The operational amplifier

• A basic building block in analog computers

used to implement the mathematical operations of integration, differentation,
additioni sign changing and scaling.

Operational amplifier terminals

• In 1968, Fairchild Semiconductor introduced an opamp : the µA741

• The circuit sybol for an opamp

Offset null terminals

• May be used in an auxiliary circuit

to compensate for a degredation in performance because of aging and
imperfections.

• Most often the deradation is negligible

so the offset terminals are unused.

4.1
NC terminal

• An unused terminal
stands for no connection.

Terminal voltages and currents

• The following figüre shows the voltage variables with their reference polarities.

• All voltages are considered as voltage rises from the common node

V p : the voltage at the non-inverting terminal

Vn : the voltage at the inverting terminal
V0 : the voltage at the output terminal

• The following figure shows the current variables with their reference directions

i p : the current into the non-inverting

input terminal

in : the current into the inverting input

terminal

i0 : the current into the output terminal

− +
ic , ic : the current into the neg. and pos.
power supply respectively

The voltage transfer characteristic

• The terminal behavior of the opamp as a linear circuit element is characterized by

constraints on the input voltages and the input currents

4.2
Operation of the opamp

• The opamp has 3 distinct regions of operation.

• When the magnitude of the input voltage difference is small

i.e. V p − Vn is small.

the opamp behaves as a linear device, i.e. the output voltage is a linear
fn. of the input voltages.

• Outside this linear region, the output of the opamp saturates

the opamp behaves as a nonlinear device, i.e. the output voltages is no longer a
linear fn. of the input voltages

In the linear region

V0 = A(V p − Vn )
• For most opamps, the recommended dc power supply voltages seldom exceed 20V.

• The gain, A is rarely less than 104.

Constraints on the input voltages

• In the linear region, the magnitude of the input voltage difference, V p − Vn must be less than
20/104 , or 2mV

however, node voltages typically are much larger than 2mV.

4.3
Therefore ;

• The constraint on the input voltages of the opamp is

V p = Vn

• For an ideal opamp, the gain A is infite

“virtual short condition” at the input of the opamp.

Constraint on the input currents

• Analysis of the opamp integrated circuit shows that

the equivalent resistance seen by the input terminals of the opamp is very
large, typically 1MΩ or more.

• Ideally, the equivalent input resistance is INFINITE

resulting in the current constraint

i p = in = 0

Note that ;

• The current constraint is NOT based on the linear operation of the opamp.

• It follows from KCL that

i p + i n + i 0 + i c + + ic − = 0
⇒ i0 = −(ic + + ic − )

Simplified circuit model

• In the linear region of operation, ± Vcc do not enter into circuit eqn.’s

“ the opamp symbol with the power supply

terminals removed.”

Remark. The positive and negative power supply voltages do NOT have to be equal in magnitude.For
example,
V + = 15V , V − = 10V ⇒ − 10V ≤ V0 ≤ 15V

4.4
Ex. The opamp shown in the following circuit is ideal

a. Calculate V0 if Va = 1V and Vb = 0V

b. Repeat (a) for Va = 1V and Vb = 2V

c. If Va = 1.5V , specify the range of Vb that

avoids amplifier saturation.

a.
Vb = 0 ⇒ V p = 0 , Vn = 0

Va − Vn 1− 0 1
i25 = 3
= 3
= mA
25.10 25.10 25

V0 − Vn V −0 1
i100 = 3
= 0 3
= −i25 = − mA
100.10 100.10 25

⇒ V0 = −4V (−10 ≤ V0 ≤ 10) the opamp is in linear region

b.
V p = 2V , Vn = 2V

1− 2 1
i25 = = − mA
25k 25

V0 − 2 1
i100 = = mA ⇒ V0 = 6V
100k 25

c.
1.5 − Vb V − Vb 1.5 − Vb
i25 = , i100 = 0 =−
25k 100k 25k

⇒ V0 − Vb = −6 + 4Vb ⇒ V0 = 5V6 − 6
⇒ − 10 ≤ 5V6 − 6 ≤ 10 ⇒ − 4 ≤ 5V6 ≤ 16
⇒ − 0.8V ≤ V6 ≤ 3.2V

4.5
 • V6 is limited to the range of [-0.8V, 3.2V] in order that the amplifier operates in the linear
region.

The inverting amplifier circuit

• The following circuit shows an inverting-amplifier circuit

i s + i f = i n = 0 , Vn = V p = 0

V s V0 Rf
+ = 0 ⇒ V0 = − Vs
Rs R f Rs

• Note that the output voltage is an inverted, scaled replica of the input with gain R f Rs

• This result is valid if the opamp is ideal, i.e. A is infinite and input resistance is infinite.

• The gain of the inverting amplifier with R f and Rs is limited as

Rf Rf Vcc
V0 ≤ Vcc , Vs ≤ Vcc ⇒ ≤
Rs Rs Vs

e.g. If Vcc = 15V and Vs = 10mV then

Rf
≤ 1500
Rs

Opening the feedback path

• We can remove R f to get

4.6
 • The output voltage is now

V0 = A(0 − Vn ) = − AVn

⇒ Vn < Vcc / A

• Since i n = i p = 0 , the voltage

drop on R s is almost zero.

⇒ Vn ≅ Vs ; hence the opamp can operate open loop in linear mode iff

Vs < Vcc / A , A: called open-loop gain of opamp

The summing-amplifier circuit

• The output voltage of a summing amplifier is

an inverted, scaled sum of the voltages applied at the input of the amplifier

• The following circuit shows a summing amplifier with three-input voltages

• Summing the currents away from the inverting terminal

Vn = V p = 0 , i n = i p = 0

− Va Vb Vc V0
− − − + in = 0
Ra Rb Rc R f

Rf Rf Rf
⇒ V0 = −( Va + Vb + Vc )
Ra Rb Rc

4.7
 • If Ra = Rb = Rc = Rs , then

Rf
V0 = − (Va + Vb + Vc )
Rs

• If R f = R s , then

V0 = −(Va + Vb + Vc )

Note that ;

• The number of input voltages can be increased as needed

• The scaling factors in the summing-amplifier circuit

determined by the external resistors Ra , Rb , Rc , ...

The noninverting amplifier circuit

• The following circuit depicts a non-inverting amplifier circuit

Vn = V p = V g

Vn Vn − V0
+ =0
Rs Rf

Vg V g − V0 1 1 V
⇒ + = 0 ⇒ Vg ( + )= 0
Rs Rf Rs R f Rf

Rs + R f Rf
⇒ V0 = V g = (1 + )V g
Rs Rs

4.8
 • Hence, to guarantee linear region of operation

Rf Vcc
1+ <
Rs Vg

The difference amplifier circuit

• The output voltage of a difference amplifier is proportional to

the difference between the two input voltages

• Consider the following difference amplifier circuit

Vn = V p , i n = i p = 0

V n − V a Vn − V0 Vn − Vb Vn
+ + in = 0 , + + ip = 0
Ra Rb Rc Rd

1 1 1
⇒ Vn ( + )= Vb
Rc Rd Rc

Rd
⇒ Vn = Vb
Rc + Rd

1 1 V V
⇒ Vn ( + )− a = 0
Ra Rb Ra Rb

Rd Ra + Rb V V
⇒ Vb − a = 0
Rc + Rd Ra Rb Ra Rb

4.9
 Rd ( Ra + Rb ) R
V0 = Vb − b Va
Ra ( Rc + Rd ) Ra

• If we rewrite V0 as

Rb
1+
Ra R
V0 = Vb − b Va
R Ra
1+ c
Rd

• Let us set

Ra Rc
=
Rb Rd

• then

Rb
1+
Ra R
V0 = Vb − b Va
R Ra
1+ a
Rb

Rb
= (Vb − Va )
Ra

• Note that, the scaling is controlled by the external resistors.

Remark. The relationship between the output voltage and the input voltages is NOT affected

by connecting a nonzero load resistance across the output of the amplifier.

4.10