+
positive feedback: BAD

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 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
The output voltage “follows” the input voltage (gain is unity)

vo vo = vi
vi

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 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
• A voltage follower or “buffer” circuit provides a means of isolating an
input signal from a load by using a stage having unity voltage gain.
• It offers no phase or polarity inversion, and act as an ideal circuit with
very high input impedance and low output impedance.

i~0 iL
SOURCE LOAD

High output Low input

impedance impedance

Buffer Isolates
Loading Effects
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 EVEN UNDER LOAD
• Even if we load the output (which as pictured wants to drag the output to
ground)…
– the op-amp will do everything it can within its current limitations to drive the output
until the inverting input reaches Vin
– negative feedback makes it self-correcting
– in this case, the op-amp drives (or pulls, if Vin is negative) a current through the load until
the output equals Vin
– so what we have here is a buffer: can apply Vin to a load without burdening the source of Vin
with any current!

− Important note: op-amp output terminal

+ sources/sinks current at will: not like
Vin
inputs that have no current flow

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 EXAMPLE NUMERICAL
Problem: What is the power absorbed by the 4-kΩ resistor below?

Ans: Current through 4-kΩ resistor is i = 6/(4 + 2) = 1 mA

=> Power absorbed = i2R = (10-3)2 × (4000) W = 4 mW 15
 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Current to Voltage Converter & Vice-Versa

Op-Amp as Current to Voltage Converter

Op-Amp as Voltage to Current Converter
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 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier is an op-amp circuit that combines several inputs
and produces an output that is the weighted sum of the inputs.
Rf if
ia Ra
va
ib Rb i1
vb  Rf Rf Rf 
v vo = −  va + vb + vc 
ic Rc  Ra Rb Rc 
v
vc
vo

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 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
ia Ra
Rf if Applying KCL at node v,
va
ib i1
i1 = ia + ib + ic (1)
Rb
vb v The currents are given by,
ic Rc v va − v vb − v vc − v
vc ia = ,ib = ,ic = (2)
vo Ra Rb Rc

Also i1 = −if (3)

v a − v vb − v vc − v  vo − v 
Using (1), (2) & (3) => + + =−
Ra Rb Rc  R 
 f 
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 SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Rf if
va
ia Ra
va − v v b − v v c − v  vo−v 
+ + = − 
ib Rb i1 Ra Rb Rc R
 f 
vb v
ic Rc
vc
v
But v = v ' = 0
vo
vo va vb vc
=> − = + +
Rf Ra Rb Rc

 Rf Rf Rf 
Thus, output is given by vo = −  va + vb + vc 
 Ra Rb Rc 
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 1
Problem: Calculate the output voltage of an op-amp summing amplifier for
the following sets of voltages and resistors. Given, Rf = 1 MΩ.
(a) V1 = 1V, V2 = 2V, V3 = 3V; R1 = 500 kΩ, R2 = 1 MΩ , R3 = 1 MΩ.
(b) V1 = -2V, V2 = 3V, V3 = 1V; R1 = 200 kΩ , R2 = 500 kΩ , R3 = 1 MΩ.
Rf
R1
V1
R2
V2
R3
V3
Vo

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 Rf
R1
V1

R2
V2
Soln: R3
V3
Using the summing amplifier formula, Vo

Vo = -(Rf /R1)V1 - (Rf /R2)V2 - (Rf /R3)V3

(a) vo = − 1M *1+ 1M *2 + 1M *3 = −7V

500k 1M 1M 

 1M * −2 + 1M *3 + 1M *1 = 3V
v
(b) o = −  200k ( ) 500k 1M  
 21
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE 2
Problem: Find an expression for the output voltage vo below. Assume an
ideal op-amp. What mathematical operation does the circuit perform?

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Soln: We can use principle
of superposition to solve

Let vo1 be the value of vo when vs2 = 0

R vs1
=> v2 = vs1 =
R+R 2
R1  R2  vs1
But v2 = vo1 ⇒ vo1 = 1+ 
R1 + R2  R1  2

Let vo2 be the output when vs1 = 0

1  R2 
 2R  vs 2
vo2 =  1+ vo = vo1 + vo2 = 1+  (vs1 + vs 2 )

R1  2 2  R1 
 23
 APPLICATION OF SUMMING AMPLIFIER
Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
• Accepts inputs of digital/binary values at, typically, 0-V (for bit ‘0’) or
Vref (for bit ‘1’) and provides an output voltage proportional to the
decimal equivalent of the input binary value.
• E.g. consider a DAC with digital data of 4-bits

R4 = 2R3 = 4R2 = 8R1

(in general, Rn = 2n-1R1 for n-bits)

 Rf Rf Rf Rf 
Vo = −  V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 
 R1 R2 R3 R4 
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: In the DAC circuit below, Rf = 10 kΩ, R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 20 kΩ,
R3 = 40 kΩ, and R4 = 80 kΩ. Obtain the analog output voltage for the
digital inputs [0000], [0001], [0010], . . . , [1111]. Consider Vref = 1 V.

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 Rf Rf Rf Rf
Soln: −Vo = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 => −Vo = V1 + 0.5V2 + 0.25V3 + 0.125V4
R1 R2 R3 R4

Thus, a digital input [V1V2V3V4] = [0000] produces an analog output Vo = 0V

and input [V1V2V3V4] = [0001] gives Vo = -0.125 V.

Similarly,
[V1V2V3V4] = [0010] ⇒ Vo = -0.25 V
[V1V2V3V4] = [0011] ⇒ Vo = -(0.25 + 0.125) = -0.375 V
[V1V2V3V4] = [0100] ⇒ Vo = -0.5 V
[V1V2V3V4] = [1111] ⇒ Vo = -(1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125) = -1.875 V

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 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
A difference amplifier is a device that amplifies the difference between two
inputs but rejects any signals common to the two inputs.
Rf2
R if

Ra1
R
vv
ic Rb3
R
v’v
vV1b
vV2c voo
V
RR4c

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 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER Rf2
R if

Applying KCL at node v, R

R1a
v
v1 − v v − vo v’v v
ic R3b
= v1
Vb
R1 R2 vo
Vo
v2
Vc RR4c
 R2  R2
=> vo =  R +1  v − v1 …(1)
 1  R1

v2 − v ' = v '− 0 R4
Applying KCL at node v’, => v ' = v2 …(2)
R3 R4 R3 + R4
 R2  R4 R2
As v = v’ => vo =  +1  v2 − v1 (using (1) and (2))
 R1  R3 + R4 R1
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 DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER Rf2
R if

R2 1+ R1 
R
R1a

 R2  R2 v
v
vo = v2 − v1 ic R3b
v’v
 R  R1 v1
R1  1+ R3 Vb
 4 v2
Vc vo
Vo
RR4c

For a difference amplifier, we must

have vo = 0 when v1 = v2

R1 R3 R2
⇒ = => vo = (v2 − v1 )
R2 R4 R1
If R1 = R2 and R3 = R4, the difference amplifier becomes a subtractor,
with the output vo = v2 − v1 29
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: Design an op-amp circuit with inputs v1 and v2
and output vo= -5v1 + 3v2
R
R2 1+ 1 
 R2  R2
Soln: The output for the difference amplifier is vo = v2 − v1
R1 1+ R3  R1
 R4 
Comparing it with the given equation, we have
1+ R1  6
R2 R 3
= 5 ⇒ R2 = 5R1 and 5  2 
=3⇒ 5 = ⇒ R3 = R4
R1 1+ R3  1+ R3 R 5
 R4  4

Thus, if we choose R1 = 10 kΩ and R3 = 20 kΩ,

then R2 = 50 kΩ and R4 = 20 kΩ.
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 INTEGRATOR AMPLIFIER
An integrator amplifier is an op-amp circuit whose output is proportional to
the integral of the input signal over time.
C ic

i1 R1 t
1
v vo = − ∫
RC 0
vi (λ)dλ
vi v
vo

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 INTEGRATOR AMPLIFIER C ic

KCL at node v => i1 = −ic

i1 R1
The currents can be written as v
vi −v dvo v
i1 = , icic==−C vi
vo
R dt
vi − v dvo 1
=> = −C => dvo = − vi dt
R dt RC It is necessary to always discharge
the capacitor prior to application
Integrating from time 0 to t, of a signal i.e. vo (0) = 0
t
1 1 t
vo (t) − vo (0) = − ∫
RC 0
vi (λ)dλ => vo = − RC ∫vi (λ)dλ
0 32
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: If v1(t) = 10cos(2t) mV and v2(t) = 0.5t mV below, find vo(t)
for t > 0. Assume that the voltage across the capacitor is zero at t = 0.

33
Soln: You can check that the
given circuit is a “summing
integrator” with the output
voltage as,
1 1
vo = −
R1C ∫ v1dt −
R2C ∫ v 2 dt

t t
1 1
⇒ vo = −6 ∫
10cos (2τ )dτ − −6 ∫
0.5τ dτ
3*10 *2*10 0
6
100*10 *2*10 0
3

1 10 1 0.5t2
vo = − sin 2t −
6 2 0.2 2
vo = −0.833sin 2t −1.25t2 mV
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 DIFFERENTIATOR AMPLIFIER
A differentiator amplifier is an op-amp circuit whose output is proportional
to the rate of change of the input signal w.r.t. time.
R i1

ic C
v dvi
vo = −RC
vi v dt
vo

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 DIFFERENTIATOR AMPLIFIER
R i1
KCL at node v => ic = −i1
ic C
dvi  vo − v 
⇒ C = −  v
dt  R 
vi v
vo

Since v = v’= 0,

dvi
vo = −RC Differentiator circuits are unstable because
dt any fast varying electrical noise within the
circuit is exaggerated by the differentiator.
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 NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Problem: Sketch the output voltage waveform vo(t) for the circuit shown,
given the input voltage waveform below.
5k

(V)
vvoi(V)

0.2µF
4

vi
vo

0 2 4 6 8 t (ms)

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Soln: The time constant is RC = 5*103 *0.2*10−6 =10−3 s
Input voltage is given by,
2000t ; 0 < t < 2 ms
vi = 
8− 2000t ; 2 < t < 4 ms vo(V)

2
Thus, the output voltage is given as,

dvi −2V ; 0 < t < 2ms 0 2 4 6 8 t (ms)

vo = −RC =
dt 2V ; 2 < t < 4ms
-2

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 ACTIVE FILTERS
Another application of op-amps is to build active filter circuits. A filter
circuit can be constructed using passive components: resistors and
capacitors. An active filter additionally uses an amplifier (i.e. an op-amp)
to provide voltage amplification and signal isolation or buffering.

vo/vi vo/vi vo/vi

0 f 0 f 0 f
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 ACTIVE FILTERS
RfF Low Pass Filter
Max Voltage Gain Av = 1+
RRG1
(at low freq near d.c. i.e. f ~ 0,
capacitor C1 acts as open circuit
and we get non-inverting amplifier)
1
Cutoff frequency f OH =
2π R1C1
frequency at which capacitive
impedence is equal to resistance
at input (gain is 1/√2 of max) 40
 ACTIVE FILTERS
High Pass Filter
RfF
Max Voltage Gain Av = 1+
RRG1
(at high frequencies i.e. f → ∞,
capacitor C1 acts as short circuit
and we get non-inverting amplifier)
1
Cutoff frequency f OL =
2π R1C1
frequency at which capacitive
impedence is equal to resistance
at input (gain is 1/√2 of max) 41
 ACTIVE FILTERS
Band Pass
Filter

R2

C2

Max Voltage Gain: Av = (1 + RF/RG)2

1 1
Lower & Upper Cutoff frequencies: fOL = and fOH =
2π RC
1 1 2π R2C2
 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Problem 1: Calculate the cutoff frequency for a first-order low-pass filter
with R1 = 1.2 kΩ and C1 = 0.02 µF.
1
Soln: f OH = fOH = 6.63kHz
2π RC
1 1

Problem 2: Calculate the cutoff frequencies for a bandpass filter circuit

with R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ, C1 = 0.1 µF, and C2 = 0.002 µF.
1 1
Soln: f OL = fOL = 159.15Hz and fOH = fOH = 7.96kHz
2π RC
1 1 2π R2C2

43
REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Op-Amp Application in Measuring Strain

44
REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Op-Amp application in ECG

45
 REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Current to Voltage Converter & Vice-Versa

Op-Amp as Current to Voltage Converter

Op-Amp as Voltage to Current Converter
46
SOLVED NUMERICALS

47
 NUMERICAL 1
Problem: (a) For an input Va = 4V, find the output voltage Vo and current Io
(b) Determine the range of Va for linear operation if the saturation voltage
of op-amp is ±12V

Va

48
 NUMERICAL 1
12 12
Ans: (a) Output voltage of inverting summer is Vo = −  (4) + (−10) = 8V

4 6 

8 8
Io = + =1.47mA
10 12

12 12
(b) For linear operation, ±12 = −  (Va ) + (−10) = −3Va + 20

4 6 
=> Va = (20 ±12) / 3 => 2.67 V < Va < 10.67 V
49
 NUMERICAL 2
Problem: Calculate Vo for the circuit below. For a saturation voltage ±14V,
find the feedback resistance Rf for which the op-amp will saturate.

50
 NUMERICAL 2
4
Soln: By voltage division, V+ = ×5 = 2V
4+6
=> V+ = V− = 2V
KCL at the inverting (-) terminal,
5− 2 Vo − 2 Vo = 10V
+ = 0 =>
3 12

Now if we change Rf such that the output saturates i.e. Vo = ±14V,

KCL eqn is 5− 2 Vo − 2 => Rf +Vo −2 = 0 => Rf = 2−Vo
+ =0
3 Rf
To obtain Rf > 0, use Vo = -14V => Rf = 2−(−14) =16kΩ
51
 NUMERICAL 3
Problem: Find vo and io in the op-amp circuit below

52
 NUMERICAL 3
Soln: This is an inverting summer
with two inputs, so
 10 10 
vo = −  (2) + (1) = −8V
5 2.5 

io is the sum of the currents through

the 10- and 2-kΩ resistors.
Since va = vb = 0,
vo − 0 vo − 0
io = + mA = −4.8mA
10 2
53
 NUMERICAL 4
Problem: In the circuit below, R = 1 kΩ, C = 1 µF, and v1 = sin (2000t).
Assuming v2(0) = 0, find v2 for t > 0.

54
 NUMERICAL 4
Soln: This is an integrating
amplifier, so
t
1
vo2 = − ∫
RC 0
vvi (1λ )dλ
(t)dt

Thus,
t
1
v2 = − 3 −6 ∫sin 2000tdt = 0.5(cos2000t−1)
10 ×10 0
55
 NUMERICAL 5
Problem: In the differential amplifier below, R1 = 10 kΩ, R2 = 10 kΩ,
R3 = 100 kΩ and Rf = 100 kΩ. Determine the output voltage Vo if:
(a) V1 = 5 mV and V2 = 0
(b) V1 = 0 and V2 = 5 mV
(c) V1 = 50 mV and V2 = 25 mV
(d) V1 = 25 mV and V2 = 50 mV

56
 NUMERICAL 5
Soln:
Rf  100×103 
(a) Vo = − V1 = −  3 
(5mV ) = −50mV
R1  10×10 

 R3  Rf   100  1+ 100 (5) mV = 50 mV

(b) Vo =   1+ V =
 2  110  
R
 2 + R3 
R1     10 

 R 
(c) Vo = (V2 −V1 ) − f  = −250mV
 R1 

(d) Vo = (V2 – V1)(-Rf /R1) = 250 mV

57
 REFERENCES
1. Edward Hughes; John Hiley, Keith Brown, Ian McKenzie Smith, “Electrical and
Electronic Technology”, 10th edition, Pearson Education Limited, Year: 2008.
2. Alexander, Charles K., and Sadiku, Matthew N. O., “Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits”, 5th Ed, McGraw Hill, Indian Edition, 2013.
3. Robert-Boylestad, Louis-Nashelsky, “Electronic-Devices-and-Circuit-Theory”,
7th-Edition.
4. Ramakant A. Gayakwad, “Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits”, 4th edition,
2008.

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