Republic of the Philippines

Cagayan State University

CARIG CAMPUS
Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING- ChE DEPARTMENT

MODULE in MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Title Unit VI-B: ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Electrical Properties:
A. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
B. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING
C. FERMI LEVEL & ENERGY BANDS
Course Topic
D. STRESS(PIEZOELECTRICITY)
E. HEAT(PYROELECTRICITY)
F. APPLICATION: ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION,
PROCESS, MEDICAL(BIOMATERIALS) and PROTECTIVE
DEVICES
One of the principal characteristics of materials is their ability
(or lack of ability) to conduct electrical current. Indeed,
materials are classified by this property, that is, they are
divided into conductors, semiconductors, and
nonconductors. (The latter are often called insulators or
dielectrics.) Electrical properties of materials are often
important when materials selection and processing decisions
are being made during the design of a component or
structure. The electrical behavior of the various materials is
Module
diverse, some need to be highly electrically conductive
Overview/ whereas electrical insulativity is required of others.
Introduction
The main objective of this module is to explore the electrical
properties of materials, that is, their responses to an applied
electrical field. We begin with the phenomenon of electrical
conduction: the parameters by which it is expressed, the
mechanism of conduction by electrons, and how the electron
energy band structure of a material influences its ability to
conduct.

After finishing this module, you should be able to do following:

Learning
Objectives 1. Describe the four possible electron band structures for
solid materials.

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 2. Identify the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, insulators and semiconductors.
3. Briefly describe electron excitation events that
produce free electron/holes in metals,
semiconductors and insulators.
4. Solve Ohm’s Law problems.
5. Solve electrical conductivities given their charge
carrier density(s) and mobility(s).
6. Explain the manner in which electrical conductivity
changes with increasing temperature for metals,
semiconductor and insulating materials.
7. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconducting materials
8. Investigate the peculiar phenomena of pyroelectricity
and piezoelectricity.
By the end of this module the student will be able to classify
Learning
electrical properties of materials according to material type,
Outcome structure and physical properties.

• Ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, chemistry

Competence and materials engineering (high)
• Ability to identify, formulate and solve electrical
engineering problems (high)

Lecture Notes
A. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

Ohms Law on macroscopic level and microscopic level

You are probably familiar with Ohm’s Law:
V = IR -------------------------------------------------Eqn 1
where: V is the voltage across some device
I is the current through it
R is the resistance of the device
This relationship is considered to be on a macroscopic level because it considers a
physical device. If the device is made from some material with a cross sectional
area, A, and a length, l, then its resistance is given
by:
R = (ρ x l) /A ---------------------------------------Eqn 2

where: ρ is the resistivity of the material.

Note: The relationship between resistance and resistivity is analogous to weight and
density. Weight is a property of an object whereas density is a material property.
Similarly, resistance is a property of an object, or a device whereas resisistivity is a
material property.

Substituting the resistance equation into Ohm’s Law yields:

V = I [(ρ x l) /A]
I/A = (1/ ρ) V/l
J = σε -------------------------------------------------Eqn 3

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 where: J is the current density or current flux
ε is the electric field strength
σ is electrical conductivity or simply the reciprocal of resistivity (ρ)
Equation 3 is considered to be Ohm’s Law on microscopic level.
One way of classifying solid materials is according to the ease with which they
conduct an electric current: conductors, semiconductors, and insulators. Range of
the conductivities of these materials is shown below:

B. ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING

Three different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids: ionic,
covalent, and metallic. For each type, the bonding necessarily involves the valence
electrons, also the nature of the bond depends on the electron structures of the
constituent atoms. In general, each of these three types of bonding arises from the
tendency of the atoms to assume stable electron structures by completely filling the
outermost electron shell. (Recall Chapter 1 lecture)

In all conductors, semiconductors, and many insulating materials, only electronic

conduction exists, and the magnitude of electrical conductivity is strongly
dependent on the number of electrons available to participate in the conduction
process. Let us recall the four bonding mechanisms between atoms: three primary
- metallic, covalent, ionic and 1 secondary - Van der Waals.
Metallic bond:
Metallic elements consist of atoms surrounded by an electron ‘cloud’ or ‘sea’

Here, the element gives up its valence electrons leaving behind a tightly bound
core of inner electrons. Take note that:
• The core is positively charged as electrons are lost
• The positively charged atom cores are held together by mutual attraction
to the electron, producing the strong metallic bond
• Metallic bonds - non directional, i.e. electrons holding the atoms together
are not fixed in one position - results in ductility and deformation (rolling,
extrusion etc.)
• Movement of valence electrons results in good electrical conductivity

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Covalent Bond:

• Bond formed due to the sharing of electrons between two or more atoms
• Covalent bonds have a fixed directional relationship
• Covalent bonds are very strong and thus materials have poor ductility, i.e.
are brittle
• Also, materials have poor electrical conductivity - non mobility of the
electrons
• Many polymers and ceramics are fully or partly covalently bonded
Ionic Bond:

This is the donation of one or more valance electrons, from one type of atom with
a surplus of electrons to a different atom with a deficit, resulting in filling of the
outer shell
• Ionic bond is created between two unlike atoms
• Materials that are ionically bonded are brittle and have poor electrical
conductivity
• Many ceramics and minerals are ionically bonded
• However, many materials, even metals, are bonded by a mixture of the
three bonding mechanisms
• Both atoms have filled (or empty) outer energy levels and have acquired
an electrical charge (ions)
• This can be positive or negative
Secondary Bonds - Van de Waals Bonding:
Joining of molecules or groups of atoms by weak electronic attractions (e.g. many
plastics, ceramics, etc.)

• Due to a phenomenon known as polarisation

• Some portion of molecule is positively charged and some is negatively
charged - resulting in attraction to neighbouring molecules

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 • Van der Waal bonds are secondary bonds and very weak
Atoms within the group of molecules have strong (primary) bonds. Such bonding
changes properties of materials, e.g. PVC (polyvinyl chloride). Bonding within
each chain is covalent (strong) while bonding between chains is Van der Waals
(weak). This results in high deformation of the polymer.

Mixed Bonding:
• Most bonding in materials is a mixture between two or more types
• Iron is bonded by a mixture of metallic and covalent bonding
• Intermetallic compounds is a mixture of metallic and ionic bonds
• Ceramics and semiconducting compounds have a mixture of covalent
and ionic bonding

C. FERMI LEVEL AND ENERGY BANDS

Consider a metal containing N number of atoms. Thus, there exists N number of
energy levels in each band. These energy levels are very closely spaced. From your
Chemistry subject, recall that the filling up of energy levels in bands occur as per
Pauli’s exclusion principle and thus each level can accommodate a pair of
electrons with spin up and spin down. Thus, electrons in a metal start filling up the
available energy levels from the lower most level of the lower most band. All bands
below the valence band are completely filled. The highest filled energy level in a
metal at absolute zero (0 K) by free electrons is called Fermi level and the
corresponding energy is Fermi Energy (EF). At absolute zero and with no electric field
applied, all levels below Fermi level are completely filled and above Fermi level are
empty.
Electrons have allowed ranges of energy (energy bands) and forbidden ranges of
energy (energy gaps)
The various possible electron band structure in solids at 0 K is illustrated below.
a) The electron band structure found in metals such as copper, in which there are
available electron states above and adjacent to filled states in the same band.
b) The electron band structure of metals such as magnesium wherein there is an
overlap of filled and empty outer bands
c) The electron band characteristics of insulators; the filled valence band is
separated from the empty conduction band by a relatively large band gap
d) The electron band structure found in semiconductors which is the same as for
insulators except that the band gap is relatively narrow.

CONDUCTOR INSULATOR SEMICONDUCTOR

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Conductors:
• valence band is either only partially filled or overlaps with an empty band
• an electric field accelerates electrons
• with their increased energy they still “fit” into the empty part of the band
• conductors are opaque
Insulators:
• valence band is filled, the gap to the empty band is several eV
• electrons cannot overcome this gap thermally
• the electric field has to reach 108 V/m to overcome the gap (smaller fields
are insufficient because of collisions)
• the material is called insulator
• insulators are usually transparent
Semiconductors:
T~0 K:
• semiconductors and insulators have almost identical resistivity room
temperature
• in semiconductors a tiny fraction of electrons can be thermally excited over
the gap to the empty band
• the few electrons are sufficient to allow small current flows in the presence of
a field E

Mobility of Conduction Electrons

v ) depends on the applied field strength and is
It is found that the drift velocity( d

mathematically given by:

Here µe is called the mobility of the free electrons and is defined as the drift velocity
acquired by the conduction electrons per unit field strength. Its unit is square meters
per volts-second (m2/V-s) The drift velocity represents the average electron velocity
in the direction of the force imposed by the applied field. The mobility (µe) and
conductivity are related by the equation:

where:
n is the number of free or conducting electrons per unit volume
/e/ is the absolute magnitude of the electrical charge on an electron (1.6 x 10-19C)

Thus, electrical conductivity is proportional to both the number of free electrons and
the electron mobility.
Sample problem.

Calculate the drift velocity of electrons in germanium at room temperature and

when the magnitude of the electric field is 1000 V/m. Under these circumstances,
how long does it take an electron to traverse a 25-mm length of crystal?

Solution:
The drift velocity of electrons in Ge may be determined using the equation:

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Using the given table, the mobility of Ge is 0.38 m2/V-s and given the electric field
to be 1000V/m as stipulated in the problem. Therefore,

υd = (0.38 m2/V-s) 1000 V/m

= 380 m/s
The time (t), required to traverse a given length of 25mm is just
𝑙
t=
υd
25 x 10 −3 m
t= = 6.6 x 10 -5 s
380 m/s

Factors affecting the resistivity of electrical materials

1. Temperature: The electrical resistance of most metals increases with increase of

temperature while those of semiconductors and electrolytes
decreases with increase of temperature. Many metals have
vanishing resistivity at absolute zero temperature which is known as
superconductivity.
2. Alloying: A solid solution has a less regular structure than a pure metal.
Consequently, the electrical conductivity of a solid solution alloy
drops off rapidly with increased alloy content. The addition of small
amount of impurities leads to considerable increase in resistivity.
3. Cold work: Mechanical distortion of the crystal structure decrease the
conductivity of a metal because the localized strains interfere with
electron movement.
4. Age Hardening: It increases the resistivity of an alloy.
D. STRESS(PIEZOELECTRICITY)
An unusual property exhibited by a few ceramic materials is piezoelectricity, or
literally, pressure electricity: polarization is induced and an electric field is
established across a specimen by the application of external forces. Piezoelectric
materials are utilized in transducers, which are devices that convert electrical
energy into mechanical strains, or vice versa. Figure (a) below shows dipoles within

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a piezoelectric material and (b) a voltage is generated when the material is
subjected to a compressive stress

Generating an electric charge in a material when subjecting it to applied stress,

and conversely, generating a mechanical strain in response to an applied field.

➢ Piezin (Greek)- to press

➢ It is the ability of a material to acquire opposing electrical charges on
opposing surfaces when mechanical stress is applied
➢ First discovered in Quartz crystals by Pierre Curie and Paul Jacques in 1880
➢ Used in timing mechanisms of quartz watches

E. HEAT(PYROELECTRICITY)
The word is derived from the Greek pyr, which means to fire. Pyroelectricity
discovered by David Brewster in 1824. It is the ability of a material to acquire
opposing electrical charges on opposing electrical surfaces as a result of heating.
The change in temperature modifies the position of the atoms slightly within the
crystal structure, such that the polarization of the material changes. This polarization
change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal. If the temperature stays constant
at its new value, the pyroelectric voltage gradually disappears due to leakage
current.
The triangular diagram below illustrates the thermodynamically reversible
interactions that may occur among thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties
of a crystal. The lines joining pairs of circles signify that a small change in one of the
variables produces a corresponding change in the other.
The diagram’s colored lines indicate that the two contributions make up
pyroelectric effect. In the first, the crystal is rigidly clamped under constrain S, to
prevent expansion or contraction. A change in temperature causes a change in
electric displacement as shown by the green line, which signifies the primary
pyroelectric effect. The second contribution – secondary pyroelectric effect- is a
result of crystal deformation: Thermal expansion causes a strain that alters the
electric displacement via piezoelectric process, as shown by the dashed red lines.

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Pyroelectric charge in minerals develops on the opposite faces of the asymmetric
crystals. The direction in which the propagation of the charge tends toward is
usually constant through a pyroelectric material, but in some material this direction
can be changed by a nearby electric field. These materials are said to exhibit
ferroelectricity. All pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric, however some
piezoelectric materials have a crystal symmetric that does not allow pyroelectricity.

F. ELECTRICAL PROPERTY APPLIED ON: ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION, PROCESS,

MEDICAL(BIOMATERIALS) and PROTECTIVE DEVICES

1. Electrical Transmission

1.1 Conductors
They are materials that permit electrons to flow freely from particle to particle.
An object made of a conducting material will permit charge to be transferred
across the entire surface of the object. If charge is transferred to the object at
a given location, that charge is quickly distributed across the entire surface of
the object. The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Since
conductors allow for electrons to be transported from particle to particle, a
charged object will always distribute its charge until the overall repulsive
forces between excess electrons is minimized. If a charged conductor is
touched to another object, the conductor can even transfer its charge to that
object. The transfer of charge between objects occurs more readily if the
second object is made of a conducting material. Conductors allow for
charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.

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Example of conductors:
1. Copper- a great number of applications. A brief summary of these
includes bus bars, commutators, terminals, waveguides, electric
wire, power transmission lines, motor windings, printed circuits,
springs, water pipe and tubing, heat exchangers, building
products, gaskets and fasteners of many kinds.

Copper wires
Copper is the best conductor of electricity next to silver, having a
conductivity 97% that of silver.
Copper is generally corrosion-resistant to rural, marine and industrial
atmospheres, it is resistant to various waters, saline solutions, soils,
non-oxidizing mineral and organic acids and caustic solutions.
However, copper is attacked by oxidizing acids (e.g. nitric), moist
ammonia, and halogens, sulphides and solutions containing
ammonia ions.

2. Copper Alloys- many combinations of base materials and surface coatings

are available to give optimum electrical performance
characteristics
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

Copper enameled with Polyesterimide resin. Suitable for the

construction of motors and transformers, where the temperature
resistance (requirement) doesn't exceed 180 °C. Copper
enameled with polyesterimide resins and polyamidimide topcoat.
This combination guarantees excellent winding, chemical and
thermal resistance up to temperatures of 200 °C. The primary
applications for this excellent mechanically resistant product are
electric motors, hermetic motors and transformers.

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3. Aluminum

Aluminum ACSR AAC

• Aluminum Clad Steel Reinforced (ACSR Conductors) - This conductor
consists of a solid or stranded steel core surrounded by strands of
aluminum. ACSR Conductors is available in a wide range of steel
varying from as low as 6% to as high as 40 %.
The higher strength ACSR Conductors are used for river crossings,
overhead ground wires, installations involving extra long spans etc..
against any given resistance of conductor, ACSR Conductor may be
manufactured for having a wide range of tensile strength as per
requirement.
The principal advantage of these conductors are high tensile strength
and light weight with longer spans as well as with lesser supports. Due
to the greater diameter of ACSR Conductors a much higher corona
limit can be obtained causing big advantages on high as well as extra
high voltage overhead lines.

• All Aluminum Conductors (AAC Conductors) - This conductor is also

known as aluminum stranded conductor. This conductor is
manufactured from electrolytically refined (E.C. GRADE) aluminum,
having purity of minimum 99.5% of aluminum. This conductor is used
mainly in urban areas and the spacing is short and the supports are
close. All aluminum conductors are made up of one or more strands
of aluminum wire depending on the end usage. These conductors are
also used extensively in costal because it has a very high degree of
corrosion resistance.
The effects of temperature on a conductor.
Heating a conductor causes a vibration within the atomic structure of the
material, and this vibration ‘shakes loose’ some of the more easily detached
electrons allowing them to migrate randomly from atom to atom. As
temperature rises within the conductor, the vibration of the atomic structure
increases, and so there are more free electrons being shaken loose from their
orbits. This gives rise to more collisions between the randomly moving electrons
and the electrons moving under the influence of the electric potential. This
makes the flow of electrons towards the positive electrical potential more

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difficult. Therefore, the resistance of a conductor slightly increases as its
temperature rises.
1.2 Insulators
In contrast to conductors, insulators are materials that impede the free flow of
electrons from atom to atom and molecule to molecule. If charge is
transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess charge will remain
at the initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit
the free flow of electrons; subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly
across the surface of an insulator.
While insulators are not useful for transferring charge, they do serve a critical
role in electrostatic experiments and demonstrations. Conductive objects are
often mounted upon insulating objects. This arrangement of a conductor on
top of an insulator prevents charge from being transferred from the
conductive object to its surroundings.

Porcelain insulators Shackle insulators

Lightning arrester Line isolator

Fuse holders Strain

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Brass insulators Glass insulators Wood insulator Rubber insulator

The effects of temperature on an insulator.

In some insulators (glass for example) heating the material to a high

temperature will vibrate the atoms so violently that enough electrons will be
shaken free for conduction to occur. Allowing the glass to cool again stops
conduction. In most insulators however, conduction, whether caused by
excessive heat or by excessive voltage, will permanently destroy the material.
For this reason, any material used for electrical insulators, will have a safe
working limit quoted by the manufacturer of the insulator, for both voltage
and temperature.

1.3 Semiconductors
Semiconductors fall between conductors and insulators. They do not normally
pass current easily at room temperature, having a resistivity higher than
conductors, but lower than insulators. They have properties however, which
make them very useful for the manufacture of electronic devices such as
transistors and diodes.
The electrical properties of these materials are extremely sensitive to the
presence of even minute concentrations of impurities. Intrinsic
semiconductors are those in which the electrical behavior is based on the
electronic structure inherent in the pure material. When the electrical
characteristics are dictated by impurity atoms, the semiconductor is said to
be extrinsic.
Silicon and Germanium, as well as a number of other materials and mixtures
of materials in the semiconductor group are widely used in the manufacture
of transistors and diodes, as well as integrated circuits such as microprocessors.
The effects of temperature on semiconductor.
In a semiconductor, the bond between the valence electrons and their
nucleus is much stronger than in a conductor, so far fewer electrons are free
to move when a potential is applied. When current does flow, the chances of
a collision between the electrons moving due to the electric potential, and
randomly moving electrons due to heat, is much less. Moreover, the heating
of the material frees electrons previously held by their atoms and so these
electrons are also free to add to the current flow. Although of course the total
current flow is much less than in a conductor, the amount by which current
flow increases due to heat is proportionally greater. In use therefore, it is
important to keep components made from semiconductor materials, such as

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transistors, cool. Otherwise an effect called thermal runaway can occur. This
is when an increase in temperature causes an increase in current, which in
turn causes a further increase in temperature, leading to further increasing
current.
Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor

1.4 Superconductors
An element, inter-metallic alloy, or compound that will conduct electricity
without resistance below a certain temperature. Resistance is undesirable
because it produces losses in the energy flowing through the material.
Once set in motion, electrical current will flow forever in a closed loop of
superconducting material- making it the closest thing to perpetual motion in
nature. Scientists refer to superconductivity as a “macroscopic quantum
phenomenon”.
Application of superconductors:
1. Bullet train- Magnetic-levitation is an application where superconductors
perform extremely well. Transport vehicles such as trains can be made to
"float" on strong superconducting magnets, virtually eliminating friction
between the train and its tracks. Not only would conventional
electromagnets waste much of the electrical energy as heat, they would
have to be physically much larger than superconducting magnets. A
landmark for the commercial use of MAGLEV (magnetic levitation)
technology occurred in 1990 when it gained the status of a nationally-
funded project in Japan. The Minister of Transport authorized construction
of the Yamanshi MagLev Test Line which opened on April 3, 1997. In
December 2003, the MLX01 test vehicle attained an incredible speed of
361 mph (581 kph).

The Yamanashi MLX01 MagLev train Taiwan’s High Speed Train

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 Principle Behind Maglev Vehicles
MagLev vehicles are based on the principle of Magnetic Levitation which
is defined as the enormous repulsion between two highly powerful
magnetic fields. It is used to minimize and eliminate friction between two
surfaces in relative motion. This also results in minimization of power utilized
and noise.

Sectional View of a MagLev Vehicle

2. Electric Generators Electric generators made with superconducting wire are
far more efficient than conventional generators wound with copper wire.
In fact, their efficiency is above 99% and their size about half that of
conventional generators. These facts make them very lucrative ventures for
power utilities.
Other commercial power projects in the works that employ superconductor
technology include energy storage to enhance power stability up to a
power reserve of over 3 million watts, which can be retrieved whenever
there is a need to stabilize line voltage during a disturbance in the power
grid
3. Military application - Superconductors have also found widespread
applications in the military. HTSC Superconducting Quantum Interference
Devices (SQUIDS)are being used by the US NAVY to detect mines and
submarines. And, significantly smaller motors are being built for NAVY ships
using superconducting wire and "tape". In mid-July, 2001, American
Superconductor unveiled a 5000-horsepower motor made with
superconducting wire (below).

4. Lighting Fixtures
Light bulb- This is made up of a fairly large, thin, frosted glass envelope.
Inside the glass is a gas such as argon and/or nitrogen. At the center
of the lamp is a tungsten filament. Electricity heats this filament up to

15
 about 4,500oF (2,500oC). Just like any hot metal, the tungsten gets
"white hot" at that heat and emits a great deal of visible light in a
process called incandescence.

A normal light bulb is not very efficient, and it only lasts about 750 to
1,000 hours in normal use. It's not very efficient because, in the process
of radiating light, it also radiates a huge amount of infrared heat -- far
more heat than light. Since the purpose of a light bulb is to generate
light, the heat is wasted energy. It doesn't last very long because the
tungsten in the filament evaporates and deposits on the glass.
Eventually, a thin spot in the filament causes the filament to break,
and the bulb "burns out."
Halogen lamps - A halogen lamp also uses a tungsten filament, but it is
encased inside a much smaller quartz envelope. Because the
envelope is so close to the filament, it would melt if it were made from
glass. The gas inside the envelope is also different -- it consists of a gas
from the halogen. These gases combine with tungsten vapor! If the
temperature is high enough, the halogen gas will combine with
tungsten atoms as they evaporate and redeposit them on the
filament. This recycling process lets the filament last a lot longer. In
addition, it is now possible to run the filament hotter, meaning you get
more light per unit of energy. You still get a lot of heat, though; and
because the quartz envelope is so close to the filament, it is EXTREMELY
hot compared to a normal light bulb.
Fluorescent lamps - The central element in a fluorescent lamp is a sealed
glass tube. The tube contains a small bit of mercury and an inert gas,
typically argon, kept under very low pressure. The tube also contains
a phosphor powder, coated along the inside of the glass. The tube
has two electrodes, one at each end, which are wired to an electrical
circuit. The electrical circuit, is hooked up to an alternating current
(AC) supply.
When you turn the lamp on, the current flows through the electrical
circuit to the electrodes. There is a considerable voltage across the
electrodes, so electrons will migrate through the gas from one end of
the tube to the other. This energy changes some of the mercury in the
tube from a liquid to a gas. As electrons and charged atoms move
through the tube, some of them will collide with the gaseous mercury
atoms. These collisions excite the atoms, bumping electrons up to
higher energy levels. When the electrons return to their original energy
level, they release light photons. The wavelength of a photon is
determined by the particular electron arrangement in the atom. The
electrons in mercury atoms are arranged in such a way that they
mostly release light photons in the ultraviolet wavelength range. Our
eyes don't register ultraviolet photons, so this sort of light needs to be
converted into visible light to illuminate the lamp.
Street lights - High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lights which emit an amber/white
light and Low Pressure Sodium (LPS), which emits a monochromatic
yellow light.

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2. Process Application
2.1 Electric Discharge Machining

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) is a metal removal process where two

electrodes are used to produce a spark. The anode (positive electrode) is
the workpiece itself and the cathode (negative electrode) is the tool

Common materials used for the electrodes are graphite, copper, brass,
stainless steel, titanium and copper tungsten as these are good conductors.
Examples of dielectric fluids are distilled water and hydrocarbon oils like
kerosene.

Wire EDM is another type of electric discharge machining. Rather than using
a large electrode, wire EDM used a long thin electrode (usually brass wire)
which is constantly being renewed to produce the sparks. This avoids the
shrinking of the tool as it is used. It can machine to an accuracy of ±0.002
inches. Advantages include:

▪ Accuracy - EDM of all types is very accurate compared to

other types of machining processes.
▪ Flexibility - EDM can create shapes and contours that other
forms of machining are not capable of.
▪ Functionality - EDM can be used on any conductive materials
weather they are hard or soft including metals, alloys and
carbides which are hard to machine using traditional methods.
▪ Prototyping - EDM is often used in prototyping because of the
speed in which the designs can be changed.
▪ Delicate Machining - The tool never touches the workpiece so
it cannot destroy it.
▪ Finishes - EDM can produce very fine finishes eliminating the
need for grinding

Arc welding - manufacturing methods for ships, bridges, trains and off-road
equipment

Resistance Spot welding - Resistance welding is a process for fastening

metallic objects together. The metallic objects have various electrical and
thermal properties that make it possible for the resistance welding process
to occur. Electrically, metallic objects have some level of resistance to the

17
 flow of electrical current. This resistance will cause heat energy as electric
current passes through the workpiece.

3. Medical Application -biomaterials: an offer the body can’t reject!

3.1 Neural Prosthetic Implant Insulation

✓ The insulating biomaterials electrically insulates microassemblies consisting of

a cable of at least 2 microwires terminated on a silicon micromachined
structure
✓ The microcable of 2 insulated conductors are as flexible as a 100micron
diameter solid gold wire. be at least eight cm. in length.
✓ Individual conductors in the microcable are biocompatible material, have a
resistance no greater than 100 ohms per centimeter, and bond to gold bond
pads on a microdevice or microelectrode array.
✓ microdevice conductors biased at plus and minus 5 volts soaked in 0.9%
saline at 37 degrees C.

3.2 Magnetic Resonance Imaging - Brain Imaging (Let’s take a picture!)

By impinging a strong superconductor-derived magnetic field into the body,

hydrogen atoms that exist in the body's water and fat molecules are forced
to accept energy from the magnetic field. They then release this energy at a
frequency that can be detected and displayed graphically by a computer.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) was actually discovered in the mid
1940's. But, the first MRI exam on a human being was not performed until July
3, 1977. And, it took almost five hours to produce one image! Today's faster
computers process the data in much less time.

MRI of a human skull

4. Protective Devices

4.1 Voltage Gloves (Insulating Rubber)

Insulating gloves uses a 2-color advantage. The contrast between the thin
outer orange color against the inner blue color makes inspecting for cuts and
tears easier when the glove is inflated or stretched

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 Low Voltage Gloves High Voltage Gloves

4.2 Fuses

➢ The fuse is the weakest part in a circuit.

➢ The conductor inside the fuse is made of a metal similar to solder. It has a
lower melting point than the wire itself. The size of the conductor is
calibrated very carefully so that when the rated current is reached, enough
heat is generated to melt the conductor and so break the circuit.

Transmission fuse known as “Suicide box”

4.3 Lightning Rods

➢ lightning rods provide a low-resistance path to ground that can be used to

conduct the enormous electrical currents when lightning strikes occur. If
lightning strikes, the system attempts to carry the harmful electrical current
away from the structure and safely to ground.
➢ the purpose of the lightning rod is not to attract lightning -- it merely provides
a safe option for the lightning strike to choose.

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4.4 Surge Arresters

Surge arresters collect spark-causing currents in transmission lines and send it

to ground through discharging rods and earthing wires

Photo above shows arrester and discharge rod

Optional
Activities/Resourc ➢ Read Chapter 18 of our Textbook Materials Science
es: and Engineering: An Introduction by William Callister
6th ed.

1. Callister, W.D. (2003). Materials Science and

Engineering An Introduction, 6th edition. New York: J
Wiley & Sons
References 2. Lohith, K.S.M. (2018). Electrical properties of Materials-
Electronic conduction in solids. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/3228
87983_
Activity 1. QUESTIONS.
Use the information given in this module to answer the questions in this quiz.
Direction. For multiple choice question, write the letter of the best answer
before each number. Explain the choice of answer when needed.

1. Suppose that a conducting sphere is charged positively by some method.

The charge is initially deposited on the left side of the sphere. Yet because
the object is conductive, the charge spreads uniformly throughout the
surface of the sphere. The uniform distribution of charge is explained by the
fact that ____. Explain why. (15 points)

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 a. the charged atoms at the location of charge move throughout the surface
of the sphere
b. the excess protons move from the location of charge to the rest of the
sphere
c. excess electrons from the rest of the sphere are attracted towards the
excess protons

Defend your answer.

2. When an oil tanker car has arrived at its destination, it prepares to empty its
fuel into a reservoir or tank. Part of the preparation involves connecting the
body of the tanker car with a metal wire to the ground. Suggest a reason for
why is this done. (10 points)

3. Your mirror is probably made of a piece of glass with an aluminum backing.

Almost all the light that hits the mirror reflects back. Only about 5% of the light
that hits the surface of the glass in your window reflects back. The reason why
light reflects so well from the aluminum surface compared to the glass
surface is ___. (10 points)
a. Metal is much harder than glass and therefore photons undergo purely
elastic collision
b. Metals have conduction bands that allow electrons to move freely,
generating counter electric field to the photon. The bound electron in
glass cannot do this as efficiently.
c. The magnetic field of the photon sets up an equal and opposite magnetic
field in the metal. Glass is not influenced by magnetic fields, so little
reflection is observed.
d. The electric field at the surface of a metal is much larger than that found
at the surface of a glass, and this repels the photons.
4. If a metallic material is cooled through its melting temperature at an
extremely rapid rate, it will form a non-crystalline solid (i.e. a metallic glass).
Will the electrical conductivity of the non-crystalline metal be more or less
than that of its crystalline counterpart. Why? (15 points)

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 5. In terms of electron energy band structure, discuss reasons for the difference
in electrical conductivity between conductors(metals), semiconductors,
and insulators (15 points)

Activity 2. PROBLEM SOLVING.

Direction. Solve the following problems chronologically. Complete solution is

needed.
1. The graph below represents the voltage V across a resistor against the
current I passing through the same resistor. What is the resistance of the
resistor in the circuit? (15 points)

2. An n-type semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration

of 3 x 10 18 m-3. If the electron drift velocity is 100 m/s in an electric field
of 500 V/m, calculate the conductivity of this material. (20 points)

Prepared by:

Engr. Mary Jane C. Calagui, PhD

Faculty – ChE Department

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