NVIS Handbook

Near Vertical Incidence Skywave Communication
Theory, Techniques, and Validation

by David M. Fiedler and Edward J. Farmer
Copyright October, 1996
Second printing, August 2000
2NVIS Communication
Editor Biographical Data
LTC David M. Fiedler

LTC Fiedler was commissioned in the U.S. Army Signal Corps upon
graduation from the Pennsylvania Military College (Weidner University) in
1968. He is a graduate of the Signal Officers Basic Course, the Radio and
Microwave Systems Engineering Course, the Signal Officers Advanced
Course, and the Command and General Staff College. He has served in Regular
Army National Guard signal, infantry, and armor units in CONUS and Vietnam.
He holds degrees in physics and engineering and an advanced degree in
industrial management.
He is employed as Chief of the Fort Monmouth Field Office of the
Project Manager all Source Analysis System (PM ASAS) and is the Assistant
Project Director for the Integrated Meteorological System (IMETS). He is also
assigned to the System Engineering Office of the Program Executive Office for
Command and Control Systems (PEO-CCS) with special responsibilities in the
area of Battalion and Below Command and Control (B2C2) and Combat
Command and Control Vehicles (C2V).
He is also the Chief of the C-E Division of the New Jersey Army
National Guard, and is a recognized expert in combat communications.
MAJ Edward J. Farm.er, P.E.

MAJ Farmer graduated from the California State University at Chico in
1971 where he earned degrees in electrical engineering and physics. He is a
Registered Professional Engineer and president of EFA Technologies, Inc.
He completed signal school at Ft. Gordon during the Viet-Nam war and
worked in Military Intelligence. He is presently assigned to the Directorate of
Plans, Operations, and Security of the California Army National Guard where
he serves as Assistant State Signal Officer.
He earned his original Amateur Radio License in 1959 (WL7DNZ) and
presently holds Amateur Extra Class License AA6ZM.
He is the author of two books, over forty papers and articles, and holds
four U.S. patents.
NVIS Communication 3
4 NVIS Communication
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PART ONE. How and Why NVIS Works
Chapter 1 Beyond Line-of-Sight Propagation and Antennas – 10

Chapter 2 Skip the Skip Zone – 19
Chapter 3 NVIS Propagation at Low Solar Flux Indices – 23
Chapter 4 NVIS Antenna Fundamentals – 36
PART TWO. How to do it
Chapter 5 The HF NVIS Radio Path – 46

Chapter 6 Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) Propagation, the Soviet Approach – 55
Chapter 7 Mobile NVIS: The New Jersey Army National Guard Approach – 57
Chapter 8 Optimizing Low Power High Frequency Radio Performance for Tactical Operations - 62
Chapter 9 HF Radio Communications and High Angle Antenna Techniques – 71
Chapter 10 How to Survive Long Range and Special Operations – 76
Chapter 11 Antenna Performance for Near Vertical Incidence Skywave Communications – 82
Chapter 12 U.S. Army FM 24-18: Tactical Single-Channel Radio Communications Techniques – 96
Chapter 13 A NVIS Refresher – 122
PART THREE. Yes, it works!
Chapter 14 NVIS a Key to D-Day Success – 124

Chapter 15 Marine Tests Prove Fiedler's NVIS Conclusions – 128
Chapter 16 A Cloud Warmer Antenna is Best for Local HF Coverage – 132
Chapter 17 Battle Force Electronic Mail – 134
Chapter 18 Test Report: Near Vertical Incidence Skywave Communications Demonstration – 137
INTRODUCTION
Radio waves are part of the electromagnetic greater by nearly ten times. The UHF range has a
spectrum which extends from near direct current through bandwidth of about 2,700 MHz, over ninety times the
light. For convenience, various ranges of frequencies bandwidth available at medium and high frequency. Do
with somewhat similar propagation characteristics are you see a trend emerging here? Rapid transmission of
referred to in terms of their place in the electromagnetic large volumes of data requires bandwidth which is
spectrum. increasingly available with increasing frequency.
Medium frequencies are those in the range of 300 Many modern applications of communication
kHz through 3 MHz. Services that operate in this, range technology require huge amounts of bandwidth. For
include (among others) AM radio broadcast stations, example, the entire high frequency band would support
radio location beacons (LORAN), some military only four television channels! Similar loading is created
communications, and Amateur Radio. The high by high speed data networks. Clearly, high speed and
frequency range extends from 3 MHz through 30 MHz high-volume favors use of higher frequencies.
and includes many services such as ship-to-shore radio, Obviously, medium and high frequency radio
international broadcast services, military encompass only a tiny portion of the radio spectrum. Yet,
communications, commercial services, and Amateur as long as the limitations are kept in mind, it can do
Radio. amazing things which can. not be duplicated at any other
Medium and high frequency radio has been around frequencies. One of those, Near Vertical Incidence
for a long time. Marconi's experiments, which Skywave (NVIS) communication, is of significant
introduced the world to long-range radio importance in emergency and tactical military
communication, were conducted in the high frequency communications. This mode has traditionally been
range. Radio Amateurs regularly demonstrate the ability misunderstood and poorly appreciated. Hopefully the
to work _ hundreds of countries by using their next hundred or so pages will help that situation.
frequencies between 1.8 and 30 MHz. Ship NVIS propagation occurs readily at the high end of
radiotelephone service has provided many mariners and the medium frequency range and in the lower half of the
their passengers with telephone service across the high frequency range. Radio Amateurs find their 160-
oceans. meter band (1.8 to 2 MHz), 80-meter band (3.5 to 4
Above the high frequency range there are very high MHz) and 40-meter band (7.0 to 7.3 MHz) to be useful.
frequency (VHF) which encompasses 30 to 300 MHz, Military applications typically range from 2 MHz to
ultra-high frequency (UHF) which includes 300 to about about 12 MHz.
3000 MHz, super high frequency (3 to 30 GHz), At frequencies between 1.8 and 30 MHz there are
extremely high frequency (30 GHz to 300 · GHz) and three propagation modes: line-of sight, ground wave, and
still higher ranges which range into the terahertz region. sky wave.
Most commercial and military interest is in these Line of sight propagation occurs between stations
higher frequencies. There are several reasons for this but that have visibility with each other. While high
perhaps the most important is bandwidth. The frequency radio waves refract somewhat as they pass
mathematician C.E. Shannon established in 1948 that our through the atmosphere paths of this type are essentially
ability to move information over radio is related to the limited to stations that have visibility with each other.
bandwidth available. The entire medium and high This is the most common propagation mode at VHF,
frequency range includes a bandwidth of only 29.7 MHz. UHF, and above.
The VHF range alone has a bandwidth of 270 MHz –
Bandwidth in Various Frequency Ranges
Band Frequency Range Bandwidth (MHz)

medium frequency (MF) 0.3 to 3 MHz 2.7
high frequency (HF) 3 to 30 MHz 27
very high frequency (VHF) 30 to 300 MHz 270
ultra high frequency (UHF) 300 to 3000 MHz 2,700
super high frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 GHz 27,000
extremely high frequency (EHF) 30 to 300 GHz 270,000
Ground wave propagation results from radio waves 90 percent of it has been published in Army
following the surface of the earth. In this mode, they are Communicator magazine, an official publication of the
guided waves and, depending on the earth under them, U.S. Army Signal Corps. The editors felt the public
can travel dozens of miles to reach their receiver. This is would benefit by access to the better of these
the usual mode by which we hear AM broadcast stations. publications and set out to develop this book. Hopefully,
While this mode exists at VHF and above it is most this will place the best information about NVIS within
common at medium frequencies (300 kHz to 3 MHz) and reach of the commercial, civilian, and Amateur Radio
high frequencies (3 MHz to 30 MHz). communities.
Skywave propagation involves reflecting signals off Readers are also advised to explore the works of Dr.
the ionosphere. It is in this mode that medium and high Alan Christinsin. His two-volume set, Tactical HF Radio
frequency radio exhibits its unique and special qualities. Command and Control – An Anthology, is excellent. It is
This reflection technique allows us to leap tall mountains available from the author at ASC & Associates, Ltd.,
with a single bound. It enables us to talk with stations on 1201 Dawn Dr., Belleville, IL 62220.
the other side of the earth. And, if used correctly, enables In Part I, the basis for NVIS communication is
us to provide continuous and dependable coverage of explained. Part II covers how to do it, and Part III
areas of operation that span several hundred miles. It is presents confirmation that it works. There is some
this capability, and the need for it in tactical operations unavoidable overlap among these sections but hopefully
of regional agencies as well as military corps and smaller it isn't unduly distracting. 'Together, these three sections
units, that makes it important to understand NVIS build a compelling case for the use of high frequency
communications techniques. radio for certain missions.
Most of the good NVIS literature is unclassified and The editors sincerely hope you will find this book
in the public domain but it is not easy to access. Probably useful.
PART ONE
HOW AND WHY NVIS WORKS

Near Vertical Incidence Skywave communication proper frequency selection and suitable antenna design.
occurs when signals of appropriate frequency are This collection of papers provides the needed technical
properly directed toward, and reflected from, the background and some practical information regarding
ionosphere. The requirements for success include how to deal with both issues.
1. Beyond Line-of-Sight Propagation and Antennas by LTC David

M. Fiedler, Army Communicator magazine, Fall 1983.
2. Skip the Skip Zone by LTC David M. Fiedler, Army
Communicator magazine, Spring 1986.
3. NVIS Propagation at Low Solar Flux Indices by Maj Edward J.
Farmer, Army Communicator magazine, Spring 1994.
4. NVIS Antenna Fundamentals by MAJ Edward J. Farmer, Army
Communicator magazine, Fall 1994.
Beyond line-of-sight propagation
modes and antennas
by David M. Fiedler and George H. Hagn
The US Army has utilized high All of these publications place ground-reflected wave travels a longer
frequency (HF) radio (2-30 MHz) for primary emphasis on what in the past distance, it arrives at the receive
both strategic and tactical have been the most useful modes of antenna later than the direct wave, and
communications purposes for HF radio propagation for military it can cancel or enhance the direct-
approximately the last 60 years in purposes. These modes are useful for energy waves of depending upon the
order to achieve ranges beyond line- short range (0-50 miles) tactical geometry, frequency, and the
of-sight (BLOS). ln particular, HF communication (see Figure 1) and for reflection coefficient of the ground.
was used in WWII, the Korean War, long range communication (see Figure The ground-reflected wave can be
and the war in Southeast Asia to 2) and include modes such as: used for communications under some
provide tactical communications over Direct Wave Mode: Defined as circumstances if the reflected wave is
BLOS ranges in difficult terrains the component of a wave front that somehow less attenuated than the
(mountains and jungles, for example). travels directly via line-of-sight (LOS) direct wave at the receiver – although
Initially, the mid-1970s Integrated from the transmitting antenna to the most of the time, it is undesirable
Tactical Communications Systems receiving antenna (see Figure 1). This since it tends to weaken the direct
(INTACS) study showed existing mode is very useful for air-to-ground wave for most tactical geometries at
tactical HF links being replaced by communications since terrain features HF.
satellite links. A more recent which absorb RF energy normally are Space Wave Mode: Defined as
recognition of the cost, vulnerabilities, not in the propagation path. Over the the combination (the vector sum) of
and availability of satellites, and HF ground, however, the range for this the direct and ground-reflected waves.
technology· advances have led to a mode is limited by terrain absorption Militarily, the phenomena associated
renewed recognition of the military and by path blockage caused by with the space wave led to much
utility of modern HF systems for terrain features. maneuvering on the battlefield to
satisfying these requirements. Ground-Reflected Wave Mode: assure that the communications
Additionally, in today's tactical units, Defined as the component of the equipment was sited on the highest
HF radio is a major means of radiated wave that reaches the ground in order to reduce the effect of
communication which must be used in receiver after being reflected from the terrain on range and effectiveness.
any "come-as-you-are-war." ground (see Figure 1). Since the The space wave provides the best
Therefore, it is timely to reconsider
the propagation modes and antennas
recommended for tactical use. Over
the years, the theory of HF
communications and its military
applications have been described in
various US Army technical and field
manuals which today have culminated
in publications such as FM 24-18
(Field Radio Techniques), FM 11-65
(High Frequency Radio
Communications) and TM 11-666
(Antennas and Radio Propagation). Figure 1 - Possible routes for ground waves.
propagation mode for short-range
LOS tactical HF communications
once the location problems are
overcome.
Surface Wave Mode: Defined as
that component of the ground wave
(see below) that travels along the
earth's surface (see Figure 1) and is
primarily affected by the conductivity
and/or dielectric constant of the earth.
When the transmitting and receiving
antennas are located close to the earth
(as they are in most tactical
communications applications), the
direct and ground-reflected waves
tend to cancel each other. ln this case,
the resulting composite signal is
principally that of the surface wave.
The surface wave diminishes in
strength with height above the ground, Figure 2- Skip Zones.
and usually it is not very useful above
about one wavelength over the wide variation in range is due to the and control (C3) in units deployed over a
varying condition of the earth (ground wide area when the communications
ground. The energy of the surface
conductivity, vegetation, terrain planner does not properly consider the
wave is absorbed by the earth at twice irregularity, and so on), the atmosphere, impact of these effects on the performance
the rate of the direct wave mode (in and radio noise; and thus it cannot be of his communications systems. Classical
dB) as it travels over the ground. A controlled by the communicator. This can Skywave Mode: Skywave is defined
distance is reached where it can no be a disaster when trying to establish as those types of radio transmission that
longer be used for communication. effective communications for command make use of ionospheric reflection.
This usable distance over the earth's
surface can be increased by polarizing
the wave in a vertical orientation since
the earth produces much less of an
attenuation effect on vertical than on
horizontal polarization for antenna
located near the earth.
Groundwave Mode: Defined as
the vector sum of the space wave and
the surface wave. This formulation of
the theory of groundwave propagation
by A. Sommerfeld in the early 1900s
was made practical for engineering use by
K. A. Norton in the late 1930s and early
1940s. As stated in FM 24-18, under ideal
conditions, useful ground wave energy can
extend to ranges up to 50 miles. This is well
BLOS; however, there are much more
common conditions which limit useful
groundwave propagation to as few as 2
miles, for example, manpack radio
operations in a wet, heavy jungle. This Figure 3 - NVIS Propagation Concept.
Figure 4 - NVIS Antenna Pattern 4.328 MHz
Skywave modes can provide for any length of path and system depends primary means of communication planned
communication over longer distances than upon the selection of a frequency which is for use by these units.
can be achieved via groundwave. The low enough to be reflected by the A closer examination of Figure 2
reflection of HF energy from the ionosphere. The selection of the proper shows a wave striking the ionosphere at a
ionosphere back to earth is dependent upon antenna is also important. Whips are high angle and being reflected into an area
such things as the number of free electrons commonly used, and they have low gain for covered by a strong groundwave signal.
per unit volume in the ionosphere, the skywaves on such short paths. Therefore, This wave is labeled "skywave not
height of the ionized layer, operating frequency selection and/or antenna choice effective" in all references because the
frequency, incidence angle, etc. These can leave a skip zone of at least 50 (and groundwave signal strength is much
variables, however, are not the main more probably 70) miles where HF stronger than the skywave signal.
subject of this article. A good detailed communication will not function. Unfortunately, the figure is misleading in
description of this mode is given in TM 11- Translating this into terms of military several ways. Energy radiated in a near-
666 and in reference six at the end of this deployments, this means that units such as vertical-incidence direction is not
essay. long-range patrols, armored cavalry reflected down to a pinpoint on the earth's
Figure 2 (see also references 1-3 at the deployed as advanced or covering forces, surface. If it is radiated on too high a
end of this paper) depicts the skip-zone air-defense early warning teams, and many frequency, U:ie energy penetrates the
problem that faces tactical communicators. division-CORPS, division-BDE, division- ionosphere and continues on out into
Under ideal conditions, the ground· wave DISCOM, division-DIVARTY stations space. Energy radiated on a low enough
becomes unusable at about 50 miles. Under using whips are in the skip zone. Thus they frequency is reflected back to earth 'at all
actual field conditions, this range can be are unreachable by HF radio under skip angles (including the zenith) resulting in
much less, again sometimes as few as 2 zone conditions even though HF is a the energy striking the earth in an
miles. Successful skywave communication omnidirectional pattern without dead spots
(without a skip zone) if an efficient
short-path antenna such as a doublet
is used. Such a mode is called a near
vertical- incidence skywave (NVIS)
mode. This mode is shown in Figure
2, but the concept is illustrated in
Figure 3. This effect is similar to
taking a hose with a fog nozzle and
pointing it straight up. The water
falling back to earth covers a circular
pattern continuously out to a given
distance. A typical NVIS received-
signal pattern is shown in Figure 4,
and the path is shown in Figure 5.
The main difference between this
short-range NVIS mode and the
standard long-range skywave HF
mode is the lower frequency required
to avoid penetrating the ionosphere at
the near vertical angle of incidence of
the signal upon the ionosphere. In
order to attain an NVIS effect, the
Figure 5 - Path Length and Incident Angle (NVIS Mode). energy must be radiated strongly
Figure 6 - Shirley and Fan Dipole NVIS Base Station Antennas.
reflected back by the ionosphere in an
umbrella pattern. For use while operating
on the move, of course, the whip antenna
must be tied across or parallel to the vehicle
or shelter. This configuration is more like
an asymmetrical open-wire transmission
line, and it also will direct some energy
upward – although with less efficiency.
There are still no skip zones with proper
frequency selection, but received signal
levels are weaker than with the whip tied
back. Special NVIS antennas designed
primarily for helicopters are also useful for
this application, and they can be modified
for shelter and ground vehicular operation.
Traditionally, wire dipole antennas
have always been sited so that the
broadside of the antenna was pointed
Table 1 - Summary of relative gain toward the Zenith for Field-expedient
toward the receive station. This is the
HF Antennas (in dB) correct approach for long-haul paths. When
using the NVIS mode, this antenna
enough at angles greater than about 75 or obvious. Therefore, our next problem is
orientation is unnecessary. For NVIS
80 degrees from the horizontal on a how to generate the required radiation
operation, the antenna orientation does not
frequency that the ionosphere will reflect characteristics. Fortunately, this is not
matter since all the energy is directed
at that location and time. The ionospheric difficult since ½-wave dipole antennas
upward and returns to earth in what is
layers will reflect this energy in an located from ¼ to 1�10 wavelength above essentially an omnidirectional pattern. In
umbrella type pattern with no skip zone. the ground will cause the radiation energy operational terms this means that the dipole
Any groundwave present with the NVIS to be directed vertically. Table 1 shows the should be erected at any orientation that is
skywave signal will result in undesirable relative gain toward the zenith of the most convenient at the particular radio site
wave interference effects (fading) if the common types of HF field-expedient without regard to the bearing of other
amplitudes are comparable. However, antennas. This table shows that the ½-wave stations. This holds true except when
proper antenna selection will reduce Shirley Folded Dipole (see Figure 6) has operating in the region of the "magnetic dip
groundwave radiated energy to a the most gain toward the zenith (with the equator." When operating within 500 km of
minimum, and this will reduce the fading other dipoles being almost as good). The the dip equator, the dipole antenna should
problems. Ranges for the NVIS mode are Shirley dipole is a good NVIS base station be oriented in a magnetically north-south
shown in Figure 5 for a typical ionosphere antenna, but it is limited to a band of direction for greater received signal levels
height (300 km) and takeoff angles. Since frequencies within about 10 percent of the for all NVIS path bearings. US Army
NVIS paths are purely skywave, the path design frequency. The fan dipole (see Special Forces made use of this dipole
losses are nearly constant at about 110dB Figure 6 and Table 1) performs almost as north-south orientation in their HF single
+ 10dB. This is significant for the tactical well and it provides more frequency sideband (SSB) net in the Mekong delta
communicator since all the energy flexibility (day, night, and transition period during the Vietnam War with excellent
arriving at his receive antenna is coming frequencies). For tactical communications, results. Traditional antenna orientation
from above at about the same strength these dipoles can be easily deployed in a (broadside to the path direction) must be
over all of the communications ranges of field-expedient manner because the can be retained when operating on longer
interest. This means the effects of terrain located close to the ground. For mobile (or skywave paths near the dip equator and
and vegetation (when operating from shoot and scoot) operations, vehicle- elsewhere. While use of the NVIS
defiladed positions such as valleys) are mounted antennas are required. The answer technique does provide BLOS "skip-zone-
greatly reduced, and the receive signal to this problem is the standard 16½-foot free" communication, there are some
strength will not vary greatly with whip bent down into a horizontal position. drawbacks to its use that must be
relatively small changes in location. This In this configuration, the whip is understood in order to minimize them.
is especially important for helicopters essentially an asymmetrical dipole (with These include:
flying nap-of-the-earth beyond VHF radio the vehicle body forming one side) located
range. Interference between groundwave
close to the earth, with a significant amount
The need for short-range HF and skywave: Both an NVIS and ground
of energy being directed upward to be
communications without skip zones is wave signal are present the ground wave
Figure 7 - Percent of time the Operating Frequency Exceeds MOF of an
NVIS path of length less than 50 KM
can cause destructive interference. Proper useful frequency range varies in the minimum part of the 11-year solar
antenna selection will suppress accordance with the path length: the shorter cycle when many users are crammed
groundwave radiation and minimize this the path the lower the MUF and smaller the into the smaller available HF
effect while maximizing the amount of frequency range. The lowest useful spectrum.
energy going into the NVIS mode. frequency (LUF) is determined primarily The lower portion of the band
High-takeoff angles: In order to by the effective radiated power and the which supports NVIS is somewhat
produce radiation which is nearly vertical noise and interference at the receiver. congested with aviation, marine,
(i.e., NVIS), antennas must be selected Practically speaking, this limits the NVIS broadcast, and amateur users which
and located carefully in order to minimize mode of operation to the 2-4 MHz range at limits frequencies available – even
the groundwave radiation and maximize night and between 4-8 MHz during the day. during the solar maximum.
the energy radiated towards the zenith. These nominal limits will vary with the 11-
year sunspot cycle and they will be smaller Atmospheric noise is higher in
This can be accomplished by using this portion of the HF spectrum in the
specially designed antennas or by locating during sunspot minimums (1985-86 for
example). Figure 7 is an example of the afternoon and at night.
standard dipole (doublet) antennas ¼ to
percent of time an operating frequency Man-made noise tends to be
10 wavelength from the ground in order
1�
to direct the energy toward the zenith. would have exceeded the maximum usable higher in this portion of the HF
Frequency selection: In skywave frequency (MUF) during a solar minimum. spectrum.
propagation, there is a critical frequency This restricting of the frequency range is All of these drawbacks of NVIS
(f O ) above which radiated energy generally due to the physics of the situation, and it transmission, except the limited frequency
will not be reflected by the ionosphere but cannot be overcome by engineering. range, can be overcome with relative ease.
will pass through it. This frequency is Therefore, problems can be expected when Once this is done, the many advantages to
related approximately (by a constant k using on the NVIS mode in the low end of the tactical communicator are clear. They
slightly greater than unity which depends the HF spectrum. These problems include: include:
primarily on path length) to the angle of The range of frequencies Skip-zone-free omnidirectional
incidence (θ) and the classical maximum between the MUF and the LUF is communications.
usable frequency (MUF) by the equation: limited, and frequency assignment
MUF = 𝑘𝑘 ∙ 𝑓𝑓𝑂𝑂 ∙ sec 𝜃𝜃. This means that the may be a problem - especially during Terrain-independent path loss
resulting in a more constant received
Next, harder to jam with
groundwave jammers (the most
common tactical HF jamming mode)
are subject to path loss. Since all
NVIS radiated energy arrives from
above (skywave), terrain features can
be used to attenuate a groundwave
jammer without degrading the
desired communication path. When
operating against a station using
NVIS propagation, the jamming
signal will be attenuated by terrain
while the skywave NVIS path loss
will be constant. This forces the
groundwave jammer to move very
close to the target or put out more
power, and either tactic makes
jamming more difficult. Finally, it
requires only low-power operation:
the NVIS mode can be used
successfully (due to the constant path
loss of tolerable size) with very low-
power sets provided that proper
frequency and antenna selections are
made. This will result in much lower
probabilities of intercept and
detection. Figure 8 shows results
Figure 8 - Communications success with AN/PRC-74 as a obtained in Thailand jungles and
function of time of day and antenna type over 12-mi mountains with the 15W AN/PRC-74
path in low mountains, spring and summer 1963. operating with selected antennas on
one SSB voice frequency (3.6 MHz)
signal level over the entire tactical
operational range instead of widely
varying path loss with distance, and
the corresponding uncertainty in
operational range.
Capability of operating from
defiladed positions eliminating the
restriction on the tactical commander
to control the high ground for HF
communications purposes.
Non-critical antenna
orientation of doublets and other
linear antennas such as inverted L's.
Several electronic warfare
advantages.
First, lower probability of
geolocation: NVIS is received from
above at very steep angles. This
makes direction finding (DF) from
nearby (but beyond groundwave
range) locations more difficult. Figure 9 - Communication success as a func. of range for AN/PRC-74
in mountainous and varied terrain – incl. jungle -- in Thailand
over a 24-hour period during the When operating against enemy Radio (OHFR) will meet these
1963 sunspot minimum. Clearly the groundwave jammers and direction requirements.
½-wave dipole provided the best finders. With this new reliance on HF radio,
results, and it was operating NVIS for When flying close to the the communications planners and
ranges beyond about 5 miles. The ground in helicopters or in light operators must be familiar with NVIS
whip was operating ground wave out aircraft. techniques and their applications and
to about 20 miles and NVIS beyond, shortcomings in order to provide more
and the slant wire was intermediate Along with the addition of the NVIS
technique to our tactical HF reliable and responsive communications
between the dipole and whip. The for the field commanders. In order to do
performance with the dipole would communication thinking, it is also
necessary to amend our training and this, NVIS must be learned, it must be
have been even better if a frequency taught and it must be used. Field tests with
change (QSY) had been permitted doctrine to reflect more completely all HF
modes available to the communicator. The both the New Hampshire and New Jersey
near dawn (see Figures 8 and 9), but Army National Guard (50th Armored
QSY was not permitted in the test. Air Force has incorporated some of this
information into their literature, but we Division) have shown that even using
With this data in mind, tactical have been unable to find any Army TM, obsolete radio equipment (for example,
communicators should add another FM, or POI which properly describes the the AN/GRC-26D) and standard wire
dimension to their thinking and· planning. advantage of the short-path skywave dipoles (AN/GRA- 50) cut to the right
NVIS techniques must be considered under techniques discussed in this paper. In all frequency and located ¼ to 1�10 wavelength
the following conditions: cases, these techniques are either ignored from the ground, excellent results can be
When the area of operations is or down played. In the past, this situation obtained on both air-to-ground and
not conducive to groundwave HF was unfortunate, but it was tolerable since ground-to-ground paths. During these
communications (e.g., mountains). the groundwave HF techniques being used tests, NVIS radio was used to replace HF
supported, for the most part, tactical groundwave nets and VHF nets that
When tactical deployments that required several ground and airborne
place stations in anticipated skip operations. At present, and more
importantly after implementation of retransmission stations to communicate to
zones when using traditional stations previously unreachable (without
antennas (whips), frequency Division 86-style operation, HF radio and
the NVIS mode take on new importance. relays) due to skip zones and unsuitable
selection methods and operating terrain. We urge that those whose
procedures. HF radio and the NVIS mode take on new
importance. HF radio is quickly problems we have described try NVIS and
When operating in heavy, wet deployable, securable, and capable of data observe the positive results. We also urge
jungles (or other areas of high signal transmission. Therefore, it will be the first the Army to incorporate NVIS into
attenuation). When prominent terrain (and frequently the only) means of communication training and amend the
features are not under friendly communicating with fast-moving or far- reference TMs and FMs to include the use
control. flung units. Also, it may provide the first of the NVIS technique.
When operating from defiladed long-range system to recover from a
positions. nuclear attack. The planned Objective HF
References
l. US Army, "Field Radio Techniques," FM 6. K. Davies, Ionospheric Radio Propagation, 9. G.H. Hagn, "On the Relative Response and
24-18, Washington, D.C., 30 July 1965. (See NBS Monograph 80, National Bureau Absolute Gain Toward the Zenith of HF
also, coordination draft revision, "Tactical of Standards, Boulder, CO 1965. (Available from Field-Expedient Antennas--Measured with an
Single-Channel Radio Communications US Government Printing Office, Washington, Ionospheric Sounder," IEEE Trans. Ant. and
Techniques," 1 September 1977). D.C.). Prop., Vol. AP-21, No. 4, pp. 571-574, July 1973.
2. US Army, "High Frequency Radio 7. B.C. Tupper and G.H. Hagn, "Nap-of-the Earth 10. J.R. Shirley, "The Shirley Aerial – A
Communications," FM I 1-65, Washington, D.C., Communication Program for US Army Vertically Beamed Antenna for Improved Short
31 October 1978. Helicopters," Final Report, Contract Distance Sky Waves," Report 8/52,
3. US Army, "Antennas and Radio Propagation," DAAB07-76-C-0868, SRI Project 4979, Operational Research Section, Far East
TM 11-666, Washington, D.C., 9 February 1953. A VRADCOM Technical Report TR-76-0868- Land Forces, Great Britain, 1952.
4. K.A. Norton, "The Calculation of Ground Wave F, SRI International, Menlo Park, CA, June 11. C. Barnes, J.A. Rudick and M.E. Mills,
Field Intensity Over a Finitely Conducting 1978. AD-A-063 089. "A Field Guide to Simple. HF Dipoles," SRI
Spherical Earth," Proc, IRE, Vol. 8. B.V. Ricciardi and J.V. Brune, "Modern HF Project 6183, Contract DA 28-043 AMC-
29, No. 12, pp. 623-639, December 1941. Communications for Low Flying Aircraft," 02201 (E), Stanford Research Institute,
5. G.H. Hagn, "VHF Radio System Performance AGARD-CP-263, NATO Aerospace Research and Menlo Park, CA, p. 28, March 1967.
Model for Predicting Communications Development Conference on Special Topics in HF 12. G.H. Hagn and J.E. van der Laan,
Operational Ranges in Irregular Terrain," Propagation, Lisbon, Portugal, 28 May-1 June "Measured Relative Responses Toward the
IEEE Trans. COM, Vol. COM-28, No. 1979. Zenith of Short-Whip Antennas on Vehicles
9, pp. 1637-1644, September 1980. at High Frequency," IEEE Trans. Vehic.
Techn. Vol. VT-19, No. 3, pp. 230-236, August Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA, 19. CCIR, "World Distribution and Characteristics
1970. February 1970. AD 889 169. of Atmospheric Radio Noise," Report 322,
13. G.H. Hagn, "Orientation of Linearly 16. G.E. Barker, "Measurement of the Radiation International Radio Consultative Committee,
Polarized HF Antennas for Short-Path Patterns of Full-Scale HF and VHF Antennas," International Telecommunication Union, Geneva,
Communication Via the Ionosphere Near the IEEE Trans. AP, Vol. AP-21, No. 4, pp. 538-544, 1964.
Geomagnetic Equator," Research Memorandum 5 July 1973. 20. CCIR, "Man-Made Noise," Report 258-4,
(revised), Contract DA-36-039 AMC-00040(E), 17. C.L. Rufenach and G.H. Hagn, "Predicted International Radio Consultative Committee,
SRI Project 4240, Stanford Research Institute, Useful Frequency Spectrum of ManPack International Telecommunication Union, Geneva,
Menlo Park, CA, June 1964. AD 480 592. Transceivers Considering Short-Path Skywave 1982.
14. P. Nacaskul, "Orientation Measurements in Propagation and Comparison with C-2 Sounder 21. G.H. Hagn and W.R. Vincent, "Comments on
Thailand with HF Dipole Antennas for Data from Bangkok, Thailand," Special Technical the Performance of Selected Low Power HF
Tactical Communications," Special Technical Report 15, Contract DA-36-039 AMC-00040(E), Radio Sets in the Tropics," IEEE Trans. Vehic.
Report 31, Contract DA-36-039 AMC- SRI Project 4240, Stanford Research Institute, Tech., Vol. VT-23, No. 2, pp. 55-58, May 1974.
00040(E), SRI Project 4240, Stanford Research Menlo Park, CA, August 1966. AD 662 065. 22. USAF, "High Frequency Radio
Institute, Menlo Park, CA, June 1967. 18. Steven R. Holmes, "Near Vertical Incidence Communications in a Tactical Environment,"
AD675 460. Skywave for Military Application," US Anny AFCSP 100-16, HQ, Air Force Communications
15. G.H. Hagn and G.E. Barker, Research Communications-Electronics Engineering Service, Scott AFB, IL 62225, 20 September
Engineering and Support for Tropical Installation Agency, Fort Huachuca, AZ, August 1968.
Communications," Final Report, Contract DA- 1979.
36-039 AMC-00040(E), SRI Project 4240,
Skip the "skip zone":
we created it and we can eliminate it
by Lt. Col. David M. Fiedler
Current doctrine is wrong.

There can be a skip zone if the
communicator selects an
antenna with too low a
radiation angle, but there is no
skip zone unless you, the
communicator, create it!...We
must banish forever the term
"skip zone" and the thinking
that created it.
For many years, Army publications
dealing with high frequency (HF) radio
communications (i.e. FM 24-18, FM 24-
1, FM 11-65, TM 11-666, and others)
have used the diagram shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. This illustration from FM 24-18 and other publications shows the incorrect
These publications explain how HF radio concept of a skip zone. If such a skip zone exists when not desired the communicator has
signals (2-30 MHz) are propagated either improperly selected the antenna or antenna height.
as groundwaves or skywaves. They nearest the antenna at which the skywave for many tactical reasons, it is important to
incorrectly define a groundwave as returns to earth." This doctrine is wrong. understand what Appendix N is saying.
energy radiating along the surface of the There can be a skip zone if the Using a slightly different approach than
earth until it reaches a point (10 to 30 communicator selects an antenna with too that used in Appendix N, I will try to
miles distant) where the energy level low a radiation angle, but there is no skip demonstrate again how the "skip zone"
becomes too low to be of use for zone unless you, the communicator. can be avoided. First, however, we need
communications. And they define a create it! to take a quick look at the accompanying
skywave as energy radiated at an upward After many years of urging by myself illustrations. Figure 2 shows the
angle from the antenna and reflected back and others, the December 1984 issue of relationship between the angle of radiation
to the earth's surface by the ionosphere, FM 24-18 finally included an appendix and the distance covered, assuming an
adding, however, that this reflection (Appendix N) on near vertical incidence average height of the ionosphere. It shows,
should be expected at a point no less than skywave (NVIS) HF propagation. This for example, that if a station wishes to
100 miles from the antenna. Thus, they appendix clearly shows how, by adjusting continuously cover a distance up to 200
claim there is a gap, or "skip zone," of 30 antenna heights and transmitter miles (approximately the depth and width
to 90 miles beginning where the frequencies, an operator can obtain high of an Army corps), it needs to radiate its
groundwave becomes too weak for angle radiation and eliminate skip zones. signal at all angles between 52 and 87
communication and ending where the Apparently, however, the subject area degrees toward the zenith (i.e. in a vertical
skywave returns to earth) in which HF experts of the Signal School did not grasp direction). Figure 3 shows that a horizontal
radio communications are ineffective. To the significance of Appendix N, since they dipole antenna 0.25 wavelengths above
quote FM 24-18: "There is an area called allowed Figure 1 (which is a reproduction ground will direct most of its energy
the skip zone in which no useable signal of Figure 2-15 in the manual), an between these angles. Figure 4 shows that
can be received from a given transmitter illustration of a "skip zone," to remain in a vertical antenna 0.5 wavelengths above
operating at a given frequency. This area the same manual untouched. Because the ground will do likewise with almost equal
is bounded by the outer edge of useable ranges covered by the so-called skip zone efficiency. Thus, provided that the
groundwave propagation and the point are of particular significance to the Army operating frequency does not exceed the
maximum useable frequency (MUF),
either of these simple, commonly
available configurations will do the job of
directing energy nearly vertically so that it
will be scattered and reflected downward
by the ionosphere.
MUFs can easily be determined using
ionospheric sounding or propagation
prediction tables. If these are not available,
use the common rule of thumb (2 – 4 MHz
nighttime, 4 – 8 MHz daytime). The best
operating frequency is usually about 20 –
25 percent below the MUF. Figure 5 is a
compilation of all angles of radiation vs.
antenna height in wavelengths for
horizontal (black curves) or vertical (white
curves) antennas. Using this. figure, we
see the same results as before. A
horizontal dipole, 0.1 – 0.25 wavelengths
above ground, radiating energy at all
angles between 51 and 87 degrees, falls
directly within the first black curve. Figure 2. Radiation angle vs. range (from The Rules of the Antenna Game).
Similarly, a vertical antenna, 0.5
wavelengths above the ground, radiating
energy at all angles between 50 and 90
degrees, falls directly within the first white
curve.
Wavelength (λ) can be calculated
using the equation:
300
𝜆𝜆 (m) =
frequency (MHz)
For example, if our operating

frequency were 5 MHz, the wavelength
would be 300/5=60 meters. For a
horizontal dipole antenna to radiate energy
at the necessary angles, it would have to be
6 (0.1λ) to 15 (0.25 λ) meters above the
ground. Similarly, a vertical dipole would
have to be 30 meters (0.5 λ) above the
ground for the same result at this operating
frequency.
Knowing the above information,
operators can use the following steps in
order to provide continuous, skip zone free
HF radio communications for military
operations.
1. From the operations order or other
directive, determine the ranges to all
stations in the net. Stations within 500
miles (well within a division or corps area)
can be easily reached using simple dipole Figure 3. Horizontal dipole radiation patterns at various heights (in wavelengths) above
antennas – provided a propagating the ground (from Air Force Comm. Pam. 100-16).
frequency is available.
5. After selecting the operating
frequency, select the antenna type desired
(vertical dipole, horizontal dipole, etc.).
6. Calculate the required antenna
height in wavelengths.
300
𝜆𝜆 (m) =
frequency (MHz)
7. Mount the antenna at or near this

height. (Physical height is not too critical.
Height plus or minus .1 wavelengths will
function well.)
8. Tune the equipment to the
operating frequency and operate. 9.
Change frequencies as required by
propagation. (Since any antenna height
between 0.1 and 0.25 wavelengths will
direct the energy in a vertical direction,
raising and lowering the antenna will
almost never be necessary once it is
positioned.)
Figure 4. Vertical dipole radiation patterns at various heights (in wavelengths) above This information in conjunction with
the ground (from Air Force Comm. Pam. 100-16). Appendix N of FM 24-18 will allow the
tactical communicator to engineer HF
2. From Figure 2, determine the range requiring frequency shifts and retuning of systems which will permit 24-hour-a-day
of angles required to transmit energy over radios and antennas for 24-hour operation. operation at ranges up to 500 miles
the distance required. Typical changes are shown in Figure 6.) without skip zones. There are two critical
3. From ionospheric sounders, 4. From the authorized frequency list elements of this approach which operators
propagation tables, or other predictions, provided to your unit, select operating must understand. First, propagating
determine the range of frequencies frequencies which fall within the range frequency bands vary throughout the day
required to support propagation determined in Step 3. (If no authorized depending on the time (sun position). In
throughout the day. (The frequency will frequencies fall within this range, you will order to remain in communication,
change depending on the time of day, thus not communicate past groundwave range.) operators must adjust the frequencies,
typically at sunup and sundown; however,
some propagating frequency will always
exist. Second, operators must properly
match the antenna impedance to the
transmitter in order to efficiently radiate
energy. Once this is accomplished, they
must select the proper antenna heights in
order to direct the radiated energy at the
desired angle. Due to the symmetry of
high angle radiation, antenna orientation is
not a factor and field strength patterns are
totally omnidirectional.
The operational experience of the
state area command of the New Jersey
Army National Guard net shows that 31
stations operating at ranges varying from
5 to 125 miles can provide reliable
communications under all conditions if the
Figure 5. Radiation angle vs. antenna height above ground. Select the antenna height for
procedures outlined above are followed
range of radiation angles desired (from The Rules of the Antenna Game). and the critical elements of antenna and
frequency usage are properly considered.
In light of the above information let me
again urge the Army Signal' Center and
School to incorporate this information
along with the information in FM 24-18,
Appendix N into the Signal School's
program of instruction and to change all
Army literature to reflect this information.
As we move into the late 1980s and
1990s, it is becoming more and more
obvious that HF radio will be the best if
not the only, means of radio '
communications when beyond line of
sight (BLOS) ranges are required, when
satellite communications have been
destroyed or disrupted, and in situations
such as quick recovery after a nuclear
exchange, high intensity short duration
operations, or anti-terrorist operations.
Both the Air Force and the Navy
have recognized these facts and
consequently devote many hours of
instruction to antennas, radio propagation,
frequency selection, and the
characteristics of skywave paths in their
programs of instruction and manuals. Of
particular note is Air Force
Communications Pamphlet 100- 16,
which has an excellent chapter on short
skywave paths. Unfortunately, in my
recent conversation with graduates of the
HF Radio Operators Course (31C) and the
Communications Electronics Officer
Course (25A) (admittedly a small sample,
Figure 6. Typical daily variation of the maximum useable frequency (MUF) and lowest
but I think representative), I detected a useable frequency (LUF), along with suggested operating frequencies. Note that the MUF
decided lack of knowledge in this area. and L VF values are lowest at night and peak around noon. Operators can maintain 24-hour
Such a lack of knowledge cannot be communications by using a frequency safely between the MUF and LUF. In the example
tolerated if we are to utilize our enormous above, 24-hour operations can be achieved by operating near 6 MHz from 1900-0700 and
investment in HF communications near 9 MHz from 0700-1900 (necessitating only two frequency changes per day).
equipment effectively and efficiently. The
technology exists today. It is up to the into the program of instruction and out to term "skip zone" and the thinking that
Signal Corps (particularly the Signal the troops where it will do the most good. created it.
Center and School) to get this information Above all, we must banish forever the
References
1. Appendix N, FM 24-18, Tactical Radio Communications in a Tactical 4. ARMY COMMUNICATOR,
Single-Channel Radio Communication Environment, 20 September 1968, Fall 1983, p. 14, "Beyond line of sight
Techniques, 13 December 1984, Department of the Air Force Washington, propagation modes and antennae," by
Headquarters, Department of the Army, D.C. David M. Fiedler and George H. Hagan,
Washington, D.C. 3. The Rules of the Antenna Game, U.S. Army Signal Center and School, Fort
2. Air Force Communications 1984, W5QJ4 Antenna Products, P.O. Box Gordon, Ga. 30905.
Pamphlet 100-16, High Frequency 334, Melbourne, Fla. 32902-0334.
Problems and solutions
NVIS propagation at
low solar flux indices
by Ed Farmer
Near-Vertical Incidence Sky- ionosphere will reflect at that location

wave (NVIS) propagation is a high and time."
frequency (HF) radio technique that A more liberal definition would
can provide reliable, skip zone free be, "Skip-zone free, omnidirectional,
omnidirectional, even coverage that high frequency, ionospheric
would be impossible either with VHF propagation." Achieving it is
(or above) or with HF ground wave facilitated by antennas that direct most
propagation. [1,2,3,4,5]. These of their radiation at high take-off
attributes have encouraged its use in angles, typically more than 45 degrees
emergency beyond line-of-sight (See Figure 1, taken from U.S. Army
NVIS coverage has communication systems. [6] FM 24· 18). It also requires operation
been described as NVIS successes have been below the "critical frequency" so that
substantial [3,4,5] but as sunspot radiated energy is reflected back to
similar to squirting a activity continues its current cyclic earth, even when directed straight up-
decline we must resist attaching -operation above critical frequency
hose with a spray magical properties to it. It is important will always produce a "skip zone," but
nozzle straight up not to lose sight of how NVIS more on critical frequency later.
propagation works and how it is Together, these conditions produce
thus producing an effected by solar activity. the gap-free coverage for which the
NVIS technique is attractive.
"umbrella" of rain NVIS propagation Frequency selection is important
for a substantial The U.S. Army Signal Corps and
LTC David Fiedler of the New Jersey
in NVIS work. FM 24-18 suggests,
“…the useful frequency range varies
radius around the National Guard describe NVIS in accordance with the path length.
propagation as resulting from high The shorter the path or higher the
hose. angle radiation reflecting from the angle, the lower the MUF {maximum
ionosphere [1,2,3,5]. The literature is useable frequency} and the smaller the
somewhat vague concerning an exact frequency range. In practice, this
definition, but U.S. Army FM 24-18 limits the NVIS mode of operation to
[1] states, "In order to attain a NVIS the 2-to-4 MHz range at night and to
effect, the energy must be radiated the 4-to-8 MHz range during the
strong enough at angles greater than day…These nominal limits will vary
about 75 or 80 degrees from the with the 11-year sunspot cycle and
horizontal on a frequency that the
Figure 1 -- The vertical radiation pattern of a NVIS antenna. Most radiation is directed upward. In this example (from Reference [1]) the 3 dB
points occur at about 45 degrees.
they will be smaller during sunspot propagation works and to assess the An NVIS path
minimums." factors that effect it in terms of A NVIS path results from high
Practical frequency selection is prevailing conditions and mission angle radiation reflecting from a layer
driven by factors other than where one requirements. (usually the F-layer) of the
would prefer to operate. Amateur ionosphere. The radius of coverage
radio operators have two frequency
bands that meet NVIS frequency
criteria – the 40 meter (7.0 to 7.3
MHz) and 80 meter (3.5 to 4.0 MHz)
bands. The conventional wisdom has
been to use 80 meters at night and 40
meters during the day. Military
communicators are also faced with
frequency selection limitations. Most
frequencies between 2 and 4 MHz are
allocated to other services.
Frequency selection has not been
a problem during the higher phases of
the sunspot cycle. In fact, most of the
recent testing [ 41 has occurred during
a period of high sunspot activity.
Frequency selection and the
availability of frequencies close to 2
MHz will be more critical over the
next few years as the sunspot cycle
Figure 2 -- NVIS propagation. Energy is radiated at high angle. Some is absorbed by low
goes through its minimum phase. layers of the ionosphere. Reflection occurs, typically, in the F-layers. Some energy penetrates
It will become increasingly the F-layers and is lost.
important to understand how NVIS (Illustration by SSG(P) Dennis Garman)
will vary from 200 km to as much as
1000 km. Coverage within the active
radius will be quite even.
The active area depends on the
transmitting and receiving antennas,
the operating frequency, and the
condition of the ionosphere. The
condition of the ionosphere depends
on the time of day, the time of year,
the solar activity (sunspot) cycle, and
various transient conditions. Figure 1
shows the vertical radiation pattern
typical of a NVIS antenna. Figure 2
illustrates NVIS propagation.
NVIS coverage has been
described as similar to squirting a hose
with a spray nozzle straight up thus
producing an "umbrella" of rain for a
substantial radius around the hose. [1]
Selecting frequencies and
evaluating communication
capabilities for NVIS communication
requires a rudimentary understanding
of ionospheric propagation.
Ionospheric propagation
Radio waves may travel between
a transmitter and a receiver directly,
by following the ground (the "ground
wave"), or by reflecting from the
ionosphere (the "sky wave"). NVIS Figure 3 -- Solar Activity Cycle (from Reference [ 4]). Solar activity varies on an 11 year
propagation is sky-wave propagation. cycle. Sunspot data is available for hundreds of years. As this is being written we are in the
On some paths, particularly waning years of Cycle 22. Note that 10.7cm Solar Flux correlates well with Sunspot Number.
Lt. Col. Fiedler published his landmark paper, "Optimizing Low Power High Frequency
unobstructed short ones, ground wave Radio Performance for Tactical Operations" in ARMY COMMUNICATOR in the spring of
propagation may also be possible. 1989. The Marine Corps experiments that validated Fiedler's work occurred in the spring and
These two modes can interact which is summer of 1988, and were reported in the fall 1989 edition of ARMY COMMUNICATOR.
During 1988, the Solar Flux Index was increasing rapidly and was between 100 and 200.
usually bad. Good NVIS antennas are
typically poor ground wave radiators photoionization by high energy (short It is productive to think of the
(and vice versa) so problems are wavelength) radiation from the sun. ionosphere in terms of "layers." The
usually easily avoided. [7] The highest region receives (and lowest layer, the D-layer, exists only
Sky wave propagation results absorbs) the most solar energy and during daylight hours at heights of
from radio waves reflecting from the therefore becomes more ionized than about 50 to 90 km. It will not reflect
ionosphere. Understanding the
lower regions. medium or high frequency waves-it
characteristics of sky wave The more ionized the region, the weakens them by absorption. D-layer
propagation requires an understanding better it reflects radio waves. Less absorption is always a factor in
of the ionosphere. ionized (lower) regions absorb radio medium and high frequency daylight
The- ionosphere is a region of waves. Lower frequency radio waves propagation. [8]
charged particles in the upper are more susceptible to absorption The E-layer exists at a height of
atmosphere. It results from than higher frequencies. about 90 to 130 km. Its height varies
between daylight and dark. It is a Solar activity and ionospheric begin at a minimum of solar activity.
factor in medium and high frequency Propagation As this is being written (January of
propagation because it can reflect Ionospheric (sky-wave) 1994), we are in the 9th year of cycle
radio waves of sufficiently low propagation is the result of radio 22. See Figure 3. [9]
frequency. It also attenuates signals signals reflecting from the ionosphere. At the peak of the solar cycle there
that pass through it to the F -layers. [8] Reflection depends on the operating is a very high flux and the ionosphere
Occasionally, regions of the E- frequency, the angle at which the receives a great deal of excitation.
layer will contain cloud-like areas of radiation encounters the ionosphere, This contributes to its ability to
high ionization. These regions will and the degree of ionization. efficiently reflect radio signals. The
reflect signals that would normally The degree of ionization depends frequency required to penetrate the
pass through. Since this effect does not on excitation from the sun. Obviously, ionosphere increases. Absorption in
occur with predictable regularity or there is a significant difference the lower · layers also increases but,
locality, it is called "Sporadic E." (8) between day and night. There is also a on balance, higher solar flux is
The F-layer is actually two layers difference that results from solar beneficial.
during the day and one layer at night. activity. Solar Flux data are readily
The F1-layer exists only during There are several measures of available which facilitates high and
daylight at a height of about 175 to solar activity, including the Sun Spot medium frequency propagation
250 km. (8) Number, the 10.7 cm (2800 MHz) prediction. The Solar Flux Index is
The F2-layer is located at a height Solar Flux Index, and the 1.8 updated every three hours (beginning
of about 250 to 400 km. During the Angstrom Background X-ray Flux. at 0000 UTC). It may be obtained by
day, it is a distinct layer. At night, the These methods can all be related monitoring WWV or WWVH at 18
F1 and F2 layers merge into a single mathematically. For tactical minutes past each hour. [7]
F-layer at a height of about 300 km. propagation prediction work, the most The Solar Flux Index ranges from
[8] useful index is the 10. 7 cm. Solar Flux a theoretical minimum value of about
The F2-layer is the principal Index (SFI), largely because timely 65 to more than 250. The higher the
reflecting region for high frequency values are easy to obtain. [7,9] number the more active (and the more
communication. Sun spots have been observed for reflective) will be the ionosphere.
hundreds of years and in 1859 it was The highest frequency that, when
determined that they vary on an 11- radiated directly upward, will reflect
year cycle. The cycle is assumed to from the ionosphere is called the
"critical frequency." Signals above
that frequency pass through the
ionosphere and out into space.
Critical frequency depends only on
the condition of the ionosphere-not
on any particular communication
objective, power level, antenna, or
equipment.
Figure 4 (from Reference 10)
shows how the configuration of the
ionosphere and how the critical
frequency are effected by time of day,
by time of year, and by solar activity.
These figures are typical of four
situations. Actual values, of course,
depend on the prevailing physical
conditions. Figures 4(a) and 4(b)
Table 1 show typical data during a maximum
in the solar activity cycle in summer
Figure 4 --Ionosphere configuration and critical frequency showing effects of time of day (local time), time of year, and solar activity
cycle, from [10].
and in winter, respectively. Note that not occur more than 50 percent of the Optimum Traffic" or FOT. It will
the critical frequency for Flayer time is called the Maximum Useable frequently be about 50 to 85 percent of
propagation is generally above 4 Frequency, or MUF, for that particular the MUF. [11]
MHz. Figures 4(c) and 4(d) show the path. It is also possible to define the
same data for the minimum of the The MUF can be related to the lowest frequency at which
solar activity cycle. Note that the F- critical frequency (𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 ) by considering communication over a given path at a
layer critical frequency is well below the "takeoff angle." Takeoff angle is specified power level can take place.
4 MHz at night and only rarely above the angle between the radiation "ray" In this case, making the path depends
6 MHz during daylight. [10] of interest and the horizon. The on the ability of the communication
Frequencies higher than the relationship is: system to overcome ionospheric
critical frequency can be useful MUF = 𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜 ⁄sin (takeoff angle) absorption and ambient noise. The
providing radiation is directed at the [10] lowest frequency at which a path can
ionosphere at more grazing angles. There is a high degree of be made is called the Lowest Useable
Hence, frequencies above the critical variability in the ionosphere Frequency or LUF. [8, 11]
frequency can be used for "skip" consequently it is not possible to know It is useful to review the various
propagation in which two stations the MUF with precision. Generally, frequencies used to characterize
several thousand km apart may be in the MUF is assumed to be the highest ionospheric propagation.
good communication even though frequency at which the path can be FO critical frequency: The
neither station can be heard at most made 50 percent of the time. highest frequency that will not
points in between. The signal is said to Consequently, operation near the penetrate the ionosphere more than 50
"skip over" the intermediate listeners. MUF will not provide a reliable path. percent of the time when radiation is
[10, 12] As frequency decreases below the directed at a takeoff angle of 90
For any path, however, there is a MUF a path will exist a higher degrees. Critical frequency does not
frequency that will be sufficiently high percentage of the time. The frequency assume any specific communication
to penetrate the ionosphere. The at which the path exists 90 percent of objective.
highest frequency at which this does the time is called the "Frequency of Highest probable frequency
(HPF): The highest frequency at
which ionospheric propagation
between specific locations will be
available 10 percent of the time.
Maximum useable frequency
(MUF): The highest frequency at
Frequency of optimum traffic
(FOT): The highest frequency at
Lowest useable frequency
(LUF): The lowest frequency at which
ionospheric propagation between
specific locations and using specific
power levels, receiving equipment,
and antennas will be available 50
Figure 5 – Maximum useable frequency increases as path length increases.
percent of the time. The LUF can be
This graph was prepared for the paths in Table 1 from the propagation data
improved (lowered) by increasing
shown in Figure 6.
power, using higher gain antennas, or
Figure 6 (a-i) – Maximum Useable Frequency (MUF) for various paths. Note that the shorter paths have significantly lower MUFs than the
longer ones. Terminal and path length data are shown in Table l.
Figure 7 – Maximum Useable Frequency for a Sacramento - Reno, Nevada path at the winter solstice at the Solar Flux Indices shown.
substituting higher performance which turned out to be 65.9. Data were In terms of amateur radio bands,
receiving equipment. obtained for every half hour. 40 meters (7.0 to 7.3 MHz) will not be
Figure 5 illustrates the effect of useful for NVIS coverage. Although a
An analytical look at some NVIS takeoff angle on maximum useable path will probably exist to the more
paths frequency. As the path becomes distant locations during a short part of
Let's look at several NVIS paths shorter, the MUF becomes lower. This the day, the closer locations will be in
originating in Sacramento, California is because the takeoff angle for shorter the "skip zone." The skywave will skip
(See Table 1). These paths were paths approaches the vertical, hence over them rendering communication
selected because they could be the MUF approaches the critical unlikely.
significant during certain anticipated frequency. The 80 meter band (3.5 to 4.0
natural disasters but also serve to Figure 6 illustrates the MUF for MHz) will be useful for all locations
illustrate how NVIS paths of different the 9 paths shown in Table 1. during daylight hours but will not be
lengths are effected by SFI. Clearly, the greatest challenge for reliable at night.
Propagation data are always NVIS propagation during low SFI is NVIS doctrine [1] would suggest
specific to the time of year, time of the short.er paths. On paths under 500 we select a lower frequency for night
day, and solar activity. In order to km the predicted MUF is always operations. There are, however, no
illustrate a more-or-less worst-case above 2 MHz but is frequently not suitable frequencies available to
condition, the time of year was above 3 MHz. Significantly, the MUF amateur radio operators. This requires
selected as the winter solstice (the does not. rise above 7 MHz for these consideration of the medium
shortest day of the year), December paths. In fact, it rises above 7 MHz frequency 160 meter band (1.8 to 2.0
21, 1993. The Solar Flux Index was only on the longer paths and then only MHz). Military systems with more
selected as the minimum value the for a brief period during the middle of flexibility in frequency assignments
propagation program that was used the day. are, of course, less affective.
(MINIPROP [11]) would accept
Medium frequency utilization physics of the problem, the limited significant problem. The sky wave for
The 160 meter band will be useful frequency allocations gets in the way. the AM broadcast band (0.53 to 1.6
for all paths at night. This, however, is Most modem amateur radio MHz) is usually completely absorbed.
not as good as it sounds. The LUF for equipment will operate in the 160 During daylight, the 160 meter
a given communication system and meter band. skywave is almost completely
objective can be quite high. Full-size resonant antennas for absorbed in the D-layer. [12]
Ionospheric absorption is a larger 160 meters are physically large. A Noise is more of a problem at
factor at medium frequencies (MF) half-wave dipole cut for 1.9 MHz medium frequency. Atmospheric
than at high frequency. It is also harder would be about 246 feet long. To meet noise is of higher intensity than at HF
to radiate a strong signal on this band the usual NVIS height objective of 0.1 and man-made noise is more common.
than it is on those of shorter to 0.25 wavelengths [1,2,3,5] it would These combine to raise the noise floor.
wavelength. [12] It is, however, the have to mounted 49 to 123 feet above [13, 14]
only way to make NVIS propagation the ground. Antennas of this size and Noise is a complex subject and
useable. mounted at these heights are not conducive to treatment by simple
It is important that tactical and uncommon, are difficult to erect, and assumptions. To provide some
emergency communicators develop are susceptible to damage during assessment of the approximate
strategies for implementing medium emergency conditions. magnitude of the effect:
frequency (160 meter) NVIS paths. Many reduced size antennas One should expect a 5 to 8 dB
There are several challenges. The exhibit lower radiation resistance. increase in noise level when frequency
most important ones are equipment Consequently, resistive losses (e.g., is changed from the 40 meter amateur
and antennas. wire and connection resistance) must band (7.0 to 7.3 MHz) to the 80 meter
Most military HF equipment will be minimized or efficiency will suffer. band (3.5 to 4.0 MHz). [14]
not operate below 2 or 3 MHz. While Even when a good MF skywave is One should expect an 8 to 9 dB
operation at 2 MHz satisfies the radiated, ionospheric absorption is a increase in noise level when the
Figure 8 – Maximum Useable Frequency for a Sacramento - Reno, Nevada path at the summer solstice at the Solar Flux Indices shown.
frequency is changed from the 80 MUF curves show smaller day-to- and this frequency is then selected
meter band to the 160 meter band (1.8 night variations and the maximum automatically for operations.
to 2.0 MHz). [14] value of the MUF is lower. Most
Because of these problems; low importantly, the minimum value of the In summary
antenna gain, low antenna efficiency, MUF is higher. For NVIS There are special challenges for
higher path losses, and a higher noise communication, wint.er conditions are NVIS communication systems during
floor; MF paths will require clearly more critical than summer. periods of low solar activity.
significantly more power than one For the more modem military and Propagation parameters (e.g., solar
used to HF operation might estimate. commercial systems used in flux index) must be carefully
emergency management, the problems considered. The use of propagation
MUF at higher solar flux index of constantly changing path prediction tools becomes more
As the solar flux index increases, conditions, particularly during low important. Frequency selection
the MUF at any time of day also solar activity, have been significantly becomes more critical, especially for
increases. Figure 7 shows the MUF for reduced by the use of automatic link nighttime operations.
five values of the solar flux index establishment (ALE). HF-ALE The use of medium frequencies
great.er than the minimal value used in systems can deal with HF propagation (e.g., the 1.8 to 2.0 MHz amateur radio
preparation of Figure 6. The assumed variables in real time and find the best band) is a critical element in
path was Sacramento - Reno, Nevada. operating frequency for the communications planning. Effort
It was selected because it is a medium conditions. should be devoted to developing easy
length path for which ground wave ALE scans and tests authorized to deploy antennas and matching
propagation is out of the question. frequencies for a particular path or net systems for this band.
Short.er paths (e.g., Sacramento - until it finds a frequency that will NVIS propagation works, even
Stockton) would have lower MUFs support communications over the during periods of low solar activity,
and longer paths (e.g., Sacramento - path. Each radio in an ALE net but careful consideration of
San Diego) would have higher MUFs. constantly broadcasts a sounding propagation becomes more important
signal and "listens" for other sounding as sunspot numbers go through the
MUF affected by time of year signals generated by other net low portions of their 11-year cycle.
Figure 8, prepared using the same members.
solar flux values as Figure 7, An analysis of these signals by an
illustrates the effect of time of year. on-board processor determines the
On the longest day of the year, the best frequency for communications,
References
[1] U.S. Army Field Manual FM conclusions"; ARMY Space Environment Services Center
24-18; Field Radio Techniques; COMMUNICATOR Magazine; Fall, Geophysical Alert Broadcasts; 1990;
Appendix November 1984. 1989; Ft. Gordon, GA. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
[2] Fielder, David M. and Hagan, [5] Fiedler, David M.; Administration Environmental
George; "Beyond line-of-sight "Optimizing low power high Research Laboratories; Space
propagation modes and antennas"; frequency radio performance for Environment Laboratory; Boulder,
ARMY COMMUNICATOR tactical operations"; ARMY Colorado.
Magazine; Fall, 1983; Ft. Gordon, COMMUNICATOR Magazine; [8] Reference Data for Radio
GA. Spring 1989, Ft. Gordon, GA. Engineers; 6th Edition; Chapt.er 28,
[3] Fiedler, David M.; "Mobile [6] Harter, Stanly E.; "A Cloud "Electromagnetic-wave Propagation";
NVIS: the New Jersey Army National Warmer Antenna is Best for Local H- Howard W. Sams & Co.; 1977; New
Guard approach"; ARMY F Coverage"; State of California York.
COMMUNICATOR Magazine; Fall, Governor's Office of Emergency [9] Brown, Bob; "Propagation",
1987; Ft. Gordon, GA. Service; November 27, 1990. pp. 35-37; Worldradio Magazine;
[4] Fiedler, David M.; "Marine [7] Rosenthal and Hirman; A February 1994.
tests prove Fiedler's NVIS Radio Frequency User's Guide to the
[10] Jordan and Balmain; 23-21 and pp. 4-19 to 4-24; The program and user manual, Version
Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating American Radio Relay League; 1.1; 1998; Lexington, MA.
Systems; 2nd Edition; 1968; Prentice- Newington, CT.
Hall, Inc.; Englewood Cliffs, New [13] Reference Data for Radio Mr. Farmer, a professional
Jersey. Engineers; 6th Edition; Chapt.er 29, engineer, is president of EFA
[11] Shallon, Sheldon C., W6EL; "Radio Noise and Interference"; Technologies, Inc. The former signal
MINIPROP, Version 8; Computer Howard W. Sams & Co.; 1977; New soldier has a BS in electrical
program and User's Manual; 1988; York. engineering and an MS in physics,
Los Angeles. [14] Handwerker, J., WlFM; both from California State. He has
[12] The ARRL Antenna IONSOUND PRO, comput.er published over forty articles and two
Handbook; 15th Edition; pp. 28- 11 to books. He also holds two U.S. patents.
Understanding antenna performance
NVIS antenna fundamentals

by Edward J. Farmer, P.E.
This is the second Near vertical incidence sky wave

(NVIS) communication involves
an antenna is driven by the specific
mission requirements, the field
of three articles on paths in which radio energy directed conditions encountered, the
upward at high angles is reflected transmitter power available, the
NVIS from the ionosphere. Properly done, it quality of the base stations with which
communication. The provides uniform, dependable
communication over corps size (and
communication must be maintained,
the time and resources available for
first, "NVIS larger) areas. This is often taken to erection, the prospect of the enemy
mean areas with a radius of 250 km or seeing the antenna or intercepting the
Propagation at Low so. [1] signals, the required range of
Solar Flux Indices" NVIS communication systems
require that two issues be properly
operating frequencies, and the
available antenna system components.
appeared in the addressed. First, it is essential that the The antenna system begins at the
frequency of operation be selected radio and involves the antenna tuning
Spring 1994 issue of with full consideration of the unit (ATU), the feed line
Army Communicator. prevailing propagation conditions.
This is addressed in Reference [2].
(transmission line) between the ATU
and the antenna, and the antenna itself
The third article will Second, it is essential to use an (see Figure 1). Each element is
antenna that has a substantial radiation important in achieving proper
be on field antenna field in the vertical direction. In operation. They will be discussed in
experiments. This tactical NVIS applications, selecting that order.
article deals with

design, operation, and
understanding of
NVIS antennas.
Figure 1 -- Components of a transmission system including the radio with the ATU,
transmission line, and antenna.
ratio (SWR). If the feed line is is vertical, it radiates mostly in the
ANTENNA TUNING UNIT perfectly matched to the antenna (e.g., horizontal direction. This can be
The output circuit of modern (e.g., an antenna with a 72 ohm impedance useful in situations where ground
solid state) radios is a moderate is fed by a 72 ohm coaxial cable), the wave communication is beneficial but
impedance – usually 50 ohms. SWR is 1:1 or simply "1." If there is it contributes little to the NVIS effect.
Coupling these radios to any practical an impedance mismatch, the SWR is The amount of radiation from this
transmission line (and hence, antenna) greater than one perhaps by many vertical wire depends on the electrical
requires matching the impedance times. length of the entire antenna and is
presented at the radio's end of the Energy traveling back up the greatest when the total length is an odd
transmission line. This device is an transmission line runs into the ATU. number of quarter-wavelengths. It can
ATU, antenna coupler, antenna When properly adjusted, the ATU re- represent a "loss" even though it is, in
matching unit, or transmatch. reflects the energy back down the line fact, radiating.
This device provides the toward the antenna. This is the mirror Coaxial cable is the most
reactance necessary to compensate for side of the one-way mirror. No signal common transmission line in military
the impedance that appears on the passes back through the ATU to the systems. It also has the highest loss of
radio end of the transmission line. This transmitter itself. the available transmission lines.
impedance depends on the operating All the energy supplied from the Even when both the antenna and
frequency, the design of the antenna, transmitter through the ATU in to the the transmitter are perfectly matched
its mounting position, the type of feed line will eventually either be to the cable, some of the signal passing
transmission line, and its length. This radiated or absorbed in antenna and. through it is absorbed. This loss
impedance can vary from moderate feed line losses. Some, hopefully depends on. the design of the cable, its
values of pure resistance (e.g., 72 most, will be absorbed in the radiation length, and the frequency of operation.
ohms for a halfwave resonant dipole resistance of the antenna and thus will At frequencies below 8 MHz this loss
mounted a half wavelength above radiate useful signals. Some will be is not substantial. For a 100-foot foam
ground) to thousands of ohms of absorbed in the loss resistance of the dielectric RG-8 coaxial cable, the loss
reactance coupled with very low (or antenna. Some, often quite a bit, will is less than 0.5 dB at 8 MHz and a bit
very high) values of resistance. be absorbed in the transmission line. more than 0.2 dB at 2 MHz. To put this
Most military radios have an ATU As long as the ATU is correctly in perspective, if 100 watts at 2 MHz
built in so a resonant antenna is not adjusted none will be dissipated in the entered this cable, about 95.5 watts
required. For radios such as the transmitter itself. would enter the antenna.
AN/PRC-132 that do not have an The ATU may be manual or While it is usually possible to
ATU, a resonant antenna is essential. automatic. There are many ways to match the ATU to the coaxial cable it
The process of "matching" arrange its reactances [3] however, no is generally not possible to match the
amounts to creating a one-way RF matter how implemented, its purpose antenna, at least not over a wide range
"mirror." [4] RF energy from the remains the same. of frequencies. Consequently, the
transmitter passes through the ATU mismatch at the antenna causes
(in the "transparent" direction of the TRANSMISSION LINES reflections which create standing
one-way mirror) into the feed line. It A feed line or transmission line waves. As the SWR increases so does
travels down the feed line to the connects the radio to the antenna's loss in the coaxial cable. At 8 MHz, an
antenna. If the characteristic feed point. It may be coaxial cable, SWR of 17 (which is not uncommon
impedance of the transmission line parallel wire line ("ladder line" or in broadband applications) will cause
does not match the feed point "twin lead"), or a single wire that may half of the transmitter's power to be
impedance of the antenna, some of the be part of the antenna itself. lost in this coaxial cable.
energy is reflected back up the A single wire feeder is typically Parallel wire line causes
transmission line toward the part of a single wire (Marconi-type) significantly less loss. The "matched"
transmitter. The interaction of the antenna. For example, it is the vertical loss at 2 MHz is only 0.01 dB, rising
incident and reflected energy forms a wire in an Inverted L (a very useful to 0.05 dB at 8 MHz. This is a factor
"standing wave" which is a NVIS antenna). Since this feedwire is of ten less than that for coaxial cable.
measurement called the standing wave part of the antenna, it radiates. Since it Further, the loss does not increase as
rapidly with increasing SWR (see unbalanced transmission lines such as In evaluating an antenna design
Figure 2). A 100-foot length of coaxial cable. Military doctrine does for a specific purpose, NVIS
parallel wire line will not produce 3 not make much use of baluns. In fact, communication or any other, there are
dB of loss at 2 MHz until the SWR their use is not important when each two primary concerns:
rises well above 500. At 8 MHz 3 dB side of a balanced antenna is installed • How much of the transmitter's
is reached at an SWR of about 175. in a similar manner (e.g., at the same power actually makes it into the
Parallel wire line is commonly height above ground and near similar radiated signal?
available with impedances ranging objects) and when the length of a • Does the radiated energy go
from 75 to 600 ohms. The most coaxial feed line is not close to a half where needed?
common impedances, approximately wavelength (or multiple thereof) of the In simple language, we are
in order of popularity, are 450, 300, operating frequency. When either of concerned with the antenna's radiation
600, and 75 ohms. Interestingly, if a these conditions are not met a balun pattern (and thus its coverage) and
72 ohm antenna were fed with 100 feet should be used. [7, 8] with how much signal is radiated (its
of 72 ohm coaxial cable, the efficiency) over the range of
transmission line loss would be about ANTENNAS frequencies required by the mission.
0.5 dB at 8 MHz. If this same antenna An antenna in any radio system There are some practical concerns
were fed with 450 ohm parallel wire provides the link between the radio as well. In tactical situations, it is
line, the SWR would be about 6: 1 but equipment and the space through important to be able to erect the
the line loss would be only 0.2 dB. which signals are sent. antenna quickly and easily. It must
There are many antenna designs. survive the weather and environment
BALUNS Many are useful only in specific it encounters. There may be concern
The term "balun" stands for situations. Some provide equally good about its visibility to the enemy and
"BALanced to UNbalanced" (or sometimes, "equally bad") the enemy's ability to intercept our
converter. They can be important in performance over a wide range of signals.
optimizing the radiation pattern and applications. In all instances, they are Erecting an antenna quickly and
radiation efficiency of balanced the portals between us and those with easily is usually at odds with
(Hertz-type) antennas (e.g., dipoles) which we wish to communicate. They achieving optimal mounting height
when they are fed from radios with must be selected with specific yet most antenna performance factors
unbalanced output circuits or over objectives in mind. are strongly affected by it. Especially
Figure 2 – Transmission line loss.
at the lower NVIS frequencies, it is antenna height on power gain (see 0.25 wavelengths becomes directional
difficult to attain mounting heights Figure 3). Pattern shape does change and has no NVIS capability when
that optimize the NVIS effect (e.g., 0.1 significantly as an antenna rises above mounted at a half wavelength.
to 0.25 wavelengths or 4 7 to 117 feet 0.25 wavelengths (see Figure 4 (all These practical concerns are
at 2 MHz). antenna patterns presented were important because most performance
All antenna dimensions are prepared using [6])). A horizontal objectives are optimized at the
significant in terms of wavelengths. dipole with excellent omnidirectional expense of physical size, complexity,
This is especially important when an NVIS characteristics when mounted at and installation difficulty.
Figure 3 – Antenna gain versus mounting height.
antenna is to be operated over a range

of frequencies. An antenna that is
"low" at 2 MHz may be a long way in
the air at 8 MHz. The antenna's
impedance, gain, and pattern all
depend on the mounting height in
wavelengths.
The feed point impedance and
antenna element lengths calculated
with simple formulas are accurate only
for antennas mounted at least a half
wavelength above ground. As the
height of an antenna, as measured in
wavelengths, decreases its effective
length becomes slightly longer and its
feed point impedance becomes lower.
Antenna radiation pattern shape
does not change much as an antenna is
lowered below 0.1 wavelength
although vertical gain decreases
Figure 4 – Vertical radiation patterns for a half-wave horizontal dipole at the mounting
markedly. Fiedler [5] has provided an heights indicated. Note that NVIS effect is pronounced at h=0.25 wavelength and remains
excellent description of the effect of so as mounting height is decreased.
Optimization exacts a particularly radiation resistance and loss thus increases the radiation resistance,
heavy penalty as frequency is lowered. resistance. but the substantial amount of wire in
Design innovation for operation at the loading coils also introduces
medium frequency largely amounts to • Radiation resistance. Some of additional loss resistance.
finding ways to get performance the power sent into the antenna is • Decreasing the distance between
without physical size and weight. radiated-it becomes the signal. an antenna and the ground, decreases
Let's look at the three central Radiation resistance is a way of radiation resistance.
concepts in NVIS antenna design: describing the antenna's success in
efficiency, operation over the range of converting the transmitter's output into ANTENNA BANDWIDTH
frequencies required by the mission radiated energy. In practical implementations, it is
(bandwidth), and radiation pattern important that the antenna operate
(coverage). • Loss resistance. In the previous over an adequate range of frequencies;
example, only 95 watts of the original either in practical implementations, it
EFFICIENCY 100 made it into space. Where did the is important that the antenna operate
The "efficiency" of an antenna other 5 watts go? One source of loss is over an adequate range of frequencies;
describes how good it is at converting the actual resistance of the antenna either without operator intervention,
radio transmitter power into components (e.g., the wire and or with only simple modifications.
electromagnetic radiation. It does not connections). We know that all wire This is particularly important in
address whether the radiation has resistance and that resistance systems that rely on Automatic Link
produced is useful for a specific (e.g., causes losses for radio frequency Establishment (ALE) which "sound"
NVIS) purpose. antenna currents. Some of the energy many radio frequencies to
Each radio transmitter has some from the transmitter is wasted because automatically select the best one for a
amount of power available at the the flow of the radio frequency current particular communications objective.
antenna connector. Communication through wire and connection The range of frequencies over
depends on how much of that power resistance produces heat instead of which an antenna is useful defines its
makes it into the antenna's radiation useful electromagnetic signal. "bandwidth." What is meant by
field. Numerically, efficiency is that For a full-size half-wave dipole, "useful" depends on the available
which is useful divided by the total the loss resistance is a small number, equipment and the specific
amount available, expressed as a perhaps less than an ohm, while the communication objectives without
percentage. For example, if it was radiation resistance is quite large-72 operator intervention, or with only
determined that 95 watts from a 100 ohms or so. The antenna's efficiency simple modifications. This is
watt radio was being radiated, the can be found by dividing the radiation particularly important in systems that
efficiency would be 95/100 or 95 resistance by the sum of the radiation rely on Automatic Link Establishment
percent. resistance and the loss resistance. If (ALE) which "sound" many radio
With most antennas, especially the loss resistance is 1 ohm and the frequencies to automatically select the
when operated over a broad range of radiation resistance is 72 ohms, then best one for a particular
frequencies, transmission line losses the efficiency would be 72/73 = 0.99 communications objective.
are larger· than those in the antenna or 99 percent. The range of frequencies over
itself. Factors that affect efficiency which an antenna is useful defines its
include- "bandwidth." What is meant by
Antenna losses – When an • Introducing one or more loading "useful" depends on the available
antenna (such as a half-wave dipole) is resistors. These increase the loss equipment and the specific
described as having a feed point resistance. communication objectives.
impedance of 72 ohms, what does that • Improving the performance of a
mean? If the antenna is resonant, it "short" antenna by adding loading Standing wave ratio (SWR)
means that it exhibits a load at the feed coils. These coils make the antenna bandwidth is a measure of the range
point of 72 resistive ohms. There are electrically longer than its physical of frequencies over which an antenna
two components of this resistance: length. This improves the radio is "matched" to its source of supply
frequency current distribution and (e.g., its transmission line). It is
defined as the range of frequencies have less bandwidth than one made dramatically different radiation
over which the SWR is within some from # 10 AWG. characteristics over such a two octave
range. • The shorter the physical length range. As frequency is increased the
At resonance, the feed point of the antenna the lower the radiation length and the mounting height both
impedance of an antenna is resistive. resistance and hence the lower the become a larger number of
If the operating frequency is raised bandwidth. wavelengths. A dipole with excellent
above the resonant frequency, the feed • The lower the antenna is NVIS characteristics at 2 MHz may
point impedance gains a capacitive mounted the lower the radiation turn into a low radiation angle
component-the antenna presents an resistance, hence the lower the directional end-fire array with no
impedance to the transmission line bandwidth. NVIS capability at 8 MHz. There may
that electrically "looks like" a resistor As operation diverges from be a frequency above which there is
and a capacitor in series. On the other resonant frequency, the SWR on the insufficient NVIS effect.
hand, if the operating frequency is transmission line increases. The ATU What constitutes an "adequate"
below resonance the feed point is designed to take care of this-it range of frequencies depends on solar
impedance becomes inductive. The adjusts the antenna and its feed line to activity, the time of the year, and the
frequency, in either direction, at which resonance. This permits operation mission [2]. At any position in the
the reactance is equal to the resistance over a broad frequency range. The eleven year solar activity cycle, and in
is called the "3-dB point." It is also the feed line SWR is mainly of concern any season of the year it is usually
point at which the SWR at the feed because of the resulting feed line essential that operating frequency be
point will be 2 to 1, consequently, it is losses. This is particularly true when changed between night and day. This
also called the "2: 1 SWR point." The coaxial cables are used. necessity is particularly acute during
difference between the frequencies the shorter days of winter. In such
associated with the 2:1 SWR points Radiation pattern bandwidth circumstances, night operation will
(above and below the resonant has to do with the range of frequencies usually involve frequencies below 4
frequency) is called the 2:1 SWR over which the antenna's radiation MHz while daytime operation
bandwidth. Bandwidth can be defined pattern is suitable for specific involves frequencies above. [ 1, 2]
in terms of any SWR there is no magic communication objectives. An During the low portions of the
about 2: 1. antenna with excellent NVIS effect at solar activity cycle, night operation
Bandwidth is conveniently 2 MHz may have no NVIS effect at 8 will frequently be in the vicinity of 2
expressed as a percentage of the MHz. This leads us to the subject of MHz. Day operation will generally be
resonant frequency. For a typical high "coverage." below 8 MHz (in fact, will usually be
frequency wire antenna, it is about 5 below 6 MHz). An antenna that is a
percent of the frequency at which the COVERAGE half wave at 2 MHz is 2 wavelengths
antenna is resonant. At a resonant The usual NVIS propagation long at 8 MHz. An antenna mounted
frequency of 2 MHz this provides a objective is to enable all stations between 0.1 and 0.25 wavelengths
bandwidth of about 100 kHz. At 8 within an area with a radius of 250 km above ground (as suggested by [1]) at
MHz an equivalent antenna would or so to communicate with each other. 4 MHz would be 0.05 to 0.125
have a bandwidth of about 400 kHz. This is fairly easy to do when an wavelengths above ground at 2 MHz
This means that the antenna does not antenna can be tailored for each and 0.2 to 0.5 wavelengths above
have to be adjusted to maintain the operating frequency. When a single ground at 8 MHz. The radiation
SWR at less than 2: 1 when the antenna is to be stretched over what characteristics of a specific antenna
frequency is changed within these can be two-octaves (2 to 8 MHz) it installation will change substantially
ranges. becomes important to consider the over such a range of frequencies.
Factors that affect bandwidth frequency dependent aspects of Figure 4 shows the vertical
include – radiation patterns in some detail. radiation patterns for a resonant dipole
• The larger the diameter of the Tactical considerations favor the antenna at various mounting heights.
wire the wider the bandwidth. An simplicity of erecting a single antenna Figures 5 and 6 show the azimuth
antenna made from #20 AWG will that can be used at all required radiation pattern and the vertical
frequencies yet any single antenna has patterns in two directions for a simple
"Inverted L" antenna designed for 4 elevation patterns. height of the ionosphere which, in
MHz. In Figure 5, the antenna is The direction (azimuth) at which turn, depends on the time of day, the
operated at 2 MHz while in Figure 6 it an antenna radiates is particularly time of year, and the position in the
is operated at 8 MHz. Note that what important when a specific antenna is sun spot cycle. Reference [2]
was a good NVIS antenna at 2 and 4 operated over a large frequency range. discusses this in detail.
MHz becomes hopeless for NVIS An antenna that provides a near An antenna's coverage depends on
purposes at 8 MHz. circular radius of coverage at a low when and how it is used. While an
frequency (such as 2 MHz) might antenna's radiation pattern can be
Antenna Radiation Patterns become directional with little or no evaluated what it means relative to a
and Beamwidth – Evaluation of NVIS effect at 8 MHz. See Figures 5 specific communication objective
antennas for NVIS applications over a and 6. requires a broader understanding of
range of frequencies requires The takeoff angle required to span NVIS propagation. [2]
consideration of both the azimuth and a specific distance depends on the
Figure 5 -- 4 MHz, half-wave Inverted L mounted 25 feet (0.1 wavelength at 4 MHz) above medium
conductivity ground, operated at 2 MHz.
Pattern plots are a useful tool in points at which the radiation is half below one tenth that along its axis.
assessing coverage but it is convenient that along the axis (the point at which This occurs at the -10 dB points on any
to have a "shorthand" way of intensity is down by 3 dB) define the pattern plot. This parameter,
describing these patterns. This can be beamwidth. The beamwidth provides sometimes referred to as the beam
accomplished by identifying three an indication of the area over which limit, provides some measure of how
parameters. the antenna can provide "even easy our signals might be to intercept.
First, there is the line (the axis of coverage." There is also a performance
directivity) that shows where the Third, it is useful to have some advantage in having restricted
largest portion of the radiation field is indication of the limit of coverage. beamwidth. Noise arriving at the
going. For NVIS work the preferred While there are many criteria that antenna due to interfering signals and
direction is straight up. could be used it is convenient to define atmospheric effects is attenuated in the
Second, on either side of this axis the limit of coverage as the angles at same manner as is the transmitted
there is less radiation intensity. The which the antenna's pattern drops signal. A good NVIS antenna
Figure 6 – MHz, half-wave Inverted L mounted 25 feet (0.1 wavelength at 4 MHz) above medium ground, operated at 8 MHz.
inherently attenuates noise arriving at
low angles.
For tactical NVIS work we would
like to have a 3 dB beamwidth that is
adequate to cover the area of interest
and we would like the pattern to fall
off very quickly (to -10 dB or better)
as the angle increases beyond the 3 dB
beamwidth.
Figure 7 shows the vertical
radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole
mounted about 0.1 to 0.25 wavelength
above the earth. The 3 dB and 10 dB
points are marked. Note there is very
significant radiation well below 45
degrees. While this may be suitable for
many applications there are those in
which it is attractive to have much
tighter patterns.
Figure 8 shows the vertical
radiation pattern in a plane
perpendicular to the array's axis for a three-
Figure 7 – Pattern description parameters for a typical NVIS antenna. element array based on the Shirley
Dipole Array. Note the much sharper
beamwidth.
AN INTERESTING EXAMPLE —
Consider a real mission of the
California State Guard and the
California Governor's Office of
Emergency Services. Some of the sites
that could be involved in emergency
communications include the Capitol
of California in Sacramento; Stockton;
Reno, Nevada; Fresno; and Long
Beach. See Figure 9. These paths are
described in Table 1
Figure 8 – Vertical pattern of a three-element array based on the Shirley Dipole. Note the
beamwidth and beam extent are much narrower than those for the single element half-
wave dipole of Figure 7.
Table 2 – Path geometry relative to Sacramento. References
[1] US Army Field Manual, FM

24-18 Field Radio Techniques;
Appendix N; December 1984.
[2] Farmer, Edward J., "NVIS
Propagation at Low Solar Flux
Indices," Army Communicator
Magazine, Spring 1994, Fort Gordon,
GA.
[3] Caron, Wilfred N., Antenna
Impedance Matching, pp. 4-1 through
4-11, American Radio Relay League,
Newington, CT, 1989.
[4] Maxwell, Walter M.,
Reflections; Chapter 4, "A View Into
the Conjugate Mirror," American
Radio Relay League, Newington, CT,
1990.
[5] Fiedler, David M., "HF Radio
Communications and High Angle
Antenna Techniques," Army
Communicator Magazine, Summer
1991, Fort Gordon, GA.
[6] Lewallen, Roy, W7EL,
Figure 9 – Locations involved in the California example (see Table 1 and text). ELNEC Computer Program and
User Manual, Version 3.07, PO Box
6658, Beaverton, OR 97007, 1993.
[7] Lewallen, Roy, W7EL,
"Baluns: What They Do and How
They Do It," Antenna Compendium,
Volume 1, The American Radio Relay
League, Newington, CT, 1985.
[8] Roehm, Albert A., W20BJ,
"Some Additional Aspects of the
Balun Problem," Antenna
Compendium, Volume 2, The
American Radio Relay League,
Newington, CT, 1986.
PART TWO
HOW TO DO IT
Military experience and the efforts of some variety of situations are covered in the articles included
emergency response organizations provide the best in this section
information concerning how to make NVIS work. A
5. The HF NVIS Radio Path -An Engineering and 9. HF Radio Communications and High Angle
Operational Challenge by Dr. Alan S. Christinsin, P.E.; Antenna Techniques by LTC David M. Fiedler, Army
from Tactical HF Radio Command and Control-An Communicator magazine, Summer 1991.
Anthology, Volume I - Low Power, Short Path HF
10. How to Survive Long Range and Special
Communications; Published by ASC &Associates Ltd.,
Operations by LTC David M. Fiedler, Army
1201 Dawn Dr. Belleville, IL 62220; 1993.
Communicator magazine, Summer 1993.
6. Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS)
11. Antenna Performance for NVIS Communications
Propagation, The Soviet Approach by LTC David M.
by MAJE. J. Farmer, Army Communicator magazine,
Fiedler, Army Communicator magazine, Spring 1987.
Summer 1996.
7. Mobile NVIS: The New Jersey Army National
12. U.S. Army FM 24-18: Tactical Single-Channel
Guard Approach by LTC David M. Fiedler, Army
Radio Communications Techniques, Chap. 3 &
Communicator magazine, Fall 1987.
Appendix M: Near Vertical Incidence Skywave
8. Optimizing Low Power High Frequency Radio Propagation Concept, September 1987.
Performance for Tactical Operations by LTC David M.
13. NVIS Refresher by Stanly Harter KH6GBX,
Fiedler, Army Communicator make NVIS work. A
WorldRadio magazine, January 1995.
variety of situations are covered in the articles included
in this section. magazine, Spring 1989.
5: THE HF NVIS RADIO PATH
An Engineering and Operational Challenge
by Dr. Alan S. Christinsin Since World War II, military lowest signal-to-noise ratios. If military units were regularly
communicators using high frequency (HF) radio over short using International Morse Code (IMC- also known as CTI) on
skywave path lengths, also known as near vertical incidence a regular basis, it would be very successful from an SNR
skywave (NVIS), have had engineering problems. Congestion standpoint because of its narrow (100 Hz) bandwidth and
of the HF portion of the radio spectrum, combined with the inherent excellent signal-to-noise ratio – albeit low
broader bandwidths of today's independent sideband communications throughput. For many years, the most
multichannel operations, make a sometimes difficult situation common HF emission has been a single sideband voice (3 kHz)
even worse. The purpose of this paper is to acquaint signal with suppressed carrier. This was primarily because
communicators with the problems associated with the HF voice operation has been very popular for military use for
NVIS path. A short HF skywave path is defined by most as many years. The SSB receiver passband is about 3 kHz,
being a distance from 0 to about 300 miles (500 km) in length.
There are several major problems associated with short-
haul HF systems. Generally speaking, the shorter the path, the
lower the frequencies used. The lower the frequencies
employed, the greater the interference potential due to
spectrum congestion, the increased degradation due to
atmospheric noise (i.e., the worse the signal-to-noise ratio -
SNR), and the lower the antenna gain and directivity. High
noise, in itself, can prevent successful communication,
especially at certain times of the year at specific locations in
the world. This is particularly true in the late afternoon and
evening. This is when atmospheric noise increases due to
propagation of the static from thunderstorms located in
southern latitudes. Increase of noise is caused by the absence
Figure 1. Atmospheric Noise Map-of-the world (Summer in Northern
or diminishing effects of the changing "D” layer (the dominant Hemisphere)
ionospheric absorption layer). Summer evenings are
particularly noisy from about 1600-2200 local time due to the therefore, only 3 kHz of noise is present. Since the power of a
higher probability of local thunderstorms as well as the single voice channel is concentrated within 3 kHz, it competes
addition of propagated atmospheric noise from the equatorial for the dominance of the passband (i.e., the SNR) and, if
areas. Refer to Figure 1. reasonable signal levels are received, good SNRs are usually
Most HF equipment used on NVIS paths is fairly low achieved. In recent years, however, new data transmission
power (usually less than a kW…often only 20 Watts). This isn't capabilities have been developed that operate at signal-to-
much power when competing with high noise and interference noise levels as low or lower than the SNR for IMC with
levels present on short radio paths. However, most HF throughput up to 2400 baud at times. The greater the noise, the
operation at these short paths is by tactical users using greater signal power density in the receiver's passband is
vehicular or manpack HF radios. While it is always needed to overcome the noise and produce a usable output. The
advantageous to have high power, in a tactical situation, new "smart" data modems can improve data operation
transmitter power is usually limited by mobility constraints, dramatically. On the other hand, voice requirements are still
fuel availability, and other considerations. As a result, few difficult to satisfy at this point in time, but technology is
tactical HF systems use high power HF transmitters. The most improving in this area. The relatively high signal-to-noise ratio
successful communications over the HF short haul are usually requirements of voice operation are difficult to achieve on
obtained by employing communications modes requiring the short skywave paths. However, with the advent of more
effective RF speech processors and digital signal processing lower the frequency and usually the longer and/or larger the
devices to reduce the effects of noise and interference there antenna needed. The tactical communicator must reason a step
have been significant improvements in voice operation in the beyond that. The longer the antenna for the short path, usually
last few years. While one cannot achieve SNRs for voice as the higher above ground it should be installed for optimized
low as with data, there will always be a requirement for both performance.
voice and data. There is more use of data now than heretofore For all practical purposes, there are no tactical "high gain"
because of its improved reliability and ease of encryption. antennas for the short skywave path. A horizontal dipole a
Since tactical transmitters usually employ fairly low quarter wave above ground is going to produce about as much
power (usually 20 to 400 Watts), the best opportunity for gain at 90 degrees above the horizon as is going to be obtained
improving the signal between two stations operating over a for tactical NVIS use. (The doublet antenna near a quarter-
NVIS path is through the selection and use of properly wave above ground produces a gain of about 5.6 dBi.) There
engineered antennas at each station. Most communicators are a very few large high angle tactical antennas with fair gain
think of the Rhombic, Vee, Sloping Vee, Log Periodic, Yagi available commercially, but most have gain about only slightly
or Sterba curtain antenna when considering use of an effective, greater than the doublet; however, unlike the doublet, they are
high gain, HF antenna. The aforementioned antennas are broadband structures. Some of these antennas look like a
excellent, but although they have high gain, unfortunately, regular log periodic structure only aiming straight up or siting
most are not designed for use over the NVIS path. At these on its short end aimed straight at the ground. They focus their
short paths, lower frequencies and higher takeoff angles are radiation at the ground and reflect back toward the sky. An
required. Also, high gain antennas are very large and are not excellent log periodic antenna of this design is made by
easily transported. The main problem is, however, that most of Antenna Products Corporation. It is a vertically aligned
the aforementioned antennas produce low radiation angles horizontal log periodic which is about 70 feet tall and about
(below 20 degrees) at higher HF frequencies. Although 120 feet long, called the LPH- 15. This antenna covers the band
desirable for the long haul, they are very ineffective when used 4-30 MHz with 5 dBi gain or more at all frequencies over the
on a short path. The following chart (Figure 2) shows distances band. Although called a tactical antenna, it is large and almost
versus optimum antenna takeoff angles that should be impractical for tactical use. In fact, it is more properly
considered when selecting an effective antenna for various considered moveable and takes about a day, maybe two, to
path lengths. install. However, it is an excellent NVIS antenna. Refer to
Based on the foregoing chart, one can see that for short Figure 3.
distances, takeoff angles are quite high...usually from 45 to 90 The Doublet (resonant dipole) antenna is simple, easy to
degrees above the horizon. erect, and provides a fair amount of gain at the desired
The shorter the HF skywave path, for all practical radiation angles. This is about 5 dB over an isotropic antenna
purposes, the lower the frequency of operation at a given time (dBi) at heights under a quarter-wave above ground.
of day. To carry that one step further - the shorter the path, the Unfortunately, the doublet is a single frequency antenna (plus
Figure 2. Typical Required Vertical Radiation (Takeoff} Angles for Various Distances In the Northern Temperate Zone
or minus 1 or 2% bandwidth of its design frequency), and it coaxial feed line. The "Spider Web" normally employs only
must be reconstructed/ modified for each frequency change one set of masts (a set normally consists of three masts - or
beyond one or two percent. The length of a doublet is another poles). Because the height of all three frequencies is fixed, at
problem. A doublet for 2 MHz would be about 234 feet long. the one height there is some pattern compromise. Refer to
This is a large antenna for tactical applications. In today's Figure 5.
world, it is rare that single frequency antennas (like doublets) Another tactical antenna, the "Inverted L," has good gain
are employed. For one thing, with ALE, frequency hopping at high angles (only slightly less than a dipole) and is frequency
(and easily tuned radios) are impractical to use with single agile. This antenna, unlike the resonant dipole (doublet) is fed
through an antenna coupler into a single wire feed line, making
the antenna very frequency flexible. The antenna coupler is a
component part of the radio package in most instances. The
azimuth pattern and takeoff angles are somewhat similar to a
doublet. Beyond about four times the lowest design frequency,
however, the gain falls off sharply since the antenna starts to
function like a long wire at one wavelength or more (i.e.,
maximum energy starts to radiate from near the ends rather
than broadside to the horizontal wire). At the higher
frequencies, the vertical takeoff angles become lower because
the antenna's height remains constant in feet, but changes in
wavelength.
See Figure 6.
A variation of the doublet is the "Inverted Vee" antenna.
The "Inverted Vee" is essentially a dipole supported by a single
mast or pole and its legs 'drooped" towards ground. It is a
single frequency resonant dipole, but, like the doublet, can be
broken into segments with jumpers and insulators so that up to
three specific frequencies can be used if the jumpers are
changed for each of the three frequencies. This is a useful
capability, but, again, the number of frequencies available is
very limited and use of jumpers requires lowering the antenna
in order to change them for each "QSY" (frequency change).
Refer to Figure 7.
Figure 3. The LPH-15 Tactical Vertically Aligned Horizontal Log Another NVIS antenna is the Rockwell ... Collins
Periodic High Angle Antenna for Short to Medium Distances orthogonal antenna often referred to as the "NVIS Antenna" -
the 637K (the Collins model number). This antenna is now
frequency antennas - or downright impossible. Also, the reader
widely known by its AN-nomenclatures, the AS-2259 or
is reminded that the classic figure eight (bi-directional)
2268.Actually, this antenna comes in a couple versions, hence,
azimuth pattern of a dipole applies only applies in free space
the different numbers. Both the AS-2259 and 2268 consist of
and, to some degree, at height multiples of a halfwave above
two crossed sloping dipoles connected to each other at the feed
earth. At doublet heights close to earth (a quarter-wave or less),
point, each dipole is cut to a different frequency, and the
a near-omnidirectional pattern is formed (especially at the
antenna structure is tuned at the base of the mast. The mast is
higher radiation angles). The greatest problem of the classic
made of rigid coax and is tuned using an antenna coupler. (A
resonant doublet (half-wave horizontal dipole) is, of course, its
component of the radio set.) It uses the same antenna base and
narrow bandwidth as mentioned previously. Refer to Figure 4.
the same antenna coupler as a whip. The AS-2259 and 2268
If only day, night and transition frequencies are used (three
were specifically designed to operate over NVIS paths, but
frequencies), the "Spider Web" (multiple doublet) antenna is a
using hardware peculiar to a whip antenna. The antenna has
reasonably good compromise antenna for the short skywave
path. However, it is limited to just the three specific
frequencies. Its gain, patterns, and general performance are
close to that of three classic doublets. It is fed with a single
Figure 4a (left) and 4b (right). The Azimuthal Radiation Pattern of a Doublet antenna a quarter-wavelength or less above ground.2
reasonable cost, produces less gain than a resonant dipole, and W) broadband dipole, which is actually a compromise version
is another pack to carry. However, it is a good NVIS antenna, of the classic '"Terminated 2-Wire Folded Dipole (T2FD)," has
it does function well, and has been used for many years. It performance almost as good as the classic T2FD. The T2FD
consumes a fair amount of space-in a specific geometrical was designed by the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) back
configuration. This antenna radiates its maximum vertical lobe in about 1949 and has been used by the Army, Navy and Air
directly above from about 90 degrees down to about 50 degrees Force as well as the National Security Agency (NSA). It is now
- perfect for NVIS operation. It is designed to operate from 2 made commercially by B&W in a modified configuration for
to 12 MHz. While it can be tuned to higher frequencies, the a cost of around $200.00. It basically functions and has
pattern becomes unpredictable ("flaky'') and should not patterns like a resonant dipole (doublet), but it has very wide
normally be used at these higher frequencies. Your attention is bandwidth. However, after about 4 or 5 times its lowest
directed to Figure 8. (design) frequency, the vertical pattern tends to lay down
For semi-fixed or transportable use, the T2FD antenna (a somewhat and the azimuthal pattern's maximum radiation
broadband dipole) has seen considerable use in the last 8 years moves from broadside to the plane of the wire to off the ends
- especially in the Gulf War. The Barker and Williamson (B& of the wire. The antenna is not especially efficient (40% or less
compared to the efficiency of a resonant dipole which has over
70% efficiency at the height of about 25 feet above ground).
However, the T2FD has the advantage of being a high angle
broadband antenna with the capacity of supporting automatic
link establishment (ALE) and frequency hopping anti-jam (AJ)
operations. The classic T2FD, and the B&W as well, are a bit
bulky to deploy because of the separated wires and spacers
making these antennas difficult to roll up and transport. For
NVIS use, install the antenna less than a quarter-wave above
ground (at its lowest design frequency). Refer to Figure 9.
What is the message after all that discussion? First, there
is no perfect antenna for HF NVIS operation. Secondly,
compromise is the name of the game. Third, what's good for
one short haul situation, is not always good for another. The
best advice is to size up your situation and determine the type
Figure 5a. Fort Monmouth design "Spider Web" antenna antenna that will do the best job for your requirement -
SSN minimum. One is that during SSN minimum, the lower
portion of the HF spectrum becomes very congested - with all
users of the spectrum moving lower and lower in the HF
spectrum as the solar activity decreases. The result is that users
increasingly operate on lower frequencies. This increases
occupancy in the lower portion of the HF bands, causing
increased interference, especially at night.
Those users who have lower HF frequencies already
assigned will start using them regularly- even when not
actually needed, as soon as they realize that SSN minimum is
drawing near. The reason is often to discourage other stations
from encroachment. Because of heavy spectrum occupancy, it
is difficult to obtain additional low HF frequency assignments
when requested, and if they are actually assigned, usually they
are authorized on a non-interference basis (NIB) and
Figure 5b. Basic design "Spider Web" "clobbered" with interference (probably along with those
frequencies the station already has assigned). NVIS frequency
support has historically been a problem, especially during SSN
minimum where interference is a major consideration. Refer to
Figure 10.
Figure 5c. Stanford Research Institute (SRI) design "Spider Web"
considering all the specific constraints. In this modern age, the

trend is away from resonant dipoles (doublets) and more to
frequency agile antennas such as the Inverted L (tuned
antenna) and broadband antennas such as the T2FD and others
because of their usefulness for automatic link establishment
(ALE) and frequency hopping.
Over the short haul, from a propagation standpoint, not
many frequencies are required - usually three (six for a short
distance duplex system). This usually consists of a "day"
Figure 6. The inverted L antenna
frequency, a "night" frequency, and a "transition frequency for
a total of three for a simplex system. Six are required for Interference has been discussed throughout this paper, so
duplex operation. The usage of these frequencies on an hour- there isn't much more that can be added. The real variable in
to-hour basis in a multipoint simplex net is determined by the HF communications, over which we have little or no control,
net control station (NCS) if a manual system (multipoint net). is interference from an outside source (other stations using the
In the low end of the solar cycle, short path frequencies are same or adjacent frequencies). Additionally, on-site
generally confined to the 2- to 8 MHz band because of the low interference problems can be created due to poor siting mostly
solar activity while during SSN maximum it might be 2-12 with respect to other closely collocated electromagnetic
MHz. A typical (simplex) frequency complement for a 100 radiating and receiving equipment. There is usually no
mile path at SSN minimum, winter might be 7 MHz (day), 4 difficulty convincing tactical communicators to separate their
MHz (transition) and 2 MHz (night). There are several "Sloping Vee" or other long haul antennas by 500, 1,000 feet,
problems associated with propagation and frequency usage at or more. However, much more serious coupling is possible
another 100 miles away, it may make more sense to operate
from Florida to New York State (a longer path) and then relay
back to Florida. This would reduce atmospheric noise
considerably, possibly reduce interference from spectrum
congestion on the lower frequencies, reduce the size of
antennas used, and probably improve overall system
reliability. Because voice is usually impractical to relay
reliably, only data systems would be candidate for relay. Refer
to Figure 12.
Usually the operational situation prevents this approach
and one may be committed to operation over a short skywave
Figure 7. The Jumpered Multi-Frequency Doublet path even with all its problems. If so, one should ascertain how
best the system can be engineered to squeeze as much
between two doublets using lower HF frequencies (or worse
reliability out of the system as possible. That is, select the best
yet, two whips operating over short-haul ground-wave paths).
available hardware, pre-site the facilities (especially the
Yet, often such antennas are located almost next to each other.
antennas), configure the end stations properly, employ trained
Antenna selection and placement exert a considerable
and knowledgeable operators, and, if possible, obtain
influence upon use of assigned frequencies. Often the
frequency redundancy (more than a bare essential quantity of
interference produced by collocated antennas prevents the use
of some assigned frequencies at certain times and this can
degrade system reliability greatly. Refer to Figure 11.
Location of receive equipment near high tension power
lines can cause pick up of considerable man-made noise from
that source. The cumulative results of man-made and
atmospheric noise compound the ambient noise problem, at
times, making effective communications shaky at best.
Sometimes reliable communications cannot be achieved for
many possible reasons.
Often, no matter what is done, it may be impossible to
make the short skywave/NVIS operation work reliably during
some periods of time ... especially on some nights. In some
cases, one might elect not to employ NVIS operation because
of the severe levels of noise and interference and instead Figure 9. The T2FD (Terminated 2-Wire Folded Dipole) Antenna
Configured as an Inclined Version.
operate over a long path to a more distant station and have the
traffic relayed back to your station on the longer system. For frequencies in the required bands) in order to "dodge"
example, instead of working from one part of Florida to interference. Although this is easy to say, it is not always easy
to do. The operator should do the very best he/she can to
minimize system losses, and received interference and noise.
A path reliability study should be performed in advance of
the deployment, or at least as soon as possible. This will
provide a feel for the anticipated path reliability and will point
out the times of the RADAY when communication might be
difficult or impossible. While such a study does not provide
absolute solutions, it does provide a good starting point by
focusing attention on potential problems. With it, the
knowledgeable HF engineer can come up with a reasonable
assessment of the probable reliability over the path and
optimize, or at least enhance, the chances of success through
Figure 8. The AS-2259/2268 (also known as the Collins 637K) knowledgeable adjustments to equipment complements,
frequency assignments, antennas, etc.
Figure 10. Congestion of the HF segment of the radio spectrum. Figure 11. Electromagnetic co-site problems caused by Antenna
Proximity
As a result of the predicted path reliability (PPR) study, at channel. If so, the system reliability estimate can be improved.
least the period(s) that your system may "go out" can be If not, then there may be problems. Brief the system users that
predicted. Operators should be briefed about the situation and if this is the case, then it is highly probable that the station may
should be provided methodology on how to "squeeze" as much have a traffic backlog between certain hours. This could allow
"up-time" out of the system as possible (i.e., tips on QSYing). internal personnel adjustments to be anticipated in advance
Determine if a lower grade of service can be used by the because, when the system finally comes back in, things get
subscriber, i.e., can the subscriber stand a noisier voice or hectic both in the communications center and for the
degraded data with a higher BER than specified for the administrative processing distribution people as well. At the
Figure 12. A means of improving path reliability by employing a long path relay as an alternative to a short path
(primarily for data communications)
being: going to a mode of operation requiring a lower SNR
such as CW (SIN density ratio of about 34 versus 48 for order
wire quality voice. Also, messages can be sent twice and other
techniques could be used. Operators should be trained in these
techniques.
The pre-deployment PPR (predicted path reliability)
analysis will give the engineer a feel for the expected
performance of the short haul HF system. Take all necessary
steps to optimize the terminal engineering during the siting
phase. Install equipment and antennas properly. Be certain
everything is functioning correctly. Also, develop and post a
propagation chart/QSY (frequency change) guide for the
operator on duty to use (if manual operations are employed).
For ALE controlled operations, a realistic frequency
complement should be programmed into the ALE controller.
Supervisory personnel might consider dropping by the station
for a visit during the expected bad periods and offer
encouragement to the operators and see the results first hand.
Be certain that in a multipoint net that the NCS operator(s) on
shift during times of projected low reliability be the most
qualified and best trained.
Provided operators keep the necessary records for
operations, post action analysis can be accomplished to
identify problems of the foregoing nature. Post action analysis
of the HF system is particularly important if similar operations
are expected to improve in the future. A proper analysis can
verify the validity of the pre-deployment path engineering
predictions and assist in problem solving.
The short HF skywave path/near vertical incidence
(NVIS) path (same thing - different names) is one of the more
difficult tactical HF operations of all. Tactical HF radio
operation is usually low powered, antennas are usually in
efficient, noise levels are high, interference can be brutal, and
assignment of an adequate frequency family is often a
problem. There are techniques to help maximize the
Figure 13. Analysis Worksheet for a RADAY, showing outage and performance of the short haul HF skywave system, primarily
propagation relationships. by using the best available antennas, ensuring that operators
are trained, using propagation predictions, employing proper
same time, initiate action to upgrade the system to make it equipment, and obtaining and effectively employing an
perform at a higher degree of reliability. effective radio frequency family. While it is sometimes
Even though studies might indicate that one may be impossible to provide effective communications over an HF
reasonably certain that the HF NVIS radio system of interest NVIS path for each entire RADAY, it is possible to minimize
could "drop out" at a certain time, there is no reason to give up. outage and prepare users for the potential outage periods. The
There are many operating techniques that can be employed to proper engineering and effective operation of the radio system
prolong the usefulness of HF radio communications ... one are keys to success
.
Russians on the move
Near-vertical-incidence skywave (NVIS)

propagation: the Soviet approach
by Lt. Col. David M. Fiedler into HF radio systems just at the time
The poor performance when early HF technology was
of our HF-RATT and In two previous articles in ARMY providing equipment and techniques
COMMUNICATOR, I have advocated that would do the job. Soviet reliance on
HF-SSB voice the use of the near-vertical-incidence HF systems has continued to this day,
and their capabilities include very good
equipment in skywave (NVIS) for communicating
mobile tactical communications and
beyond groundwave range-up to a
supporting fast distance of 400 km. With the NVIS over the horizon HF RADAR
technique, energy is radiated at a low applications.
moving, widely enough frequency so that it is reflected On the other hand, with the advent of
satellite communications in the 1950s
dispersed operations is back to earth at all angles by the
and 1960s, we in the west believed that
ionosphere. This results in the energy
not only the result of striking the earth in an omnidirectional HF radio systems had lost their military
pattern without dead spots (without a potential. Studies were conducted that
inadequate training skip zone) if an efficient short-path concluded that satellite systems with
their high reliability, huge bandwidths,
and doctrine but of antenna such as a doublet is used. I had
and tremendous channel capacity would
hoped that the Signal Corps would use
inadequate equipment. this technique to solve some serious eventually replace all HF systems, even
operational problems. I am still hoping. at the lowest tactical levels. This led to a
As a further argument, I would like to virtual halt in HF equipment
point out in this article that the Soviet development in the 1960s and 1970s and
Union has already seen fit to incorporate is the reason why our forces still use
NVIS technology into their equipment such as the AN/GRC- 46,
communications doctrine. Can we AN/GRC-26D, AN/GRC-122/142, and
afford not to? AN/GRC-106. It is also the reason why
until recently most of our technical and
Historical background doctrinal literature bore dates from the
early 50s, and why the training of
Due to the huge size of the USSR
operators deteriorated to a very marginal
and the problems they encountered in
level. The Soviets, who had our
establishing land line systems over vast
resources in neither space nor
distances with sparse population, long
electronics at this time, and who did not
range radio circuits early-on became an
share our belief in the invulnerability of
attractive alternative to the Soviet
satellites (with good reason since they
military. This, coupled with the military
were developing a satellite destroying
situation during and after the Russian
weapons system), continued to develop
Revolution in which large land areas
HF radio technology.
were constantly being contested, gave
Soviet communicators a great impetus
The Soviets and NVIS today previous articles on HF • We are on the right track when
Soviet Lt. Col. V. Natetov, writing communications. The more significant advocating the use of NVIS using
in the military journal, Tekhnika I and disturbing part of Natetov's paper dipoles located close (.1-.25
Vooruzheniye (Technology and came later when he went on to say, wavelengths) to the earth for
Armament) No. 11 - 1985, outlined the "Ionospheric communication in motion communication beyond groundwave
Soviet view of NVIS training, operation, and during brief stops at distances up to range. Our communications doctrine
and doctrine. He also discussed a mobile 200-300 km is conducted using Zenith and training must incorporate NVIS,
NVIS capability not presently available radiating and receiving antennas and the reluctance of certain portions of
to U.S. forces. According to Natetov, arranged on top of the operating the U.S. Signal community to change
"Radio network operations are usually vehicle." Though this mobile NVIS their thinking must be overcome.
set up for communication over short antenna is a capability unheard of in the • We have fallen short in supporting
distances (up to 300 km). Non- U.S. Army*, it is not surprising that the the combat/mechanized mobile force.
directional antennas or those with poor Soviets, who are the masters of The poor performance of our HFRATT
directivity and Zenith Radiation [ the mobile/mechanized war and HF radio and HF-SSB voice equipment in
Soviet name for NVIS] should be used communication, would combine the two supporting fast moving, widely
in this case. The most widely used if possible. dispersed operations is not only the
antennas for this kind of Natetov's article raises serious result of inadequate training and
communications are the horizontal or questions about the ability of the U.S. doctrine but of inadequate equipment.
slanted symmetrical dipoles. For Army to provide its mobile forces with We need, and we must develop with all
symmetrical dipoles there are also communications support comparable to deliberate speed, a mobile NVIS
frequency limitations of use depending that of the Soviet Army. (Interestingly, capability along with the training and
on operating conditions. on page 24 of the Fall 1983 issue of AC, doctrine to support it. If we don't,
Therefore, this shortwave radio in an article by Maj. Charles H. Hill III, tactical commanders will be tied to line-
antenna set usually includes no fewer there is a photo of a Soviet BTR-60 of-sight communications (HF and VHF)
than two dipoles to establish displaying a unique "railing-like and area systems, which will not
communications in the different sectors antenna array." I believe that this array respond adequately to high mobility
of the set's band of frequencies. is in fact an NVIS mobile antenna, battle situations.
Generally speaking, in communicating exactly like the one Natetov describes, Since the technology is known, a
at ranges up to 300 km, horizontal further evidence that the Soviets do mobile NVIS capability can be
dipoles can be oriented arbitrarily in the indeed have the hardware necessary to developed and deployed quickly. I call
area; however, it is best to set up the communicate with NVIS while on the upon the Signal Corps to recognize the
dipole perpendicular to the direction of move.) military potential of mobile NVIS
the most remote correspondent." This glimpse of the Soviet view of techniques-as the Soviets have-and
What he says up to here tracks item NVIS has led me to conclude the make the effort to develop the necessary
for item with the data presented in my following: equipment and training to use it.
*No unit that I know of except the New

Jersey Army National Guard even
attempts to use a crude form of mobile
NVIS. The NJARNG tries to use whip
antennas bent at a 45 degree angle in
order to get some useable vertical
skywave radiation and is presently
experimenting with another NVIS
mobile antenna.
On the move
Mobile NVIS: the New Jersey Army National

Guard approach
Because of the size, by Lt. Col. David M. Fiedler Since then, fixed operations using
wire dipoles have been incorporated into
In previous articles in the ARMY
shape, and vertical COMMUNICATOR on the subject of FM 24-18, Appendix N, though the
reader should still be careful when using
direction of radiation, short path (0-400km), high frequency
(HF), skip zone free, radio this FM, since some incorrect data about
communications communications, I challenged Army short path propagation and "skip zones"
still remain in other sections of the
training and doctrine while attempting
equipment can be to inform tactical communicators of a manual. Appendix N is the correct
picture for short skywave paths.
hidden in depressions more efficient way to use their HF radio
equipment. In the Winter/Spring 1987 In the area of mobile operations,
and under cover, thus issue, I argued that the Soviet Union has the situation becomes more
complicated. While it was easy to adopt
a mobile near-vertical-incidence
making it harder to skywave (NVIS) capability that we lack, standard issue wire dipoles (like the
AN/GRA- 50) for fixed-station NVIS
find ... Mobile NVIS but one which we need if we are to
support fast moving, deep penetration operation, the Signal Corps' lack of
will make possible the operations over wide areas. interest in short skywave path
communications produced no
selection of much
more survivable sites
than those used today.
Figure 1. This NVIS antenna pattern is omni-directional, which means that the energy radiated
from the antenna is of equal strength in all directions from the antenna. Such a pattern is achieved
by radiating the signal in a near vertical direction at a frequency low enough for it to be reflected
by the ionosphere. The effect is similar to that achieved by directing a water hose straight up at a
flat surface: the water, hitting the surface above, rains down in a circular pattern without dry
spots, covering the area below. All radio stations within the pattern will receive the same signal at
approximately the same strength without gaps in coverage or "skip zones."
comparable mobile zenith radiating wheeled vehicles as the Soviets were of the Airborne Systems Technical Area
antenna or even the requirement for one. doing. of AVRADA, who was working with
This being the case, my search for a There is currently no TRADOC the company suppling AVRADA with
starting point to match the Soviet (Signal Corps) generated requirement their aircraft antennas. Mr. Greenspan,
capability had to begin outside the for this capability. However, the New Mr. Florenio Regala, and Mr. Frank
Signal community. Jersey State Area Command Hoar of TRIVEC-AVANT then
Fortunately, the U.S. Army (NJSTARC) does have a requirement arranged for the NJNG to get a series
Avionics Research and Development for continuous communication over an AV-600 shorted loop NVIS antenna in
Activity (AVRADA) was faced with a operational area very similar to that exchange for a copy of any operational
similar wide-area continuous-coverage occupied by a typical U.S. corps. With test results obtained.
communications problem when the STARC mission in mind, I was able The antenna was mounted on the
attempting to communicate with aircraft to convince the commander and staff of NJSTARC mobile communications
engaged in "nap of the earth" (NOE) the New Jersey National Guard (NJNG) facility shown in Figure 3. It was
flight. After consulting with Mr. John of the value of this capability and fastened to the cargo rails on the van
Brune and Mr. Frank Cansellor of receive their support. Unfortunately, the roof for support and grounded on one
AVRADA, I obtained Tech Report adjutant general of New Jersey has no end to the searchlight mount as shown in
ECOM 4366 (Reference 1), which funds or manpower for R&D projects, Figure 4. The antenna was fed from the
showed excellent omnidirectional so the work had to be accomplished by other end by a Kenwood Model 4305
antenna patterns with aircraft-mounted NJNG personnel on their own time and transceiver modified for military
transline antennas. I felt that similar without funds. operations and matched by a Kenwood
results could be obtained when the This being the situation, I contacted Model AT-230 antenna matcher using a
antenna was mounted atop tracked or Mr. Seymour Greenspan, former chief
Figure 2. Series AV-600 NVIS antenna installed on Army UH-1
Figure 3. Mobile NVJS antenna installed on NJNG communications Figure 4. End grounded to searchlight mount
facility
single-wire feed line as illustrated in antenna pattern or the amount of gain Results are shown below in Figure 8.
Figures 5 and 6 toward the zenith, much of our testing Communications were established with
Matching the antenna was the most had to be of a less scientific, but more all of the above stations on 4520 kHz
difficult technical problem, since this practical nature. could communicate with the mobile
type of arrangement causes the antenna First, we established contact with fixed facility, and the mobile facility could
impedance characteristics· to be highly stations from the mobile facility at communicate with all stations.
inductive. In order to make the antenna various ranges and azimuths. Each fixed Second, we drove the mobile facility
match and thus radiate the maximum station was equipped with the radio and communicated with fixed stations
amount of signal toward the zenith in a equipment described above, as well as (in this case NJSTARC at Trenton and
vertical pattern similar to Figure 7, the with a horizontal dipole antenna .1-.25 the NJNG base at Bordentown). We did
matching unit had to be sufficiently wavelengths high, using an operating this in the hill-covered areas of Mercer
capacitive to cancel this inductance. In frequency of 4520 kHz. The locations of County, N.J., at ranges between O and
the beginning of the effort, we thought the stations and their range from the 20 miles, purposely picking locations
that the AT-230 matching unit did not mobile facility are shown below and in that were hidden behind terrain features
have sufficient capacitance and that Figure 8 (net station map). The so that groundwave communications
more would have to be added either at performance was compared to a were not possible. These tests were
the feed end or the ground end of the standard vertical whip antenna used on conducted both standing and on the
antenna. Fortunately, we found that the same mobile facility, whose move. Military considerations, such as
when tuning the AT-230 with the band groundwave range, when cover and concealment, were also
switch in the 10MHz band, the unit had communicating to the same fixed considered when picking locations.
sufficient capacity to match the antenna stations, never exceeded 25-30 miles. Good command post, but normally poor
at the operational frequencies of NVIS
(2-8 MHz). This method is probably not
as efficient as using a matcher designed
specifically for the TRIVEC antenna,
but it was simple and sufficient to do the
job with the equipment on hand.
After completing the installation as Figure 5. In order to achieve the omni-directional antenna pattern shown in Figure 1, the
shown, we conducted operational tests. transmitter must radiate in a vertical direction as shown. This is achieved by locating a horizontal
antenna .1-.25 wavelength above the ground so energy will be reflected at a high angle. This
Since we lacked the equipment energy is in turn reflected by the ionosphere toward the earth, creating the circular area of
necessary to measure either the actual coverage shown in Figure 1.
Figure 6. HF transceiver and antenna matching unit Figure 7. Antenna single wire feed point
communications locations (when using The results of this work are very If there is any doubt in anyone's
current non-NVIS techniques) were clear. We can, if we use NVIS mind that mobile NVIS works, let me
purposely selected. Periodically during techniques, communicate with all units take this opportunity to invite them to
the tests, communications checks were in an area larger than that typically New Jersey to see for themselves. Let
also conducted with Fort Drum, N.Y., occupied by a U.S. corps. We can do this me also take this opportunity to again
(range 260 mi) and West Orange (range for both voice and data modes of urge the Signal Corps not only to teach
42 mi). At no time was the mobile communications, without gaps in this technique properly as part of a
facility, whether fixed or on the move, coverage and while engaged in high carefully designed program of
unable to contact either Fort Drum or mobility, Deep Battle/Deep Attack instruction, but also to create the
West Orange. operations. In addition to improving necessary requirements so that we can
Our third test was conducted to communications, using mobile NVIS build on this preliminary work in the
determine if, in fact, the antenna was also results in the following significant area of mobile operations and eventually
directing the bulk of its radiated power military advantages: catch up to the Soviet mobile capability.
in a vertical direction as shown in Figure • Electronic warfare: Since all We know it works; we can see it in
7. This was done to confirm that the radiated energy returns to earth from operation. Why should the NJNG and
mobile facility and its excellent above at approximately the same signal the Soviet Army be the only ones who
communications results were indeed a strength, direction finding on the signal can make it pay off in combat?
product of NVIS design. We used an becomes very difficult, and the I wish to publicly thank the
ME-31 field strength meter to detect the probability of intercept and detection is following for their help in this effort:
radiated field strength of the TRIVEC greatly reduced. MajGen. Francis R. Gerard, BrigGen.
antenna from the ground level to a • OPSEC: Because of the size, Kenneth L. Reith, and Col. William
height of 30 feet above and next to the shape, and vertical direction of Singleton, the adjutant general, deputy
van. The meter showed no deflection at radiation, communications equipment adjutant general, and chief of staff,
ground level but deflected steadily can be hidden in depressions and under respectively, of the New Jersey
upward as it was elevated to cover, thus making it harder to find. In National Guard, for their command
approximately 2/3 scale at 30 feet fact, the criteria for selection of HF radio support of this effort; BrigGen. William
elevation. While this is not an communications sites will have to be Harmon, program manager, Joint
instrumented antenna range type of test, revised, because mobile NVIS will Tactical Fusion Program, who
it does confirm that NVIS as a ground make possible the selection of much provided encouragement when no one
mobile concept is valid. more survivable sites than those used else wanted to listen; Mr. Seymour
When constructing this system, we today. Greenspan, Mr. Florenio Regala and
observed all the rules of frequency • Physical detection: Studies by the Mr. Frank Hoar of the TRIVEC-
selection for NVIS systems explained in Armor Center have shown that often the AVANT Corp., who provided the
my previous papers and confirmed by first item detected on a vehicle with the antenna hardware for a good cause
the Soviet journals. Daytime operational engine off is the vertical radio antenna. and at a good price (gratis); and CWO
frequency was below 8 MHz, and An NVIS antenna is flat and much Robert Herka and CSM Thomas
antenna height was as close to .1 harder to detect. Hannon of the NJNG, who provided the
wavelength as the height of the van • Safety: Horizontal mobile labor to put it all together in their
would permit. In addition, antenna feed antennas do not have a spear-like spare time and also put up with my
lines were kept as short as possible, and construction, which in the past has many phone calls to ask them if they
particular care was taken when caused injury and even death to U.S. were done yet.
grounding the end of the antenna to the troops.
van to assure a good ground connection.
References
1. U.S. Army Electronics Command, Research and Antenna Products, P.O. Box 334, Melbourne, FL. 5. "Beyond line-of-sight propagation modes and
Development Technical Report ECOM-4366, 32902-0334 by Ted Hart. antennas," by D.M. Fielder and G Hagn, ARMY
Avionics Laboratory, November 1975, by John F. 3. TRIVEC-A VANT Corp. dwg D 60188 (AV COMMUNICATOR, Fort Gordon, Ga., Fall 1983.
Brune and Joseph E. Reilly. 605-0), rev A TRIVEC-AVANT, 17831 6. "Skip the skip zone: we created it we can
2. The Rules of the Antenna Game: What Every Jamestown Lane, Huntington Beach, CA. 92647. eliminate it," by David M. Fiedler, ARMY
Ham Must Know About Antennas, W5WJR 4. U.S Army Field Manual FM 24-18, Field Radio COMMUNICATOR, Fort Gordon, Ga., Spring
Techniques, December 1984, Appendix N. 1986.
8: OPTIMIZING LOW POWER HIGH
FREQUENCY RADIO PERFORMANCE
FOR TACTICAL OPERATIONS
These digital by Lt. Col. David M. Fiedler radiated power that the radio is capable
Ever since the Fall of 1983 when of is being radiated. NVIS
techniques combined ARMY COMMUNICATOR (AC) Communications under average
with the antenna published its first article on the subject conditions using this equipment can be
of Near Vertical Incidence Skywave achieved reliably; however,
techniques are the performance under degraded conditions
(NVIS) antennas and propagation
optimum limits of our (written by George Hagn and myself), I is definitely below that of the higher
power radios even when all components
present knowledge. have received dozens of positive phone
have been properly selected and
calls from Regular Army, Army
On the battlefield National Guard, and Marine Corps installed.
they will provide the communicators on the subject of how The explanation for this is not
successful vertical HF radiation is for difficult and is best shown by example:
critical difference IF tactical communication over multi- When using a modern radio receiver, we
WE IMPLEMENT Corps size areas at ranges of from 0 to can expect to receive and process
600 miles. signals entering the radio at a level of
THEM. In each and every case, when the approximately -110 decibels (dB)
antennas and frequencies were properly provided the level of the signal is at least
selected in accordance with the 10 dB above the ambient noise level
techniques described in my basic (Fall (Noise level at the receiver is the sum of
1983) and subsequent papers, the results all noise: noise received with the signal,
were exactly as shown in the papers. noise receiver generated noise, and so
The rate of reported success using on). Therefore, if the noise level is -120
properly matched (or cut), correctly dB and a radio signal is received at a
erected antennas and standard 400 watt level of -110 dB, we can receive this
radios such as the AN/GRC-106 or the signal (at the lowest receiver sensitivity
AN/GRC-193 has been virtually 100%. level of -110 dB) and communicate. The
Use of lower power radios in the 75-150 signal level at the receiver is calculated
watt range has also shown similar by adding the transmitter power, the
results. Unfortunately, users of very low antenna gain (or loss) at both the
power (20 watt) radios such as the transmitter and receiver and the path
AN/PRC-104 (manpack) or the (propagation) loss. If we have an ideal
AN/GRC-213 have not achieved this situation using a 20 watt radio (36 dB)
high a level of success, even when using and an antenna with no loss (i.e., cut
good antenna and frequency selection wire dipole) and a path loss of -110 dB
techniques and assuring the maximum (typical of losses in free space), the
received signal will be at -74 dB which
is 36 dB above the minimum required
signal level, and we can communicate
very nicely assuming the average noise
level stays at -120 dB, or less.
Unfortunately, it is not unusual for
noise levels to jump to -90 dB or more
due to atmospherics, locations with high
levels of man-made noise such as urban
areas. Under these conditions, the
received signal level now required to
communicate becomes -80 dB (10 dB
above noise level), and what was a 36
dB signal margin now becomes only a 6
dB margin. At the same time, path losses
can vary up to 10 dB depending on path
length and atmospherics. Additionally, Table 1.
most antennas used for tactical
communications are not perfect and
have some (if small) loss of gain
associated with them (see Table 1).
Under these conditions, probability of
communications with a 20 watt radio
becomes less due to the lower power
level. The 6 dB reserve margin may get
used up resulting in loss of
communications. The most obvious
solution to this problem is, of course, to
radiate more transmitter power-go for
example from 20 watts (36 dB) to 400
watts (47 dB) and gain 11 dB which will
put us back into a good position for
communication. Unfortunately, since
we are concerned in this case with radios
that have a fixed (and low) output power
level, this is not an option.
Since the path losses and
atmospherics are not under our control,
the only area we can turn to in order to Figure 1. The Shirley Dipole
squeeze out every last dB of gain and the ionosphere (as described in the transmitter power) for the Shirley folded
thus increase our probability of original paper) is selected. This dipole (see Figure 1) to -41.5 dB for a
communication is the antenna. At this frequency is usually in the 2-4 MHz whip antenna with very little power
point, it is important to remember two range at night and the 4- 8 MHz range radiated vertically.
things: first, every 3 dB of gain obtained during the day. The Shirley dipole (Figure 1), while
by improving the antenna is equivalent Table 1 shows the typical gain it does have the most gain at the correct
to doubling the transmitter power, and, towards the Zenith for various common angles for NVIS communication, is
second, we are assuming a correct antennas. As you can see, depending on more than a bit cumbersome to erect and
frequency selection in the range of the antenna selected, gain can vary from is not easily transported. The next best
frequencies that will be reflected from 3 dB (same effect as doubling the antenna shown is the simple half wave
unbalanced single wire dipole. This
antenna is cheap (approximately 31
dollars and up) and only requires the
erection of two masts whose optimum
height is ¼ wavelength above ground at
the operating frequency. It gives
acceptable performance at heights as
low as 15 feet. Figure 2 is a plot of
vertical power gain vs frequency for
dipoles at various heights above the
ground. If one follows the NVIS
frequency selection rule of thumb
shown in the 1983 paper (2-4 MHz
daytime, 4-8 MHz nighttime), this
figure shows that an antenna height of
30 feet (over good ground) is optimal for
coverage of the NVIS band of
frequencies, without having to adjust
antenna heights.
In addition to height above the
ground, the physical shape of the dipole
also has an effect on vertical gain. Any
wire dipole fed from the center and not
supported will sag in the center due to
the weight of the transmission line and
feed connector. Figure 3 shows the
antenna pattern plot of a dipole that sags
5 feet is horizontal and is supported 5
feet above the horizontal. It shows that
the sagging dipole has up to ¾ dB more
of vertical gain over a supported dipole
(center 5 feet above ends) and even
more over a horizontal dipole. The extra Figure 2. CUT 1/2 λ DIPOLE AT VARIOUS HEIGHTS OVER AVERAGE GROUND
power toward the Zenith was not created
by any magic. The total amount of
transmitter power is constant. What the
change in dipole geometry has done is
shift power from low angle radiation
(not useful for short paths) to the higher
angles useful for the NVIS mode of
transmission. By allowing a sag in the
dipole of 5-10 feet we can gain up to 1.6
dB over a horizontal antenna. This isn't
all that much, but it's free, and in
marginal, low power situations when
every dB counts, it's certainly better than
nothing. In terms of cost effectiveness,
Figure 3. Typical dipole performance from ref 1 top line 5 foot sag, third line horizontal
letting the dipole sag can increase dipole, second line dipole center supported 5 feet above ends. Increment lines represent
effective radiated power by 50% variations of 2 db.
without having to buy a power
amplifier, and that's not bad.
Additional gain can be obtained by
use of the antenna shown in Figure 4.
This dipole adds an extra wire that acts
as a reflector approximately .15 wave
lengths below and 5% longer than the
active (radiating) dipole. In theory, this
arrangement can add 5-6 dB of vertical
gain to a dipole effectively providing 4
times the effective radiated power
without having to buy anything more
than a few dollars’ worth of wire and
Figure 4. Half wavelength dipole with reflector insulation. The height above ground of
the reflector (lower) wire is not critical;
however, separation of the two antenna
wires should be as close to .15 wave
length as possible. For example, if the
antenna is 30 feet high as selected from
Figure 2, the reflector should be 16-18
feet below it for best results.
If we raise the center of a dipole
while keeping the ends at constant
height, we form an inverted V. This
antenna also radiates well in the vertical
direction (see Figure 5) and has the
advantage that only one mast needs to be
erected. The critical thing about this
Figure 5. Typical inverted V performance from ref 1 top line apex angle 120 degrees antenna is that as the center is raised to
next line apex angle 100 degrees next line 90 degrees (ends of V are elevated). form the inverted V, the apex angle
Increment lines represent variations of 2 db.
decreases. If the antenna is analyzed and
the currents are broken into vertical and
horizontal components, it can be seen
that the current in one leg is in the
opposite direction from the current in
the other leg. With this geometry, the
radiation associated with these currents
tends to cancel. An inverted V often has
an apex angle of 90 degrees which does
not give as good a vertical gain as V's
with apex angles of 120 degrees or
more. As can be seen in Figure 5, to get
the most vertical gain from an inverted
V antenna apex angles of 120 to 140
degrees must be maintained. This is
done by raising the ends of the antenna
while keeping the center constant. When
using the inverted V, the reflector
Figure 6. Inverted V antenna with reflector techniques shown in Figure 4 for the
low powered HF manpack radios such
as the AN/PRC-104. Let us now turn to
the vehicle mounted situation and the
same type low power radio, i.e., the
AN/GRC-213.
In the Fall of 1987, AC published a
paper of mine on mobile NVIS antenna.
In that paper, I showed the results of a
test using a fore-aft mounted vehicle
loop antenna constructed by the New
Jersey National Guard and built from an
antenna currently being used on Army
helicopters. This test proved that omni-
directional skip zone free coverage out
Figure 7. Full wave loop antenna. Note if coaxial cable is used a 4:1 BALUN to several hundred miles could be easily
transformer is required. and effectively achieved by this type
loop antenna in this case the vehicle
dipole is also valid. The combination of In summary, there are several very itself formed part of the loop-if the loop
proper apex angle (120-140 degrees) good and very cheap ground mounted could be resonated (matched). Further
and wire reflector .15 wave length antennas and installation techniques that research has shown that if the antenna
below the active radiator will give good when used in conjunction with low (loop) circumference length is between
vertical gain characteristics and the power radio sets will provide better 1/8 and 1/3 wave length at the operating
convenience of having to erect only 1 performance under poor conditions over frequency, radiation efficiencies
mast as shown in Figure 6. Another the 0-600 mile range. By simply letting approaching that of a dipole can be
good vertical radiating antenna is shown an antenna sag or by adding an achieved. The Soviets have fielded
in Figure 7. This antenna is called a full additional wire, we can effectively several of these type antennas which are
wave loop since each side is 1/ 4 wave increase radiated power by a significant detailed in AC Winter /Spring 1987
length and it is constructed parallel to amount. In some cases, the amount is issue, page 16. If this type antenna is
the earth. At the design frequency, the equivalent to gains produced by adopted-and right now indications are
radiation is straight up and reliable increasing transmitter power 2 to 4 that the Army is NOT moving in that
communication at ranges out to 600 times. Under marginal condition, where direction (even though we should) – the
miles is possible. The antenna is also path losses, jamming, natural or man- loop will provide the best all-around
very broad band and requires very little made noise, weak transmitter batteries, antenna for low power radios in tactical
matching. The optimum height for this and so on are effecting communications mobile applications. Elevation plane
antenna is the same as a dipole (.25 and every dB of gain counts, these patterns for the fore-aft loop are shown
wave length), but there are two methods can make the difference in Figure 8. Note the excellent gain
significant problems that must be dealt between accomplishing our mission or towards the Zenith between 50 and 90
with: in order to properly match this not. From a cost-effective point of view, degrees.
antenna and feed it from a standard these methods will reduce the need for Since loops for the time being seem
military radio using a coaxial power amplifiers while giving equal to be out of the question for the US
transmission line, a 4:1 balun performance at almost no additional Army due to the lack of interest at both
transformer is required to provide cost. From the tactical point of view, by the Signal Center and CECOM, the next
impedance matching and to isolate the proper selection of antennas and best approach is the bent whip antenna.
antenna from the transmission line and frequencies forces using HF radios, we This method simply takes the standard
prevent pattern distortion due to can carry smaller radios that require less 15 or 32 foot whip (made longer by
interaction between antenna and support items (power supplies, batteries, adding extra whip sections if possible)
transmission line, and the antenna itself etc.) and still get the job done. antenna and bends it in the horizontal
requires a full wave length of wire. At This discussion so far has primarily direction as flat as possible either away
the lower frequencies, this can amount addressed techniques to improve from or over the vehicle as shown in
to several hundred feet of wire. communication using ground mounted
antenna) must have the impedance of
the antenna matched to the transmission
line and the transmitter. Since the Army
was ignorant to the advantages of NVIS
propagation for many years, some
standard antenna matchers cannot match
a loop antenna below about 4 MHz since
they do not have sufficient capacitive
reactance. In those sets of equipment
that have this problem, additional
capacitance must be added in order to
properly match the antenna. This is not
a big problem and can be easily
accomplished at the lowest (operator)
level by a small applique box once the
proper values of the capacitive
component are determined for the
equipment in use. Fortunately, the CU-
2064 antenna coupler used in the
AN/GRC-193 (IHFR) will match both
loop and whip antennas without
modification.
• In order to get vertical radiation
from the whip antenna, it must be pulled
flat either forward or backward. This
operation causes two problems: First,
the antenna mounts are made to keep
whip antennas vertical and bend only
when the antenna hits an obstruction.
Pulling them down 90 degrees is an
attitude they were not intended for. This
tends to break antenna mounts, quickly
at their bases. Second, whip antennas
have the most current density at the feed
point (base). This is the part of the whip
that produces the most radiated signal
and is also the part of the whip that is the
least horizontal (see Figures 9 and 10)
Figure 8. Elevation plane pattern for the fore-aft mounted loop when the whip is bent. This attitude
Figures 9 and 10. Bending the whip over approaches the efficiency of a loop with produces a pattern that is off center and
the vehicle forms the equivalent of an a significant amount of gain in the 60- reduces gain at the desired angles. This
asymmetrical open-wire line which does 90 degree elevation range. problem also has a solution. A whip tilt
have radiation in the vertical direction There are problems with both bent adaptor (see Figure 11) developed by
but significantly less than the same whip whips and loops on vehicles that must be Allan Christinsin of the Air Force solves
bent back as flat as it can be bent, or a addressed in order to get every dB of the problem by allowing the entire whip
fore-aft loop. Whip antennas bent NVIS gain possible for mobile including the base to lay flat. This gives
backward (away from the vehicle) as operation. They are: maximum gain towards the Zenith and
flat as possible form the equivalent of an • In order to get the maximum the best whip operation.
asymmetrical dipole. This configuration radiated power, the loop (or any
the loop (including the vehicle) being
between 1/8 and 1/3 wavelengths for
best performance.
My purpose in writing this paper is
twofold. The first being to impart to my
fellow tactical communicators some
more and improved techniques that can
be used to attain better gap free NVIS
HF communications over multi-Corps
areas with equipment now in the field.
My second is to present yet another plea
to both the Signal Center and CECOM
to provide the user with all the
equipment and information needed to do
the HF communication job right. The
Figure 9. Far-field elevation pattern of vehicular 15 ft whip tied to front of vehicle at 10 MHz. updating of FM 24-18 with the
information in my first paper certainly
helped improve the HF communication
picture in the field (judging from my
many phone calls). What is needed now
is some specific simple to produce
hardware and supporting information in
order to get more performance out of our
equipment, such as:
• Additional wire and insulator in
the standard AN/GRA-50 antenna kit in
order to make a higher vertical gain
antenna as shown in Figure 4.
• Loop antennas (fore and aft) for
wheeled and tracked vehicles to match
the capability already on Army Aircraft,
and deployed by Soviet forces.
Figure 10. Far-field elevation pattern of vehicular 15 ft whip bent backwards at 45° at 10
MHz.
In summary, vehicular, low power In addition to these techniques, a

NVIS antennas give varying amounts of whip can be made into a loop for better
gain in the following order (best to performance if it is long enough to be
worst) providing proper antenna grounded to the front of the vehicle.
matching is done: This technique has been tried by US
• Fore-aft loop. forces in Korea by attaching a side
• Horizontal whip using whip tilt mount battery connector to the whip tip
adaptor so whip base is flat (directed and screwing the terminal lug into the
either fore or aft). vehicle front bumper to ground the whip
• Whip bent back as flat as possible and make a loop using the vehicle as part
without breaking but at least 45 degrees of the antenna as shown in the New
(asymmetrical dipole). Jersey National Guard paper. It should
• Whip bent forward as flat as also be noted that in most cases for
possible without breaking (open wire grounded whip antennas, longer is
line). better, with the total circumference of Figure 11. Whip tilt adapter
• Whip tilt adaptors so that the bent When data is sent from the terminal I would like to thank Maj. Gen.
whip technique can be used effectively, via a self-contained Francis R. Gerard, the Adjutant
where loops are not provided, or cannot Modulator/Demodulator (MODEM), General of New Jersey and Brig. Gen.
be matched. the MODEM output level can be Kenneth Reith, the Deputy Adjutant
These techniques have all been adjusted to assure the proper degree of General along with Brig. Gen.(P)
proven by actual operations by the New modulation, and the maximum radiated William E. Harmon, Program Manager
Jersey National Guard, US Forces signal is present at all times. In addition, of the Joint Tactical Fusion Program for
Korea, and several Marine Corps units. the rate of the data transmitted can be their encouragement to continue my
The costs to implement them through adjusted to compensate for the effects of efforts in improving tactical HF
the force are minimal (in some cases the such common HF radio problems as communication for the total force.
cost of 30 yards of wire). Not to make high noise levels, bursts of noise, Hopefully, these gentlemen will be paid
these improvements when we can is selective fading, multi-path, etc. At all off in the form of better tactical
certainly a disservice to our troops and speeds of transmission, the data is communications for both the NJNG and
the commanders we support. The time to separated into packets and coded for the JTFP. I would also like to thank
act has long since passed, so we must act error detection and correction. Data bits Allan Christinsin for the details of his
NOW to correct our deficiencies before are then spread in time for immunity to whip tilt adaptor. I hope it soon becomes
combat operations show us the error of net noise. In addition to this, data standard equipment for all services. I
our ways. packets received with errors that cannot would also like to thank Bob Jacobson,
The antenna techniques described be corrected by the coding are Jerry Neal, and Gabe Luhowy who
above are the best possible combination automatically repeated at the request of provided invaluable technical
of technical and tactical factors the receiving terminal several times. information. Most importantly, I would
available to squeeze all the gain possible Correct messages can be created from like to thank the many Army and Marine
out of HF radios and antennas. They will several incorrect transmissions by Corps field users who have called me to
all work well (and exactly the same automatically merging the good data report their successes with NVIS
way) with either low power or high packets from several incorrect techniques during actual operations,
power applied, but for low power transmissions to form a good message. their encouragement kept me going and
applications the extra gain margins Due to the short transmission time their desire to accomplish their missions
attained can prove to be the critical required to the ability to merge data has motivated me greatly.
difference between communicating and packets, and to powerful error detection
not. and correction coding technique data, References
Once these techniques are applied, signals that are very close to the noise "American Radio Relay League,"
we will have optimized the voice level and near the limits of receiver QST Magazine, April 1984, "The Effect
(analog) radio portion of a tactical HF sensitivity level can be recovered. In of Real Ground on Antennas," p. 34,
system. There is, however, one more radio terms, where analog voice signals James Rautio.
source of gain available. This is the so need to be typically 10 dB above the "American Radio Relay League,"
called "processing gain" achieved by noise level for communications to occur WlFB's Antenna Notebook, chapter 5,
going from voice communications to on HF radio, data signals can be much Doug DeMaw.
digital data communications. lower (sometimes as much as 6 dB US Air Force, The Tactical
When using data terminal devices lower) and data communication will still Communicator, HQ TCD, Langley
such as the standard AN /PSC-2 Digital work. This difference called "processing AFB, Va., p. 15, "Air Support
Communication Terminal (see AC gain" is the equivalent of transmitting at Operations Center HF Communications,
Winter/Spring 1987), packets of digital a higher power level. These digital A. S. Christinsin.
information are transmitted, received, techniques combined with the antenna US Army CECOM Technical
checked, error corrected and displayed techniques are the optimum limits of our Report 80-C-0580, "Tactical Antenna
in a very small fraction of the time present knowledge. On the battlefield, System Technology Assessment,"
required to send a voice message over they will provide the critical difference Collins Communications Systems
the same media (in this case low power IF WE IMPLEMENT THEM. Division, Rockwell Corporation.
HF radio). ARMY COMMUNICATOR, Fall
1983, "Beyond line-of-sight
propagation modes and antennas," by created it and we can eliminate it," by ARMY COMMUNICATOR, Fall
David M. Fiedler and George Hagn. David M. Fielder. 1987, "Mobile NVIS: the New Jersey
ARMY COMMUNICATOR, ARMY COMMUNICATOR, National Guard approach," by David M.
SPRING 1986, "Skip the 'skip zone'; we Winter I Spring 1987, NVIS, "The Fiedler.
Soviet approach," by David M. Fiedler.
Command and control:
HF radio communications and
high angle antenna techniques
by LTC David M. Fiedler (NJARNG)
Over the past several years, I have harder to receive than higher power
tried my best to impress upon AC
Techniques outlined stations.
readers the military utility of tactical HF here will help greatly • Manpack sets use battery power
radio operating over extended ranges in overcoming the sources which produce weaker signals
using high angle skywave propagation as the battery is used up.
techniques (Near Vertical Incidence adverse effects of • Low power manpack and
Skywave – NVIS). terrain, weather and vehicular radio sets are equipped mainly
Based upon the most recent with 10-15 foot vertical whip antennas,
information coming from SW A on the enemy jamming. which are inefficient energy radiators
subject, it has been proven again in due to their electrically short length.
achieved when the radio equipment used
actual combat operations over corps and Whips also produce energy at low
consisted of a medium powered base
division size areas that the horizontal radiation angles unsuitable for the
station and a small low powered (20-
antennas and frequency selection ranges desired (see previous AC
50W) out station, such as the AN/PRC-
techniques I recommended in my papers). The vertical whip, though it is
104 or AN/GRC-213. These
previous AC papers work well when issued with all tactical HF radio sets, is
configurations are commonly found in
using medium power radios (100-400 in fact the poorest antenna for short
SOF, LRSU, and cavalry scout
watts) and fixed station or vehicular range beyond-line-of-sight (BLOS) HF
applications. The reduction in
antennas. communications (30-400) miles.
effectiveness was, of course, due to
Also highly successful, if somewhat Knowing these factors, we can
several factors such as:
less effective, tactical HF radio easily improve system performance
• Low power radio sets transmit
communications over these areas was
less powerful signals making them
Figure 1. Cut 1/2 λ dipole at various heights over perfect ground.
using low power manpack sets. Some antenna coupler so that the maximum line; the most important factor is to try
techniques are: amount of radio energy possible is to keep the radiating wire as high and as
• Operators must be trained to make transferred to the antenna for clear as possible.
sure a fully charged battery is used transmission. The radio TMs should be • Use a counterpoise. A
whenever possible in order to ensure full consulted to determine the optimum counterpoise is a grouping of radial
performance from the radio, particularly wire length for a particular radio and wires located on the ground under the
the transmitter. frequency. radio and its antenna. The counterpoise
• Whip antennas supplied with all In the event that this information is is connected to the radio ground
HF radio sets must be replaced in BLOS not available, a field strength meter terminal or to chassis ground from a
applications by horizontal wire (ME-61) or a VSWR meter (AN/URM- central point in the counterpoise. The
antennas, such as simple long wires, 182) can be used to determine the best counterpoise forms a high capacity path
dipoles, inverted "Vs," and so on. match of radio to antenna length. to ground from the antenna. This
These antennas all produce the high In any event, as long as the wire reduces the negative influence of the
angle radiation needed to communicate does not get higher than .25 wavelength earth on antenna efficiency by reducing
over longer distances. Due to their or longer than .5 wavelength, the basic ground currents and making available
physical length, these antennas are also high take-off angle omnidirectional more energy· in the antenna for signal
more efficient radiators of electrical pattern shown in Figure 3 will be radiation.
energy. created. Gain will vary with antenna The reduction in ground currents
As shown in Figure 1, when a wire geometry; however, this pattern will lowers system losses and increases
antenna, such as a dipole of proper allow good communications out to 400 effective radiated power so signal
length, is elevated, gain at high angles miles using a wide range of wire lengths strength improves.
increases. One should remember that and heights provided that an operating Practical counterpoises for
every 3db of antenna gain improvement frequency that does not exceed the manpack applications can consist of an
is equivalent to doubling the maximum useable frequency (MUF) for "X" made of two eight-foot lengths of
transmitters power. the situation is selected. stranded wire (test lead wire works well)
Even a simple 30-50 foot length of Wire antennas can be erected part joined at the center with solder or a hose
wire placed horizontally (see Figure 2) vertical and part horizontal or in a clamp, or an electrician's "bug nut" or
along or on the ground will produce a sloping configuration. Almost any wire "U" bolt and a small wire running from
high angle pattern with much improved support will work. Even installations the center to the radio ground terminal.
gain (when compared to the whip) at the where the antenna wire is draped over The radio just sits atop the center point
near vertical angles required to cover vegetation or hung out of building of the "X" (see figure 2B).
corps and division size areas. Care must windows will work and will always This simple modification has been
be taken to assure that the length of the outperform whip antennas. The wire shown in some cases to improve signal
wire is within the range of the radios antenna does not need to be in a straight power by 3-5db for a radio sitting on the
Figure 3. Typical. vertical. radiation

pattern for horizontal antenna. Note:
Figure 2. Simple wire antenna for low Energy at the high angles (35-90 degrees)
power radio. (Height can be from a few suitable for communications over 0-400
inches to 30 feet. Do not let wire contact mile paths.
ground. Use more pegs to keep wire off
ground if needed.)
Figure 2a. Manpack radio with
counterpoise to increase effective radiated
power.
ground. A ground stake should also be of just a few feet in elevation can make order to significantly improve the
inserted if possible, but this is not a a good deal of difference in effective overall system's performance.
must. More and longer wire radials will radiated power. To begin with, the base station will
also yield improvement, but the effect is The best compromise between usually have a higher power transmitter
smaller each time a radial is added. The OPSEC and communications at the (100-400 watts) which will help
counterpoise technique can also be used small detachment (manpack) end of a improve the system in itself because
while manpacking by taking about four radio circuit is usually a simple 30-40 higher power transmitted signals will be
feet of computer ribbon cable and feet of straight wire antenna placed 1-3 easier to detect at the out station
shorting both ends. One end is then feet above ground using tent pegs, wood receiver.
connected to the radio ground terminal, poles or the like, and a counterpoise Additionally, because it is a base
and the free end is allowed to trail down under the radio. This combination gives station, there is usually more leeway
along the chassis. This ribbon trail will the high take off angle needed with a with antenna size and less movement
reduce ground currents and produce reasonable amount of energy being involved. This will allow us to construct
more effective radiated power in the radiated from the low power radio set. the most efficient antenna possible at the
same way as a full counterpoise. The In recent years, several antenna base station and, therefore, improve the
manpack configuration is the worst manufacturers have attempted to sell the overall system reliability-while at the
possible configuration for good Army "throw on the ground" multi-wire same time achieving a reasonable trade-
communications. antenna configurations that claim to off with tactical considerations at the out
If the radio is allowed to remain on solve both the OPSEC problem and station.
the operator's body, the ground is improve communications. Despite these Of course, if the situation permits
capacitively coupled through the body. exaggerated claims, none of these and if both ends of the system can have
In this situation, almost all of the radio's complicated "spider webs" that take up similar high efficiency antennas, we will
output power is absorbed by the high areas of up to 20 x 150 feet have be at the optimum level for
loss ground system. This is the major produced significantly better communications. This holds true even if
reason for the poor performance of man performance than a simple straight wire both ends of the system are using low
pack radios. Simply placing the radio a tent-peg high or so off the ground. power radios because of a significant
directly on the ground will give a 'These type antennas and their claims amount of system improvement is due to
measurable improvement in efficiency should be discarded since they are the use of the more efficient antenna, not
and effective radiated power. tactically not very practical. a more powerful transmitter.
It has to be recognized that cover Once we have taken these measures As can be seen from figure 1, the
and concealment considerations may to make the manpack station the best half wave horizontal dipole gives the
not allow a small unit such as LRSU or that we can make it under the best gain at the right takeoff angles (35-
SOF detachment to erect a very high or operational situation, we must then tum 90 degrees) for NVIS communication
very long wire antenna or counterpoise; to the base station end of the circuit in when kept at about a constant 30 feet off
however, as figure 1 shows, a difference the ground. Height adjustments are
Figure 4. Half wavelength dipole with reflector Figure 5. The Shirley Dipole
really not required over the 2-10 MHz When using the "V" antenna dipole since the electric fields from all
frequency band that will produce NVIS configuration, remember to keep the three dipoles combine (add) to result in
modes of propagation desired for 0-400 apex angle between 120-140 degrees. more gain at the high angles needed for
mile circuits. Reflector wires are very useful when NVIS type communications.
There are, however, several antenna operating over poor ground since they • A third very good base station type
configurations that if installed properly greatly lower system losses; however, antenna very popular with the British
can give better performance at the the distance between the radiating wire Commonwealth Forces is the Jamaica
needed takeoff angles. Again, bear in and the reflector does become the antenna shown in figure 6. This antenna
mind that each 3db of antenna gain is effective height of the antenna, so be is a high efficiency, specialized antenna
equivalent to doubling the radiated careful with the wire spacing. This for high angle skywave (NVIS) use.
transmitted power, and under poor technique over good ground may not Two full wave single wire dipoles
propagation conditions or when yield a dramatic gain at all since good parallel and 1/2 wavelength apart are
jamming is present, this can often make ground has low system loss to begin needed. The distance between full wave
the difference between success and with, but in areas like the Middle East or dipoles is critical so that the signals in
failure. The best choices for the base the National Training Center (NTC), the both dipoles will be properly phased
station antenna follow. effect is worth the effort. together to form a composite (higher
• Horizontal dipole with reflector .1 • The Shirley folded dipole. This gain) signal.
to .25 wavelength below the radiating antenna consists of two halfwave folded The dipoles should be fed with two
element (see Figure 4). This antenna has dipoles .5 to .65 wavelengths apart and inch open wire line (ladder line)
a theoretical gain of 5.4 dB (the actual 1110th to 1/ 4 wavelength off the ground connected to the radio with 75 ohm coax
gain is probably somewhat less) above a (see figure 5). This antenna is actually cable. Impedance matching is provided
horizontal dipole without reflector, and an array of 3 horizontal half wave by the radio set antenna coupler.
if configured as shown, it provides both dipoles whose energy is phased together The antenna is very efficient with
the gain and takeoff angles necessary for (added) to form a more efficient high gain towards the zenith of almost twice
good communications. radiation angle antenna. that of the Shirley antenna and four
This antenna can be constructed The Shirley does not pick up noise times that of the single wire dipole
with one standard AN /GRA-50 antenna and interference from low angle (without reflector). Because it is so
kit plus two extra insulators and an sources, which helps system directional toward the high angles, it
additional length of heavy wire to form performance. does not pick up noise or interference
the reflector. The antenna can also be The antenna can be constructed out from low angle sources including
configured as an inverted "vee," using of TV twin lead but needs four masts ground wave jammers.
one mast in order to save installation and more space than the single wire The Jamaica can be constructed
time; however, gain may be reduced dipole with reflector. It has a gain of from two AN /GRA-50 kits, but it does
slightly. approximately 3db over a single wire need six masts and takes a while to
construct. When trying to work with low
power manpack stations, the
combination of gain and low angle noise
reduction at the base station provided by
this type antenna will often make the
difference between communications and
no communications to the out stations.
The Jamaica is probably the most
complicated tactical wire antenna that
most organizations should try to
construct out of common materials due
to its large size and complexity.
It is important to remember that
Figure 6. Jamaica antenna (Can be built from standard antenna kits AN/GRA-50; has four
while these antennas can be used to
times the gain of the dipole antenna.) replace expensive power amplifiers or
give any station (including low power with low power radio sets and horizontal These techniques will help greatly
manpacks) more effective radiated antennas was maintained successfully to overcome the adverse effect of
power, they are all essentially single by using this type antenna equipment at terrain, weather and enemy jamming
frequency resonant antennas – that is, base locations and proper frequency and should be incorporated into unit
they should all be constructed to the selection techniques. In more modem SOPs in order to assure the best possible
proper length for the operating applications, they can certainly be used HF radio circuits for command and
frequency plus or minus a few percent in in Central and South America for control of our forces.
order to operate at peak efficiency. counter narcotic teams and in AirLand As we have seen in Southwest Asia,
Antenna couplers will help broaden Operations applications for the fast moving pace of modem armored
the operating frequency range of the communicating from the support areas warfare will cause us to outrun all other
antenna, but separate day (high to MI, Scout, LRSU and SOF units means of terra based communications
operating frequency) and a night (low deployed in the battle zone and/ or the except properly engineered HF radio.
operating frequency) antennas may be detection zone. Similarly, in slow moving, low
required depending upon the situation, I urge commanders of these type intensity conflicts (LIC) in mountain
frequency assignments, and the units and all HF radio users in general to and jungle terrain, vegetation and
equipment used. construct these type antennas and weather will also render line-of-sight
These type of higher gain antennas experiment with them. They will find tactical radio systems including Mobile
have proved themselves in the past for that they will be able to communicate Subscriber Radio Terminals (MSRT)
use in special operations and low with high grades of service over wide and SINCGARS ineffective except for
intensity conflicts (LIC) when friendly areas and at ranges currently not thought relatively short range circuits.
forces were able to operate from secure possible by some units. This means that we must stress
base camp locations. They will also (in some cases) more than ever before, the proper use of
In the jungles and mountains of eliminate the need for high powered HF radio and high angle antenna
Malaya and Vietnam, base camp radio sets and power amplifiers, thus techniques on the battlefields of the
communications to widely separated saving equipment for other uses and future.
and constantly moving patrols equipped cutting procurement costs.
Sub-surface secrets
How to survive long range

and special operations
by LTC David M. Fiedler, NJARNG
One of the most dramatic lessons sensitive SATCOM antennas are still
learned from the recent Gulf War was being developed; there are, however,
the great value of properly used Long some existing proven and simple
Range Surveillance Units (LRSU) and methods already available for
In order to Special Operation Forces (SOF). concealing HF radio antennas and
understand In order to be effective, of course, making them work. Of these, the
these units must have good radio construction of a subsurface (buried)
how a buried communications between the forward antenna is the simplest and most
units and their operating bases. This is effective.
dipole works, we normally accomplished by means of Many types of subsurface antennas
must first review manpack (low power) High Frequency have been tried by US Forces in the past,
(HF) radio or single channel satellite but, as it turns out, a simple half-wave
what happens (SATCOM) radio. Unfortunately, other horizontal dipole or dipole array buried
when radio frequency lessons learned in the Gulf were: just deep enough for concealment is the
• There are usually not enough best for LRSU/SOF hidden applications.
energy satellite channels and equipment There are no standard subsurface
available at the right time and place to antennas in the Army inventory, so
traveling in free provide SATCOM service to all the using units must construct them locally
space enters another units we would like to employ, so HF in the field, using available materials
radio must be used extensively. and standard components.
medium--in • It is very difficult to conceal both In order to understand how a buried
this case, the HF and SATCOM antennas (both types dipole works, we must first review what
are discovered with equal frequency). happens when radio frequency energy
earth. • If good communications are not traveling in free space enters another
achieved, it is not worth sending a unit medium--in this case, the earth.
into danger. While subsurface dipoles produce
• Poor antenna concealment leads to some groundwave energy, high angle
unit discovery and elimination. Nearly Vertical Incident Skywave
At present, viable methods of (NVIS) is the dominant mode of HF
concealing highly directional and radio communications for this
application. For more detailed important when the ground is wet or power transmitter and the best antenna
information on NVIS theory and snow covered. army and frequency selection possible
techniques, see AC, Fall 1983 or Spring To transmit from a buried antenna, to be successful.
1986 and FM 24-18. start at S, the energy becomes skywave Here is where equipment selection
If we look at Figure 1 which is a and travels along B so there is no – AN/PRC-104 (20 watts) vs AN/PRC-
classic diagram found in many antenna reflection loss (b), but there is ground 132 (50 watts), antenna, and frequency
text books, we can see that skywave absorption--which again can be reduced may be critical.
energy arriving at an above ground by keeping the antenna as near to the In order to best communicate using
antenna X from a distant transmitter is surface as possible. a buried antenna, many studies (see
the sum of the skywave energy from the Another problem when transmitting references) have shown, that a half-
direct wave A and the reflected wave b. from a subsurface horizontal dipole is wave center fed dipole (doublet) (see
The energy from the reflected wave (b) the problem of efficiency versus height Fig 4), well insulated and surrounded
arriving at antenna X is the energy of above ground. As the energy field of with a good dielectric (such as air or
wave B reduced by some amount (N) antenna comes in contact with the earth, Teflon) and free at the ends, is the best.
because some of the energy is not power is dissipated that would normally The dipole is usually configured as
reflected, but continues to travel on a end up as radiation energy if the antenna a two-antenna array for better
bent path (C) into the earth. was above the ground (see Fig 2). Even performance. It is also known that the
The energy arriving at subsurface though the classical vertical pattern of standard rule of thumb for calculating
antenna S is what's left after wave B the dipoles located close to the earth wavelength = 300/ (frequency in MHz)
gives up reflected energy (B-N) and remains the same, when the antenna is is no longer true since the effect of the
loses energy to ground absorption (g), subsurface (see Fig 3), the efficiency ground is to increase the electrical
which is proportional to the depth that S (radiated energy) is much less compared "length" (decrease physical length) of
is in the ground (d). to an elevated antenna. Therefore, at the antenna because the velocity of
Received energy at the subsurface least a two-dipole array should be used propagation is slowed due to the effects
antenna S is, therefore, the skywave to increase radiated power. Practically, of the earth.
energy from B less the energy reflected this means that the station using the Since both the earth's characteristics
b and the ground absorption loss g. subsurface antenna needs the highest and the depth of the antenna will vary, it
Remember, also, that the skywave
energy has already been reduced at the
point where it enters the ground by the
path losses in free space and the
reflection loss from the ionosphere
(approximately ll0db) total.
The bottom line is that for
reception, the energy received at a
subsurface dipole is considerably
reduced by ground and free space path
losses. Therefore, transmitter power
should be as high as possible at the
sending station in order to communicate
reliably.
Also, receivers need to be as
sensitive as possible, and correct
selection of antenna(s) frequency is
critical. The depth of the buried antenna
should be as shallow as the tactical
situation will allow for concealment of
the antennas to reduce ground losses and
Figure 1. Reception below ground via skywave
emplacement time. This is particularly
Dipole construction: Due to their
contact with the ground, the subsurface
antenna must be well insulated. While
antennas made of wire and inserted into
a plastic pipe or hose using air as a
dielectric have been shown to work,
construction takes considerable time,
and the required materials add to the
already heavy load of the deploying
unit.
The best practical approach for
radiating antenna wire has turned out to
be standard coax cable (RG-8 or larger)
with the outer cover and shield stripped
off. This leaves the inner (center
conductor) wire surrounded by a very
good plastic dielectric for use as the
radiating antenna elements.
Any standard dipole feed device
such as the IL-4/GRA-4 NSN 5970-00-
405-8223 will do to terminate the
Figure 2. Efficiency of a half-wave dipole over poor quality soil
radiating elements. Connection to the
is very hard to calculate the proper operations. Then test the antenna with feed point should be by a short coaxial
length of a resonant antenna. In some these test sets and trim to the proper cable kept at right angles to the radiator
cases, the subsurface antenna will need length for soil conditions and depth. to avoid field distortion. The feed point
to be only 50% of the length it would be This should done in a sanctuary area and the ends of the radiating elements
in free space. While the antenna prior to deployment. It does take some must be sealed to eliminate any path to
matching units that come with most time, but it's worth it. ground for the antenna energy, due to
standard radios will couple to an
antenna that is electrically too long,
efficiency and the critical effective
radiated power will suffer if the antenna
is too far from resonance.
In order to cut a dipole to the correct
length, the buried antenna should be
measured with a Return Loss Bridge,
such as Antenna System Test Set TS-
4351/PRC (NSN 6625-01-324-9273),
and trimmed to a resonant length. Power
Meter TS-4350/PRC (NSN 6625-01-
323-6267) can also be used for this
purpose. Both are components of
Antenna Group OE-452/PRC (NSN
5985-01-279- 7942) which is also
known as the Special Operations Radio
Antenna Kit (SORAK).
The actual procedure should be to
Figure 3. Comparison of two element dipole arrays at different depths (1 and 3 feet) with
construct an antenna and bury it in soil standard single element dipole and whip. Note typical NVIS pattern but greatly reduced
similar to that in the area of actual gain.
Figure 4. Buried, insulated horizontal dipole center fed with ends and feed point sealed.
water penetration. Similarly, the Figure 6 is a plot of field strength important to pick the frequency
dielectric must be inspected to assure for subsurface and reference dipoles. carefully.
that there are no splits or cracks in it. Be Burying the antenna results in loss of • The antenna should be buried only
very careful not to cut the dielectric about 24dB over an elevated antenna; as deep as required for mission
when stripping the cover and shield off however, sufficient signal still remains concealment (usually less than 6 inches)
the coax cable to make the antenna for communications (see side bar). to minimize ground losses.
elements. Units of US Air Force, the New • It is important to use a well-sealed
Dipole performance: The relative Jersey Army National Guard and other wire surrounded by a good dielectric
gain of a subsurface dipole two element organizations have employed (center portion of a coax line, for
array was measured by comparing field subsurface antennas of the types example) to keep antenna current from
strength with a reference halfwave described here for practical missions running off into the ground.
dipole one quarter wavelength off the with great success. The points to • A dipole in the ground resonates at
ground (see fig 6). remember when using these techniques a much shorter physical length than one
In order to improve subsurface are: in air for the same frequency. Correct
dipole performance, two parallel dipoles length should be measured with VSWR
Figure 5. 2 element buried antenna array. This configuration improves radiated signal by 3dB.
approximately 14 feet apart can be • The simplest antenna to use is a meter or Return Loss Bridge for
constructed and fed from a common center fed half-wave dipole (doublet) or maximum efficiency.
feed point; this will increase the antenna dipole array (to produce more gain) • Radiation pattern for subsurface
gain (field strength) by 3db, which is made from standard components. dipoles is the same as a dipole a quarter-
equivalent to doubling the transmitter • Since there is less antenna gain wave above ground, but radiated energy
power (see fig 5). due to subsurface installation, it is is greatly reduced. This pattern is ideal
Figure 6. Comparison of buried dipole array with reference dipole. Concealment under ground reduces signal strength by about 24 dB.
for NVIS (0-400 mile) communication. direction to a lower angle to get more off the ends. On short paths, this energy
For longer ranges, the dipole can be gain in a desired direction. can be received by radio direction
buried on a hill side sloping the path • The buried dipole radiates some finders using whip antennas. Since this
vertically-polarized groundwave energy could be an enemy intercept station, it is
Figure 7. System improvements resulting from use of AN/PSC-2 digital communications terminal.
With 3dB SNR, message was received every time. Requires a l0dbB SNR.
Sample calculations
Assuming a 400 Watt radio at the base station with an efficient antenna and a 20 watt manpack radio at the LRSU/SOF
out station using a subsurface two dipole antenna array of the type shown in Figure 5, we can calculate the path loss and
required receive signal strength for the system to work:
Out station to base calculations
transmitter power = 20 watts = +43dB
free space path loss = 110dB (approximate)
subsurface antenna loss = 20dB (approximate)
total path loss (out station to base) = 87dB
receiver sensitivity = 110dB
signal to noise ratio required at receiver = 10dB above noise
communications margin (gains less losses) 100dB - 87dB = 13dB (approximate)
This margin (13dB) is often reduced by poor operating practices, such as weak radio batteries (3dB additional loss),
and poor frequency selection (up to 5dB additional loss); however, sufficient power margin (5dB) still does exist for
successful communications even under these conditions.
This can be improved by up to 8dB of processing gain by using data communications devices, such as the AN/PSC-2
Digital Communications Terminal (DCT) that use forward error correction (FEC) and packet retransmission (ARQ)
techniques in terminal software (See Figure 7). Use 50 watt manpack radios instead of 20 watts would also help by an
additional 3+ dB.
System margin will increase when going from base to out station due to higher transmitter power gain (400 Watts =
12dB) and antenna gain (up to 20dB over a subsurface antenna).
desirable to orient the dipole ends away Use of these techniques will lower those engaged in a very dangerous
from possible intercept locations. the probability of team detection and mission.
Skywave communications are not help assure that when we deploy a
affected by dipole orientations. LRSU/SOF team, their HF References
• Seal everything and install the communications will work and won't The ARRL Antenna
antenna(s) in the driest spot available; compromise unit security. Compendium - Volume 1 Published by
water is the biggest problem with In view of the information the American Radio Relay League,
subsurface antennas. Be particularly presented here, it is clear that the Signal Newington, CT 06111, 1985.
careful to seal feed points and dipole School and CECOM need to develop United States Air Force-Rome
ends. and analyze subsurface antenna Air Development Center Technical
Reasonable levels of reliable HF requirements and communication Report RADC-TR- 69-221 "Measured
radio communications have been techniques in order to provide the best Performance of Subsurface Dipoles"
demonstrated with concealed dipoles of combination of communications June 1969.
this type and standard manpack radios. reliability and unit security possible for
11: ANTENNA PERFORMANCE FOR NEAR
VERTICAL INCIDENCE SKYWAVE
COMMUNICATIONS
The special requirements for antennas for NVIS While antennas don't "make" power they certainly
systems have been described in the previous articles in can lose some of that provided to them. They do this
this series [1,2] and in the work of other authors [ by dissipating it in their internal resistance and by
4,5,6]. Now, let's take a detailed look at the theoretical interactions with nearby objects, such as the earth.
and practical aspects of various antenna designs in Sometimes these interactions are beneficial-for
NVIS service. This look relies on computer analysis example in many cases reflections from earth improve
using the NEC-2 antenna modeling methodology as radiation in certain directions. They can also be
well as practical experience. NEC-2 provides harmful -for example, RF currents can be dissipated in
analytical data that is very difficult to generate any the earth's resistance. Most NVIS antennas have a
other way. Practical experience helps address the non- radiation resistance much larger than their loss
theoretical aspects of erecting and using antennas in resistance [2] so efficiency is not much of a problem.
the field. Since NVIS antennas are generally mounted low to the
ground, detrimental ground interactions can be a
Antenna Performance Estimators problem.
Antenna performance is measured by gain in a
particular direction. Gain is expressed in decibels (dB) Practical considerations
relative to some standard. The most common standard Tactical communications usually involve base
is the isotropic radiator in free space. Isotropic means stations, field stations, and mobiles. Base stations are
that it radiates equally in all directions (sort of like a those at which there are the time and resources to erect
bare light bulb) so its pattern plot from any direction optimal antennas. Field stations are those in which
appears to be a circle. Free space means just that - field expedient (but highly effective) antennas can be
space in which nothing interacts with the antenna. Gain erected in a half hour or so. Mobiles, of course, are
relative to an isotropic radiator is denoted as dBi. vehicles that must maintain the ability to be in motion,
When an antenna has gain with respect to an or to quickly initiate movement.
isotropic radiator it means that it concentrates its Base stations are the great opportunity in NVIS
radiation in some particular direction (at the expense communication. LTC Fiedler has noted [ 4] the
of other directions). The antenna does not make power, importance of exploiting opportunities for optimizing
it merely concentrates (focuses) the power delivered to base station performance as a way of augmenting the
it by the transmitter through the feedline. For NVIS more limited capabilities of field and mobile stations.
purposes, the antennas pattern should concentrate most This means operating at higher power and erecting
of the radiation field vertically, at angles above 45 more complex antenna arrays. It can also mean
degrees, and should be round (omnidirectional) in exploiting opportunities to reduce ambient RF noise
azimuth. How well it concentrates its pattern is reaching the base station's receiver. This is a big
measured by beam width and beam extent [2]. subject and will not be covered here.
Mobile stations are limited in antenna type to those properly grounded, interconnected, and on-line.) We
which can be carried on the vehicle while it is in expect that under normal conditions three soldiers can
motion, or can be quickly deployed while it briefly erect a guyed GRA-4 mast in about ten minutes. A
pauses. LTC Fiedler has presented considerable well-trained and motivated team can erect three masts,
research and practical information on this [ 4, 7 ,8]. rig an antenna, and put a radio on the air within the
While this is an interesting subject it will not be allotted thirty minutes. Obviously, the deadline is a lot
directly covered here. easier to meet when only one mast is involved.
Field stations provide an opportunity to explore the Antennas that require more masts need to do
factors that affect NVIS antenna performance in any something worth the trouble. On the other hand, an
situation while simultaneously exploring some of the antenna that is quick to deploy but does not perform
performance vs. incentive to use antennas that can be well isn't of any value.
deployed
quickly, can be depended upon to perform Antenna performance benchmarks and
properly, can operate (or be adjusted to operate) over compromises
an adequate range of frequencies, and are sufficiently What works best? It is hard to improve on the
rugged to withstand prevailing conditions. performance of a resonant half-wave dipole mounted
Most high frequency military field antennas will be about 0.2 wavelengths above ground. No antenna
built using some number of GRA-4 mast kits with performs significantly better. Its only liability is that it
GRA-50 antenna kits (or similar equipment). This requires at least two masts, and for frequencies below
allows a maximum height of about forty feet and 4 MHz Army doctrine requires three. If height is to be
includes sufficient wire to build an antenna resonant kept in the optimal 0.1 to 0.3 wavelength range the
below 1.6 MHz. This equipment is adequate to following table provides a guideline on how long the
construct a wide variety of antennas and consequently masts should be:
it will enable a unit to meet all NVIS mission
requirements.
Rapid deployment
Deploying a wire antenna requires erecting the
required number of masts, measuring and assembling
the antenna, connecting the feedline, raising the
antenna, and tuning the radio to the antenna. Some
antennas also require that a grounding system (e.g., a Table 1: Optimal Antenna Height
counterpoise or radial system) be deployed. Most of
the time and effort involves erecting the masts,
particularly when guying is necessary. Consequently, Is there a way to get most of the dipole's
when time is a factor there is an incentive to use as few performance without erecting two (or three) masts? An
masts as possible. obvious compromise is a similar antenna that can be
The California State Military Reserve considers a erected with a single mast: The Inverted V. As will be
field team to consist of four persons. Such a team is seen, its performance at the same mounting height is
expected to get a station on the air within thirty minutes similar to the dipole and can be made nearly equal by
of arrival on site. Most of that time is spent deploying increasing mast height while keeping the antenna as
an antenna. (Initially, the radio is powered by battery. flat as possible. Installation convenience is gained by
Another half hour is often required to get a generator giving up a small amount of performance.
There are plenty of other alternatives and some of Frequency agility can be addressed with designs in
the better ones (see Figures 1a-1j) will be considered which careful selection of the antennas dimensions,
using the dipole as a benchmark. type of feedline, and the means of matching it to the
radio serve compromises that preserve both
Frequency agility performance and convenience. This is a very
Practical around the clock NVIS operations require interesting area but it is not the present subject.
that we operate on more than one frequency. There is
a substantial difference between day and night Ruggedness
propagation so as a minimum two frequencies are There are many tricks that can help get a station on
essential. If automatic link establishment (ALE) is the air quickly. For example, setup of an Inverted V
used to optimize propagation, a suite of several using the GRA-4 with its tripod adapter can be
frequencies may be required. managed by one soldier in a few minutes. This works
The resonant dipole is a narrow-band device. well until the wind comes up. Another trick, which is
Feedline losses, particularly when coaxial cable is regularly used when time is tight, is to use three guys
used, can approach 3 dB as the frequency changes per mast instead of four. Once again, this works well
more than 15 percent. Yet the difference between day as long as the guys are well-positioned and in good
and night frequencies can be over 200 percent! At least soil. When the wind comes up on a dark and stormy
two frequency changes are required during a 24-hour night in which the ground has been softened by rain,
period. With wire antennas frequency changes are the antenna can come down. This is embarrassing and
accomplished by lengthening or shortening the antenna inconvenient. It is usually easier to explain an extra
wires. As long as the masts are set to accommodate the few minutes spent getting on the air than it is to explain
longest required antenna this is simply done. One an extended forced outage at a critical moment.
shortcut is to string elements of two different lengths Always take every opportunity to0 enhance antenna
from the same feed point - one set forming a resonant ruggedness - even after a station is on the air.
dipole at the lower frequency with the other resonant
at the higher. As long as frequency selection works as Balanced and unbalanced antennas
planned this simple technique provides near optimized Antennas can be broadly classified as electrically
operation on two frequencies without changing ''balanced" and "unbalanced." All antennas have two
anything. sides-the current that promotes radiation must flow
Antennas can be made broadband by loading from somewhere to somewhere. Quarter-wave
which means adding a resistor somewhere in the verticals, for example, find their second half in the
design. Two examples are considered below - the earth. Inverted Vs find their second half in a
T2FD (Figure 1f) and the End Fed Terminated Wire counterpoise wire or in the earth. Antennas such as
(EFTW) (Figure 1j). Note that the inconvenience of dipoles and Zepps have two obvious sides but not all
physically modifying the antenna to change frequency antennas with two visible sides are balanced.
is eliminated at the expense of a significant amount of Consider a half -wave dipole. If one side is in the
gain (Figure 6). clear and the other is in trees, each side will interact
Each antenna must be matched to the radio (by differently with its environment.
means of an internal or external antenna tuner). Losses An inclined dipole [11] has two obvious sides but
in the feedline and matching system are not considered one of them is much farther above ground than the
here. This is a significant simplification but it allows other.
us to focus on the comparative performance of a large A sloper [12] uses the mast for one side and an
number of antenna designs. inclined wire for the other. The feed point is at the top
Figure 1. Diagrams of some NVIS antennas
of the mast, hence there is a marked difference in the feedline. This situation promotes feedline
geometry between the two sides. radiation, and hence, pattern distortion. Pattern
Each of these situations results in different currents distortion in this case means that some radiation we
in each side and consequently unbalanced currents on
need for NVIS effect is going in some less useful vertical pattern plot of a half-wave dipole mounted at
direction, e.g., horizontally. 0.2 wavelengths above each type of ground shown in
For present purposes, the following antennas will Table 1. Note that ground properties produce a change
be considered balanced: Resonant half-wave dipole, of about 3 dB from the best to the worst. Three dB is
AS-2259 Inverted V, T2FDV, and Zepp. equivalent to changing power by a factor of two. A
The following antennas have two obvious sides but 100-watt radio operating over very poor earth would
lack symmetry. They don't require a counterpoise or produce about the same signal as a 50-watt radio
ground radial system but may suffer pattern distortion operating over sea water.
from feedline radiation: Inclined dipole; Sloper.
The following antennas are inherently unbalanced Height above ground
and require some form of counterpoise or ground radial There are two components to antenna height - the
system if pattern distortion is to be minimized and part you see and the part you don't see. The part you
efficiency maintained: Inverted L, Sloping wire, End- see is that represented by the length of the mast holding
Fed Terminated Wire. the wire above the earth. The part you don't see is the
portion below the apparent surface through which
Starting with the half-wave dipole ... radio waves travel before reflecting. For a very
There is widespread agreement that a half-wave conductive ground, such as sea water, radio waves
dipole (Figure la) mounted 0.1 to 0.3 wavelengths reflect from the surface. For a poor ground, such as
above ground is excellent for NVIS communication. fresh water, radio waves penetrate many feet. An
Consequently, that antenna provides an excellent antenna lying on the surface of rocky soil, for example,
reference against which others can be compared. The might have an effective "height" of 40 feet or more.
key performance parameters are vertical gain, beam This depth of penetration is lossy and so it isn't as
width, and beam extent. The key installation-related though "a mirror moves up and down." All computer-
parameters are ground conductivity and mounting generated pattern plots presented herein consider this
height. effect.
A full-fledged dipole is fairly time consuming to
erect. It requires at least two masts and below 4 MHz,
possibly a third in the middle. While it seems as though
the middle mast could be eliminated the long antennas
frequently required for nighttime NVIS work suffer
this poorly. The droop in the center forms a V antenna
which effectively lowers the height. Also, without the
center mast the strain on the two end masts is
Table 2: Characteristics of Earth
substantially greater thus making the antenna more
susceptible to wind, poor guying conditions, and Figure 3 shows the vertical gain pattern of a half-
casual neglect. wave dipole at various heights (in wavelengths) above
average ground. Figure 3 also shows the vertical gain
Ground conductivity and its effect on vertical as a function of mounting height. Note that the vertical
gain gain peaks at about 0.2 wavelengths - above that height
Ground conductivity depends on the earth under the antenna begins to develop its characteristic "bat
the antenna. In order to avoid a lengthy discussion of wings" which concentrate a higher percentage of the
ground conductivity and permittivity we will radiation at lower angles. At lower heights, ground
characterize ground as follows [9]: Figure 2 shows the interaction begins to consume the signal. Performance
Figure 2. Half-wave dipole at 0.2 wavelengths over various grounds. While not much can be
done to change the characteristics of the ground that Is encountered, It Is comforting to see
that from the best to the worst the impact on radiated signal is only about 3 dB.
between 0.1 and 0.3 wavelengths is fairly constant- it antenna. If you work through the math you will
varies about 1.5 dB. As the antenna is lowered further discover that a point on an element that is one third of
the gain drops off rapidly. When the antenna is lying the distance from the center to the end is useful for
just above the ground gain is reduced by about 15 dB estimating the effective height of the entire antenna. A
from that at 0.2 wavelengths. Put another way, if we similar analysis can be made for the V antenna in
compare our 100-watt radio with an antenna lying on which the center is lower than the ends.
the ground against the same radio connected to an
antenna at 0.2 wavelengths, we would discover that our The Center-fed Extended Double Zepp
signal was about the same as if the transmitter power If RF current in wire produces radiation then more
were reduced to about 3 watts. It is important to note, wire should be better. This is true up to a point. As the
however, that the pattern shape remains the same. wire becomes longer the pattern tends to become
For mounting heights of 0.2 wavelengths and directional in azimuth as well as elevation.
below, the beamwidth and beam extent are nearly An extended double Zepp antenna is a dipole in
constant at about 135 degrees and 160 degrees, which each side is 5/8 (0.625) wavelength long.
respectively. This beamwidth is more than ample to Obviously this antenna is over two and a half times the
provide signal strengths within 3 dB over an area with size of a standard half-wave dipole. Figure 5 shows the
a radius of 400 km or so. The beam extent is so broad vertical gain (over average ground) compared with a
that this antenna does not provide much attenuation for half-wave dipole. Note that the Zepp produces over
signals arriving from far away (at low angles). three dB of gain, thus converting our 100-watt
Study these figures. They will help you develop a transmitter to an effective power of 200 watts! The bad
''feel" for the performance you can expect in each news is also shown in Figure 5 in which it is apparent
situation you will encounter. that we only get all this gain along the axis, or
perpendicular to the axis of the antenna. Note there are
The Inverted V deep nulls at 45 degrees to the axis. Stations located in
An Inverted V (Figure 1b) can be erected using a the direction of these nulls would find our signal down
single mast in its center. This is much simpler and by over 10 dB when compared with a half-wave dipole.
quicker than erecting a dipole. This serves as an important reminder that long
It will perform almost exactly like a dipole antennas are usually directional in azimuth.
mounted at a slightly lower height. Figure 4 shows the
elevation pattern with the center at 40 feet and with
T2FD
various amounts of droop. Clearly, the flatter the
While opinions vary, T2FD (Figure 1f seems to
better.
stand for Tactical Terminated Folded Dipole or
If you think about it, this is logical. It is RF current
Terminated Two-wire Folded Dipole. (See [6], pp. 50,
in horizontal wire sections that produces NVIS effect.
51, 173,181) This antenna has also been called the
The sharper the V, the less current there will be in the
squashed rhombic. A commercial version is
horizontal plane. Further, the fact that placing a V in
manufactured by B&W. Its primary virtue is that it has
the antenna effectively lowers it is also logical. The
a very high SWR bandwidth. This is achieved by
current that produces radiation is highest at the center
loading the antenna in the center of the top wire with a
of the antenna and it decreases sinusoidally along the
600- ohm non-inductive resistor. As with all loaded
wire arms, finally becoming zero at the end. When the
antennas, gain suffers significantly. Figure 6 shows the
antenna is not flat it is obvious that some of this
relative performance of the T2FD.
radiation producing current is flowing at lower height
so we would expect the effect to be that of lowering the
Figure 3. Pattern of a half-wave dipole at various heights (in wavelengths) above ground. Optimal performance for
NVIS purposes Is obtained at 0.2 wavelengths. Proper antenna height Is essential for good NVIS performance. For
an excellent treatment of the (non-NVIS) performance of a higher-mounted dipole, see [9], pg. 3-8, 9.
Figure 4. A 5 MHz Inverted V with the center at 40 feet but with various amounts of droop. Clearly, keeping the
"V" shallow enhances performance. A 45-degree droop costs 3 dB.
AS-2259/GR elements of two different lengths which double as

This antenna (Figure 11) was designed for use with guys. Its performance depends on frequency but at 5
the AN/PRC-4 7 and other manpack radios. [11]. It MHz you can gauge the performance relative to some
produces NVIS effect and can be tuned over a broad other NVIS antennas in Figure 6. Its performance
frequency range. It consists of a 15-foot mast which relative to a resonant dipole degrades as frequency is
doubles as the coaxial feedline and four radiating decreased. This antenna is tricky to tune and is
notorious for problems in the mast/feedline assembly. The usual unbalanced NVIS antenna is made by
In most cases a standard dipole is as easy to install and attaching one end of a wire to the radio and running the
performs significantly better. other end up and off in the horizontal direction for
some convenient distance.
Throw it on the ground If the antenna slopes uniformly up from the radio
Eyring of Provo, Utah is marketing an antenna they to its highest point we call it an inclined wire or random
call the ELPA for "Extremely Low-Profile Antenna." wire.
Some of these antennas have been purchased by U.S. If it rises straight up to some height and then runs
and Canadian military units. Their design is very horizontally we call it an Inverted L. (Actually, the
broadband and very large. See Figure 7. It is interesting "classical" inverted L has a total length of about 0.5
to compare the NVIS performance this antenna (using wavelength. Such an antenna does not perform well for
NEC-2) with a dipole mounted at a similar height NVIS work - too much of the current is in the vertical
(three inches in this example). In this case the Eyring section.)
is set up in the 75 x 75 configuration they recommend As always, the performance is determined by
for NVIS applications in this frequency range. Both where the RF current occurs. Remember, for NVIS
antennas have omnidirectional azimuth patterns. work we want most of the current in a horizontal
Figure 7 compares their vertical gains at 5 MHz. section that is between 0.1 and 0.3 wavelengths above
Although larger and more difficult to install the Eyring ground.
exhibits a significant 4.5 dB advantage over the dipole. In Figure 6, it is simple to compare an Inverted L
with several NVIS antennas. In this case the Inverted
Unbalanced Antennas L rises up 40 feet and then runs 100 feet horizontally.
Figure 5. The dipole can be out-performed by the center-fed Zepp, but only in certain directions. In NVIS work,
where omnidirectional coverage is usually the goal, it Is important to keep in mind that as length Increases, the
antenna becomes directional. This phenomenon effects all antennas that are long - in terms of wavelengths.
The Sloper and Inclined Dipole
The sloper (Figure 1h) consists of a wire sloping
from the ground to the top of a mast. It is fed at the top
of the mast in such a way that the mast is connected to
the shield of the coax and the sloping wire is connected
to the center conductor. The pattern from a sloper made
using a 40-foot mast and a half-wavelength sloping
wire is shown in Figure 6. A similar approach involves
replacing the sloping wire with a center-fed dipole and
eliminating the connection to the mast. This antenna is
Figure 6. Performance of ten NVIS antennas at 5 MHz

is shown. Note that a half-wave dipole has nearly a 3dB
advantage on any of them.
While the vertical gain is about 4 dB less than the

dipole, the on-axis beam width is a narrow 52 degrees
and the beam extent is less than 90 degrees. While the
vertical gain is lower, this Inverted L provides
significant attenuation for distant signals that would be
heard as interference if the dipole were used. Inverted
Ls are directional and they require a counterpoise or
radial system. For this analysis a four-radial system,
with each radial 40 feet long, was used. Unfortunately,
the azimuth pattern (see Figure 8) shows significantly
less gain on-axis than across-axis. Orientation is very
important.
Field experience indicates this antenna, when
properly erected, performs similarly to an Inverted V
(which Figure 6 also bears out). The installation is
actually somewhat more difficult than required for the
Inverted V because of the counterpoise or radial
system.
End-Fed Terminated Wire (EFTW)

The end-fed terminated wire (Figure 1j, see [6], pp.
117, 163) is another loaded antenna. As with all loaded
antennas, some of the transmitter's power produces
nothing but heat in the loading resistor. As Figure 6
shows, it is not an outstanding performer for NVIS
Figure 7. When properly configured in the Eyring -
work. It is actually somewhat better for long distance
recommended "75 x 75" layout, their ELPA has nearly
work as it produces significant radiation at low angles. a 4.5 dB advantage over the simpler-to-erect half-wave
dipole. Both antennas are omnidirectional azimuth.
Figure 8. The Inverted L has directional aspects to its pattern. Note that in certain directions that beamwidth and
beam extent are significantly narrower than a dipole, although vertical gain is lower.
called an inclined dipole (Figure le). Its performance is Efficiency requires that all ohmic losses, in the
also shown in Figure 6. (For details, see [6], pp. 148, connections and in the tuning capacitor, be minimized.
149 and [9], pp. 4-15 to 4-18.) Resistance of the loop itself must also be kept very
small, which usually requires that the loop be made
Small Loops from large diameter copper pipe. For present purposes,
A compact antenna (Figure 1g) can be made by a square loop ten feet on a side was modeled. Optimum
arranging conductor in a loop. (see [9], pp. 5-2 and 5- NVIS effect was produced with the loop arranged in
11 to 5-17) The loop is fed in the middle of one side the vertical plane and mounted with the top at thirty
and tuned by means of a capacitor installed in the feet. Its performance can be evaluated by reference to
middle of the opposite side. The radiation resistance of Figure 6.
this arrangement is very small, less than one ohm.
Small loops exhibit very high Q hence tuning is Footnotes:
very critical - they must be carefully adjusted for each 1. Farmer, Edward J.; NVIS Propagation at Low Solar
operating frequency. Broadband operation without Flux Indices; Army Communicator Magazine; Spring 1994;
Vol. 19, No. 1; Ft. Gordon, GA.
retuning is out of the question. Tuning involves
2. Farmer, Edward J.; NVIS Antenna Fundamentals;
precisely manipulating the loop's variable capacitor, Army Communicator Magazine; Spring 1994; Vol. 19 No. 3;
which is difficult to do quickly. Since current in the Ft. Gordon, GA.
loop is very high and the voltage that appears across 3. Farmer, Edward J.; A Look at NVIS Techniques; QST
the capacitor can be very large, automatic tuners are magazine; American Radio Relay League; January 1995;
not a good choice. Large metal objects, such as Volume 79, Number 1.
armored vehicles, moving near a loop will cause it to 4. Fiedler, LTC David M.; Optimizing Low Power High
Frequency Radio Performance for Tactical Operations; Army
require retuning.
Communicator magazine; Spring 1989; Ft. Gordon, GA.
5. Fiedler, LTC David M.; HF Radio Communications and
Conclusion High Angle Antenna Techniques; Army Communicator
There are many antennas suitable for field NVIS magazine; Summer, 1991; Ft. Gordon, GA.
applications. It is hard to improve on the resonant half- 6. Christinsin, Alan S.; Tactical HF Radio Command
wave dipole and Inverted V. Practical considerations, and Control – An Anthology; ASC & Associates, Ltd.;
in addition to performance, drive antenna selection in Belleville, IL; Copyright 1993.
7. Fiedler, LTC David M.; Mobile NVIS: The New Jersey
military applications. Rapid deployment and the ability
Army National Guard Approach; Army Communicator
to withstand the conditions of the day are important. magazine; Fall, 1987; Ft. Gordon, GA.
Within broad limits most environmental effects, such 8. Fiedler, LTC David M.; Marine Tests Prove Fiedler's
as ground conductivity, have less effect than selection NVIS Conclusions; Army Communicator magazine; Fall,
of the proper antenna type. 1989; Ft. Gordon, GA.
In most situations, a unit that pays proper attention 9. Hall, (Editor); The ARRL Antenna Book; 15th
to basics and does a professional job of installation will Edition; Chapter 3; The American Radio Relay League;
Newington, CT; Copyright 1988.
find they are the CE heroes of the operation.
10. Operations Manual for the 302A Eyring Low
Profile Antenna; Eyring Document Number 300-0086;
Eyring, Inc.; Provo, UT; Copyright 1990.
11. TM-11-5985-379-14&P; The AS-2259/GR Antenna;
U.S. Army.
12: U.S. ARMY FM 24-18: TACTICAL CHAPTER
SINGLE-CHANNEL RADIO
3
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNIQUES
ANTENNAS
SAFETY WARNING
Be extremely careful when putting up, taking down, or moving antennas located near high voltage or
commercial power lines. Antenna contact with these can and may result in electrocution or sever. injury to
personnel holding the antenna or the connecting guy wires and cables.
Section I. Requirement and Function

3-1. Necessity
All radios, whether transmitting or receiving, require some sort of antenna. Single-channel radios normally send
and receive radio signals on one antenna. This is called one-way-reversible (OWR) or simplex operation. During
duplex (DX) operation two antennas are used, one for transmitting and the other for receiving. In either case, the
transmitter generates a radio signal. A transmission line delivers the signal from the transmitter to the antenna. The
transmitting antenna sends the radio signal into space toward the receiving antenna. The receiving antenna intercepts
the signal and sends it through a transmission line to the receiver. The receiver processes the radio signal so that it
can either be heard or used to operate a recording device such as a teletypewriter (fig 3-1).
Figure 3-1. Simple radio communications network.
3-2. Function
The function of an antenna depends on whether it is transmitting or receiving. A transmitting antenna transforms
the output RF energy produced by a radio transmitter (RF output power) into an electromagnetic field that is radiated
through space. In other words, the transmitting antenna converts energy from one form to another form. The
receiving antenna reverses this process. It transforms the electromagnetic field into RF energy which is delivered
to a radio receiver.
3-3. Gain
The gain of an antenna depends mainly on its design. Transmitting antennas are designed for high efficiency in
radiating energy, and receiving antennas are designed for high efficiency in picking up energy. On many radio
circuits, transmission is required between a transmitter and only one receiving station. In this case, energy may be
radiated in one direction because it is useful only in that direction. Directional receiving antennas increase the
energy pickup or gain in the favored direction, and reduce the reception of unwanted noise and signals from other
directions. The general requirements for transmitting and receiving antennas are that they have small energy losses
and that they be efficient as radiators and receptors.
Section II. Characteristics
3-4. Electromagnetic Radiation

Radiation Fields.
When RF power is delivered to an antenna, two fields are set up: one is an induction field, which is associated
with the stored energy; the other is a radiation field. At the antenna, the intensities of these fields are large and are
proportional to the amount of RF power delivered to the antenna. At a short distance from the antenna and beyond,
only the radiation field remains. This radiation field is composed of an electric component and a magnetic
component (fig 3-2).
Figure 3-2. Components of electromagnetic waves.
The electric and magnetic fields (components) radiated from an antenna form the electromagnetic
field. The electromagnetic field is responsible for the transmission and reception of electromagnetic
energy through free space. A radio wave is a moving electromagnetic field that has velocity in the direction
of travel, and with components of electric intensity and magnetic intensity arranged at right angles to each
other.
Radiation Patterns.
The radio signals radiated by an antenna form an electromagnetic field having a definite pattern,
depending on the type of antenna used. This radiation pattern is used to show the directional characteristics
of an antenna. A vertical antenna theoretically radiates energy equally in all directions (omnidirectional);
a horizontal antenna is mainly bidirectional. There are also unidirectional antennas. These antennas
theoretically radiate energy in one direction. In practice, however, the patterns usually are distorted by
nearby obstructions or terrain features.
The full- or solid-radiation pattern is represented as a three-dimensional figure that looks somewhat
like a doughnut with a transmitting antenna in the center (fig 3-3). The upper pattern in the figure is that
of a quarter-wave vertical antenna; the center pattern is that of a half-wave horizontal antenna, located
one-half wavelength above the ground. The bottom pattern is that of a vertical half-rhombic antenna.
Figure 3-3. Solid radiation patterns from quarter-wave, half-wave,

and vertical half-rhombic antennas.
3-5. Polarization
The polarization of a radiated wave is determined by the direction of the lines of force making up the
electric field. If the lines of electric force are at right angles to the surface of the Earth, the wave is said to
be vertically polarized (fig 3-4). If the lines of electric force are parallel to the surface of the Earth, the
wave is said to be horizontally polarized (fig 3-5). When a single wire antenna is used to extract (receive)
energy from a passing radio wave, maximum pickup results if the antenna is oriented so that it lies in the
same direction as the electric field component. Thus, a vertical antenna is used for efficient reception of
vertically polarized waves and a horizontal antenna is used for the reception of horizontally polarized
waves. In some cases, the field rotates as the waves travel through space. Under these conditions, both
horizontal and vertical components of the field exist and the wave is said to have elliptical polarization.
Figure 3-4. Vertically polarized signal.
Polarization Requirements for Various Frequencies.
At medium and low frequencies, ground-wave transmission is used extensively and it is necessary to
use vertical polarization. Vertical lines of force are perpendicular to the ground, and the radio wave can
travel a considerable distance along the ground surface with a minimum amount of loss. Because the Earth
acts as a relatively good conductor at low frequencies, horizontal lines of electric force are shorted out
and the useful range with the horizontal polarization is limited.
At high frequencies, with sky wave transmission, it makes little difference whether horizontal or
vertical polarization is used. The sky-wave, after being reflected by the ionosphere, arrives at the receiving
antenna elliptically polarized. Therefore, the transmitting and receiving antennas can be mounted either
horizontally or vertically. Horizontal antennas are preferred however, since they can be made to radiate
effectively at high angles and have inherent directional properties.
Figure 3-5. Horizontally polarized signal.

For frequencies in the very-high or ultra-high range, either horizontal or vertical polarization is
satisfactory. Since the radio wave travels directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna,
the original polarization produced at the transmitting antenna is maintained as the wave travels to the
receiving antenna. Therefore, if a horizontal antenna is used for transmitting, a horizontal antenna must
be used for receiving.
Satellites and satellite terminals use circular polarization. Circular polarization describes a wave whose
plane of polarization rotates through 360° as it progresses forward. The rotation can be clockwise or
counterclockwise (see fig 3-6). Circular polarization occurs when equal magnitudes of vertically and
horizontally polarized waves are combined with a phase difference of 90°. Depending on their phase
relationship, this causes rotation either in one direction or the other (see app L).
Figure 3-6. Circular polarized wave.
Advantages of Vertical Polarization.

Simple vertical half-wave and quarter-wave antennas can be used to provide omnidirectional (in all
directions) communications. This is desirable in communicating with a moving vehicle. Its disadvantage
is that it radiates equally to the enemy and friendly forces.
When antenna heights are limited to 3.05 meters (10 ft) or less over land, as in a vehicular installation,
vertical polarization provides a stronger received signal at frequencies up to about 50 MHz. From about
50 MHz to 100 MHz, there is only a slight improvement over horizontal polarization with antennas at the
same height. Above 100 MHz, the difference in signal strength between vertical and horizontal
polarization is small. However, when antennas are located near dense forests, horizontally polarized waves
suffer lower losses than vertically polarized waves.
Vertically polarized radiation is somewhat less affected by reflections from aircraft flying over the
transmission path. With horizontal polarization, such reflections cause variations in received signal
strength. An example is the picture flutter in a television set when an aircraft interferes with the
transmission path. This factor is important in areas where aircraft traffic is heavy.

When vertical polarization is used, less interference is produced or picked up from strong VHF and
UHF transmissions (television and FM broadcasts) because they use horizontal polarization. This factor
is important when an antenna must be located in an urban area that has television or FM broadcast stations.
Advantages of Horizontal Polarization.

A simple horizontal half-wave antenna is bidirectional. This characteristic is useful in minimizing
interference from certain directions.
Horizontal antennas are less likely to pick up man-made interference, which ordinarily is vertically
polarized.
When antennas are located near dense forests, horizontally polarized waves suffer lower losses than
vertically polarized waves, especially above 100 MHz.
Small changes in antenna location do not cause large variations in the field intensity of horizontally
polarized waves when an antenna is located among trees or buildings. When vertical polarization is used,
a change of only a few feet in the antenna location may have a significant effect on the received signal
strength.
3-6. Directionality
Vertical receiving antennas accept radio signals equally from all horizontal directions, just as vertical
transmitting antennas radiate equally in all horizontal directions. Because of this characteristic, other
stations operating on the same or nearby frequencies may interfere with the desired signal and make
reception difficult or impossible. However, reception of a desired signal can be improved by using
directional antennas.
Horizontal half-wave antennas accept radio signals from all directions, with the strongest reception
being received in a line perpendicular to the antenna (that is, broadside); and, the weakest reception being
received from the direction of the ends of the antenna. Interfering signals can be eliminated or reduced by
changing the antenna installation so that either end of the antenna points directly at the interfering station.
Communications over a radio circuit is· satisfactory when the received signal is strong enough to
override undesired signals and noise. The receiver must be within range of the transmitter. Increasing the
transmitting power between two radio stations increases communications effectiveness. Also, changing
the types of transmission (for example, changing from radiotelephone to CW), changing to a frequency
that is not readily absorbed, or using a directional antenna aids in communications effectiveness.
Directional transmitting antennas concentrate radiation in a given direction and minimize radiation in
other directions. A directional antenna may also be used to lessen interception by the enemy and
interference with friendly stations.

3-7. Ground Effects
Since all practical antennas are erected over the Earth and not out in free space, except for those on
satellites, the presence of the ground will alter the free space radiation patterns of antennas. The ground
will also have an effect on some of the electrical characteristics of an antenna. It has the greatest effect on
those antennas that must be mounted relatively close to the ground in terms of wavelength. For example,
medium- and high frequency antennas, elevated above the ground by only a fraction of a wavelength, will
have radiation patterns that are quite different from the free-space patterns.
Grounded Antenna Theory.

The ground is a good conductor for medium and low frequencies and acts as a large mirror for the
radiated energy. This results in the ground reflecting a large amount of energy that is radiated downward
from an antenna mounted over it. Using this characteristic of the ground, an antenna only a quarter-
wavelength long can be made into the equivalent of a half-wave antenna. A quarter-wave antenna erected
vertically, with its lower end connected electrically to the ground (fig 3-7), behaves like a half-wave
antenna. Under these conditions, the ground takes the place of the missing quarter-wavelength, and the
reflections supply that part of the radiated energy that normally would be supplied by the lower half of an
ungrounded half-wave antenna.
Types of Grounds.
When grounded antennas are used, it is especially important that the ground has as high a conductivity
as possible. This reduces ground losses and provides the best possible reflecting surface for the down-
going radiated energy from the antenna. At low and medium frequencies, the ground acts as a sufficiently
good conductor. Therefore, the ground connection must be made in such a way as to introduce the least
possible amount of resistance to ground. At higher frequencies, artificial grounds constructed of large
metal surfaces are common.
The ground connections take many forms, depending on the type of installation and the loss that can
be tolerated. In many simple field installations, the ground connection is made by means of one or more
metal rods driven into the soil. Where more satisfactory arrangements cannot be made, ground leads can
be connected to existing devices which are grounded. Metal structures or underground pipe systems are
commonly used as ground connections. In an emergency, a ground connection can be made by forcing
one or more bayonets into the soil.
When an antenna must be erected over soil with low conductivity, treat the soil to reduce its resistance.
The soil should be treated with substances that are highly conductive when in solution. Some of these
substances, listed in order of preference, are sodium chloride (common salt), calcium chloride, copper
sulphate (blue vitriol), magnesium sulphate (Epsom salt, and potassium nitrate (saltpeter). The amount
required depends on the type of soil and its moisture content.
WARNING: When these substances are

used, it is important that they do not get
into nearby drinking water supplies.

Figure 3-7. Quarter-wave antenna connected to ground.
For simple installations, a single ground rod can be fabricated in the field from pipe or conduit. It is
important that a low resistance connection be made between the ground wire and the ground rod. The rod
should be cleaned thoroughly by scraping and sandpapering at the point where the connection is to be
made, and a clean ground clamp should be installed. A ground wire can then be soldered or joined to the
clamp. This joint should be covered with tape to prevent an increase in resistance because of oxidation.
Counterpoise.
When an actual ground connection cannot be used because of the high resistance of the soil or because
a large buried ground system is not practical, a counterpoise may be used to replace the usual direct ground
connection. The counterpoise (fig 3-8) consists of a device made of wire which is erected a short distance
above the ground and insulated from it. The size of the counterpoise should be at least equal to or larger
than the size of the antenna.
When the antenna is mounted vertically, the counterpoise should be made into a simple geometric
pattern. Perfect symmetry is not required. The counterpoise appears to the antenna as an artificial ground
that helps to produce the required radiation pattern.
Figure 3-8. Wire counterpoise.

In some VHF antenna installations on vehicles, the metal roof of the vehicle (or shelter) is used as a
counterpoise for the antenna.
Small counterpoises of metal mesh are sometimes used with special VHF antennas that must be located
a considerable distance above the ground.
Ground Screen.
A ground screen consists of a fairly large area of metal mesh or screen that is laid on the surface of
the ground under the antenna. There are two specific advantages in using ground screens. First, the ground
screen reduces ground absorption losses that occur when an antenna is erected over ground with poor
conductivity. Second, the height of the antenna can be set accurately. As a result of this, the radiation
resistance of the antenna can be determined more accurately (See TM 11-666, para 61).
3-8. Antenna Length
The length of an antenna must be considered in two ways. It has both a physical and an electrical
length, and the two are never the same. The reduced velocity of the wave on the antenna and a capacitive
effect (known as end effect) make the antenna seem longer electrically than it is physically. The
contributing factors are the ratio of the diameter of the antenna to its length and the capacitive effect of
terminal equipment (insulators, clamps, etc.) used to support the antenna.
To calculate the physical length of an antenna, use a correction of 0.95 for frequencies between 3.0
and 50.0 MHz. The figures given below are for a half-wave antenna.
150×0.95 142.5
Length (meters) = =
Frequency in MHz Frequency in MHz
492×0.95 468
Length (feet) = =
Frequency in MHz Frequency in MHz
The length of a long-wire antenna (one wavelength or longer) for harmonic operation is calculated by
using the following formula.
150(𝑛𝑛 − 0.05)
Length (meters) =
Frequency in MHz
492(𝑛𝑛 − 0.05)
Length (feet) =
Frequency in MHz
Where 𝑛𝑛 = number of half-wavelengths in the total length of the antenna.
For example, if the number of half-wavelengths is 3 and the frequency in MHz is 7, then:
150(𝑛𝑛 − 0.05) 150(3 − 0.05) 150×2.95 442.50

Length (meters) = = = = = 63.2 meters
Frequency in MHz 7 7 7

3-9. Antenna Orientation
Azimuth.
If the azimuth of the radio path is not provided, the azimuth should be determined by the best available
means. The accuracy required in determining the azimuth of the path is dependent upon the radiation
pattern of the directional antenna. If the antenna beam width is very wide (for example, 90° angle between
half-power points, fig 3-9), an error of 10° in azimuth is of little consequence. In transportable operation,
the rhombic and V antennas may have such a narrow beam as to require great accuracy in azimuth
determination. The antenna should be erected for the correct azimuth. Great accuracy is not required in
erecting broad-beam antennas. Unless a line of known azimuth is available at the site, the direction of the
path is best determined by a magnetic compass. Figure 3-10 is a map of magnetic declination, showing
the variation of the compass needle from the true north. When the compass is held so that the needle points
to the direction indicated for the location on the map, all directions indicated by the compass will be true.
Figure 3-9. Beam width measured on relative field strength and relative power patterns.

Figure 10. Magnetic Declination over the world.
Improvement of Marginal Communications.

Under certain situations, it may not be feasible to orient directional antennas to the correct azimuth of
the desired radio path. As a result, marginal communications may suffer. To improve marginal
communications, follow the procedure presented below.
• Check, tighten, and tape cable couplings and connections.
• Retune all transmitters and receivers in the circuit.
• Check to see that antennas are adjusted for the proper operating frequency.
• Try changing the heights of antennas.
• Try moving the antenna a short distance away and in different locations from its original location.
• Separate transmitters from receiving equipment, if feasible.
Transmission and Reception of Strong Signals.

After an adequate site has been selected and the proper antenna orientation obtained, the signal level
at the receiver will be proportional to the strength of the transmitted signal.

If a high-gain antenna is used, a stronger signal can be obtained. Losses between the antenna and the
equipment can be reduced by using a high-quality transmission line, as short as possible, and properly
matched at both ends.
WARNING: Excessive signal strength

may result in enemy intercept and
interference or in your interfering with
adjacent frequencies.

APPENDIX
NEAR-VERTICAL INCIDENCE
SKY·WAVE PROPAGATION
CONCEPT
M-1. Evaluation of Communications

M
Techniques
The standard communications techniques used in the past will not support the widely deployed and
the fast-moving formations we intend to use to counter the modern threat. Coupling this with the problems
that can be expected in deploying multichannel LOS systems with relays to keep up with present and
future operation, high frequency (HF) radio and the near vertical incidence sky-wave (NVIS) mode take
on new importance. High frequency radio is quickly deployable, securable, and capable of data
transmission. It will be the first, and frequently the only, means of communicating with fast-moving or
widely separated units. It may also provide the first long-range system to recover from a nuclear attack.
With this reliance on HF radio, communications planners, commanders, and operators must be familiar
with NVIS techniques and their applications and shortcomings in order to provide more reliable
communications.
M-2. Problems Encountered in Propagation of

Radio Waves
Under ideal conditions, ground wave component of a radio wave becomes unusable at about 80
kilometers (50 mi) (fig 2-12). Under actual field conditions, this range can be much less, sometimes as
little as 3 kilometers (2 mi). Sky waves, generated by standard antennas (for example, doublets) which
efficiently launch the sky wave, will not return to earth at a range of less than 161 kilometers (100 mi).
This can leave a skip zone of at least 80 to 113 kilometers (50 to 70 mi) where HF communications will
not function. This means that units such as long-range patrols, armored cavalry deployed as advance or
covering forces, air defense early warning teams, and many division-corps, division-brigade, division-
DISCOM and division-DIV ARTY stations are in the skip zone and thus unreachable by HF radio even
though HF is a primary means of communication to these units.
M-3. Concept of Near-Vertical Incidence

Sky-Wave Radiation
Energy radiated in a near-vertical incidence direction is not reflected down to a pinpoint on the Earth's
surface. If it is radiated on too high a frequency, the energy penetrates the ionosphere and continues on
out into space. Energy radiated on a low enough frequency is reflected back to earth at all angles (including
the zenith), resulting in the energy striking the earth in an omnidirectional pattern without dead spots (that

is, without a skip zone). Such a mode is called a near-vertical incidence sky wave (NVIS). The concept is
illustrated in figure M-1.
This effect is similar to taking a hose with a fog nozzle and pointing it straight up. The water falling
back to earth covers a circular pattern continuously out to a given distance. A typical receive signal pattern
for antenna AS-2259/GR is shown in figure M-2, and the path length and incident angle are shown in
figure M-3. A typical elevation plane pattern is shown in figure M-4. The main difference between this
short-range NVIS mode and the standard long-range sky-wave HF mode is the lower frequency required
to avoid penetrating the ionosphere and the angle of incident signal upon the ionosphere. In order to attain
a NVIS effect, the energy must be radiated strong enough at angles greater than about 75 or 80 degrees
from the horizontal on a frequency that the ionosphere will reflect at that location and time. The
ionospheric layers will reflect this energy in an umbrella-type pattern with no skip zone. Any ground wave
present with the NVIS signal will result in undesirable wave interference effects (such as, fading) if the
amplitudes are comparable. However, proper antenna selection will reduce ground-wave radiated energy
to a minimum, and this will reduce the fading problems. Ranges for the NVIS mode are shown in figure
M-3 for typical ionosphere height and take-off angles. Since NVIS paths are purely sky wave, the path
losses are nearly constant at about 110 dB ±10 dB. Relative gain performance of the AS-2259/GR NVIS
antenna is shown in figure M-5. This is significant for the tactical communicator because all the energy
arriving at the receiving antenna is coming from above at about the same strength over all of the
communications ranges of interest. This means the effect of terrain and vegetation (when operating from
defiladed positions such as valleys) are greatly reduced, and the receive signal strength will not vary
greatly.
Figure M-1 - Near-vertical incidence sky-wave propagation

concept.

Figure M-2. Near-vertical incidence sk y-wave antenna typical
azimuth plane pattern.
Figure M-3 - Path length and incident angle (near-vertical incidence sk y-wave
mode).

Figure M-4. Typical elevation plane pattern.
Figure M-5. Relative gain performance of AS-2259 antenna.

Figure M-6. Typical elevation plane patterns for half-wavelength antennas one-eighth
wavelength or less above ground.
Figure M-7. The Shirley Dipole

M-4. Assessment of Characteristics of Common Antennas
It is obvious that the Army needs short-range HF communications in the 2-30 MHz frequency band in
the 1985-1990 time frame and beyond. The problem, however, is to obtain the required radiation
characteristics. This is not difficult, because half-wave dipole antennas located from one-quarter to one-
tenth wavelength above the ground will cause the radiated energy to be directed vertically (fig M-6). Table
M-1 shows the relative gain toward the zenith of the most common types of HF antennas. This table shows
that the half-wave Shirley folded dipole (fig M-7) has the most gain towards the zenith (with the other
dipoles being almost as good). The Shirley dipole is a good NVIS base station antenna, but it is limited to
a band of frequencies within about 10 percent of the design frequency. The fan dipole (fig M-8 and table
M-1) performs almost as well, and it provides more frequency flexibility (for example, day, night, and
transition period frequencies). For tactical communications, these dipoles can be easily deployed in a field
expedient manner because they can be located close to the ground. For mobile or shoot-and-scoot type
operations, vehicular-mounted antennas are required. This is the standard 5-meter (16 1/2-foot) whip bent
down to a horizontal position (fig M-9). In this configuration, the whip is essentially an asymmetrical
dipole (with the vehicle body forming one side) located close to the Earth. A significant amount of energy
is directed upward (fig M-6 for typical pattern) to be reflected back by the ionosphere in an umbrella
pattern. For use, while operating on the move, the whip antenna must be tied across or parallel to the
vehicle or shelter. This configuration is like an asymmetrical open-wire line, and it also directs some
energy upwards although with less efficiency. There are still no skip zones, but received signal levels are
weaker than with the whip tied back as shown in figure M-9.
Table M-1 - Summary of relative gain toward the Zenith for Field-expedient HF Antennas (in dB)

Figure M-8 - Fan Dipole NVIS Base Station Antennas.
Figure M-9. Tying the whip antenna down.

M-5. Orientation of Antenna
Wire dipole antennas have always been sited so that the broadside of the antenna was pointed toward
the receiving station(s). This is still the correct approach for long-haul paths. This antenna orientation is
not necessary when using the NVIS mode. For NVIS operation, antenna orientation does not matter since
all the energy is directed upward and returns to earth in an omnidirectional pattern. This means that the
dipole should be erected at any orientation that is convenient at the particular radio site without regard to
the location of other stations. This holds true except when operating in the region of the magnetic dip
equator (fig M-10). When operating near the dip equator (such as, within 500 kilometers (311 mi)), the
dipole antennas should be oriented in a magnetically north-south direction for greater receive signal levels
for all NVIS path bearings. Antenna orientation broadside to the path direction must be retained near the
dip equator and elsewhere for longer sky-wave paths.
M-6. Problems in Using the NVIS Concept

While use of the NVIS technique does provide beyond line-of-sight, skip-zone- free communications,
there are some drawbacks in its use that must be understood in order to minimize them.
Figure M-10. Magnetic dip equator.

Interference Between Ground Wave and Sky Wave.
Where both a NVIS and ground-wave signal are present, the ground wave can cause destructive
interference. Proper antenna selection will suppress ground-wave radiation and minimize this effect while
maximizing the amount of energy going into the NVIS mode.
High Take-Off Angles.

In order to produce radiation which is nearly vertical, antennas must be selected and located carefully
in order to minimize the ground-wave radiation and maximize the energy radiated towards the zenith. This
can be accomplished by using specially designed antennas such as AS-2259/GR or by locating standard
dipole (doublet) antennas one-quarter to one-tenth wavelength from the ground in order to direct the
energy toward the zenith (fig M-11). A typical measured dipole pattern (power gain) is shown in figure
Critical Frequency Selection.

As in all sky-wave propagation, there is a critical frequency (f o ) above which radiated energy will not
be reflected by the ionosphere but will pass through it (TM 11-666). This frequency is related
approximately to the angle of incidence.
Figure M-11. Recommended dipole height for NVIS applications.

Figure M-12. Measured radiation pattern of the 8-MHz 23-foot high unbalanced dipole.

This means that the useful frequency range varies in accordance with the path length. The shorter the
path, the lower the MUF and the smaller the frequency range. In practice, this limits the NVIS mode of
operation to the 2-to 4-MHz range at night and to the 4- to 8-MHz range during the day (fig M-13).
These nominal limits will vary with the 11-year sunspot cycle and they will be smaller during sunspot
minimums (for example, 1985-86). This restriction of the frequency range is due to the physics of the
situation and cannot be overcome. Some problems can be expected when operating on the NVIS mode
in this portion of the HF spectrum.
The range of frequencies between the MUF and the LUF is limited, and frequency assignment may
be a problem.
The lower portion of the band which supports NVIS is somewhat congested with aviation, marine,
broadcast, and amateur radio which limits frequencies available.
Atmospheric noise is higher in this portion of the HF spectrum in the afternoon and night.
Man-made noise tends to be higher in this portion of the HF spectrum.
M-7. Advantages in Using the NVIS Concept
After the foregoing problems are overcome, there are many advantages in using the NVIS concept.
The tactical environment.

• There are skip-zone-free omnidirectional communications.
• Terrain does not affect loss of signal. This gives a more constant received signal level over the
operational range instead of one which varies widely with distance.
• Operators are able to operate from protected, dug-in positions. Thus, tactical commanders do not
have to control the high ground for HF communications purposes.
• Orientation of doublets and inverted antennas become noncritical.
The EW environment
• There is a lower probability of geolocation. NVIS energy is received from above at very steep
angles, which makes direction finding (DF) from nearby (but beyond ground-wave range) locations
more difficult.
• Communications are harder to jam. Ground-wave jammers are subject to path loss. Terrain
features can be used to attenuate a ground wave jammer without degrading the desired communication
path. The jamming signal will be attenuated by terrain, while the sky-wave NVIS path loss will be
constant. This will force the jammer to move very close to the target or put out more power. Either tactic
makes jamming more difficult.
• Operators can use low-power successfully. The NVIS mode can be used successfully with very
low-power HF sets. This will result in much lower probabilities of intercept/detection (LPI/LPD).

Figures M-14 and M-15 show results obtained in Thailand jungles and mountains with the 15-watt
AN/PRC-7 4 operating on one SSB voice frequency (3.6 MHz) over a 24-hour period.
M-8. Conditions Under Which to Use the NVIS Concept

Near-vertical incidence sky-wave techniques must be considered under the following conditions:
• The area of operations is not conducive to ground-wave HF communications (for example,
mountains).
• Tactical deployment places stations in anticipated skip zones when using traditional frequency
selection methods and operating procedures.
• When operating in heavy wet jungle (or other areas of high signal attenuation).
• When prominent terrain features are not under friendly control.
• When operating against enemy ground-wave jammers and direction finders.
Figure M-13. Maximum usable frequencies in Vietnam.

Figure M-15. Communications success with the AN/PRC-74 as a
function of time of day and antenna type over a 12-mile path in
low mountains, spring and summer 1963.
Figure 14. Communications success as a function of range for the AN/PRC-74

in mountainous and varied terrain-including jungle in Thailand.

13: A NVIS REFRESHER
by Stanly Harter, KH6GBX Having said that, here again are the highlights of NVIS
Scheduled high frequency radio nets over large areas (pronounced "niviss").
with only one frequency should be recognized as being For practical communications plans and operations,
generally unrealistic. Propagation may dictate that more NVIS functions between 1.8 MHz to 10 MHz. Much
than one frequency is necessary. Conditions over which above that and the signal penetrate the ionospheric layer
the Net Control Station may have no control often can ruin instead of the desired reflection back to earth.
a net. This is particularly true on Amateur Radio bands. Using a "NVIS antenna" provides total coverage for a
The main reason a statewide HF net is unrealistic over radius of 300 to 400 miles from any such station.
an area as large as California, for example, is that the A NVIS antenna is always horizontal. A vertical
typical emergency involves only one location or area. antenna can never be used, including mobiles.
Thus, the best frequency dictated by propagation A NVIS antenna has omnidirectional radiation; it
characteristics is selected. The requirement is to makes no difference how you orient your antenna.
communicate between Point A and B - not the entire state. A NVIS antenna is low; it MUST be low. Attempt to
This is why station operators shouldn't be too upset keep it no more than twenty ft. above electrical ground.
about poor conditions between other stations and excellent A multi-frequency NVIS antenna requires a remote
results between others. All too often it is simply the laws and automatic antenna tuner at the end of the coaxial cable
of marginal propagation being in charge. and before the antenna system.
If wide area nets are really necessary to disseminate If you use a dipole antenna with an automatic antenna
information or assure total station participation, sub-nets tuner to operate on more than one frequency, cut the dipole
are necessary. This means breaking the larger area into to the lowest frequency to be used with the conventional
perhaps two areas and changing to a more appropriate formula.
frequency to do so. An existing dipole antenna over twenty feet high can
Antennas for DX serve no purpose in our nets. Near be expediently modified to obtain a degree of NVIS
Vertical Incidence Skywave - or NVIS-antennas will performance. This is done by allowing the feedpoint to
improve your nets more than any other step. The NVIS stay ten to fifteen feet below the ends of the antenna.
antenna is just a few feet off the ground. A fixed station A horizontal broadband antenna may be used without
NVIS antenna is always horizontal and is installed, for an automatic antenna tuner for a base station.
practical purposes, anywhere between 7 and 25 feet (no End-fed longwire antennas are NOT recommended.
more) above the ground. The same is true of a mobile HF Unbalanced antennas are prone to creating interference to
antenna; it is always horizontal and never vertical. Now, telephones and other electronic systems in the vicinity.
doesn't that make your garage happy? When the user has a choice of several frequencies, the
The horizontal antenna is a dipole cut to the lowest best choice is generally ten percent below the MUF or
operating frequency. If it must operate on more than one Maximum Usable Frequency obtained from propagation
frequency (and I don't know a service that can), it must programs.
either be a broadband dipole designed for this service Now, and for the next several years, solar activity will
(B&W is notable) or a single wire dipole connected to an affect HF communicators in a manner to which most are
external automatic antenna tuner (SGC, Motorola and not accustomed. Amateur Radio operators will find that 80
perhaps others). Antenna tuners built into the HF Meters will often work better in the daytime than 40
transceivers do not qualify to do the job. The feedline Meters and that 160 will be better than 80 at night. The
required is beyond the scope of this brief paper. Civil Air Patrol will find that it must use 2341 kHz at night
This summary is based upon the assumption that the instead of 4585 for more reliable communications.
reader has some familiarity with the subject of near Remember, we are talking about communications
Vertical Incidence Skywave HF-SSB propagation for necessary up to about 400 miles away. This may mean
communications between 1.5 MHz and around 10 MHz. some necessary equipment and antenna changes. One
NVIS is essential to anyone requiring reliable HF thing is certain - this condition will be with us for several
communication from one to 400 miles. Such users include years and justify the expense.
the RACES, Operation SECURE, the Civil Air Patrol, In summation, HF-SSB and NVIS will climb out of
FEMA, the U.S. Forest Service, MARS and others. This the deepest canyons, hop the highest mountains, never
information is not found in conventional technical require any repeaters or other intermediate relays. And
publications and least of all in the field of Amateur Radio. some thought high frequency radio was an ancient art.

PART Three
YES, IT WORKS!
Acceptance for any new idea is usually slow World War II and most recently thoroughly
and marked by caution. This is particularly true evaluated by the U.S. Marine Corps. Yes, it does
in military doctrine since the stakes are so high. work.
NVIS techniques have been demonstrated since
14. NVIS a Key to D-Day Success by LTC David M.

Fiedler, Army Communicator magazine, Spring/Summer
1990.
15. Marine Tests Prove Fiedler's NVIS Conclusions by
LTC David M. Fiedler, Army Communicator magazine,
Fall 1989.
16. A Cloud Warmer Antenna is Best for Local HF
Coverage by Stanley E. Harter (KH6GBX), State of
California Governor's Office of Emergency Services
bulletin.
17. Battleship Electronic Mail by Terry A. Danielson,
NCCOSC RDTE Div., Code 826, San Diego, CA.
18. Test Report: Near Vertical Incidence Skywave
Communications Demonstration, June 24, 1994; by
Edward J. Farmer, P.E.

An important history lesson
NVIS a key to D-Day Success

by Ed Farmer
The lesson of D-Day Over the past several years, I serving at that time as a member of
have attempted through the pages of the United States Special Technical
for the Signal Corps the ARMY COMMUNICATOR and Advisory Force (USST AF)
by rewriting the applicable portions Communications Advisory Specialist
should be that HF of FM 24-18 to impress our present- Group (CASG).
radio and correctly day Signal Corps commanders and Just before D-Day, Beverage
systems engineers with the combat arrived in England and found that
applied antenna and capabilities of High Frequency radio communications problems were
frequency assignment systems, particularly those using causing grave concern on the part of
Near Vertical Incidence Skywave senior allied ground and air
techniques will provide (NVIS) high radiation angle antenna commanders because poor radio
the first in, last out, techniques. communications were causing severe
These techniques, although disruptions in the command and
most reliable neglected by the Signal Corps for control of the tactical air support
communications many years while we developed effort to the invasion assault force.
SATCOM and other systems, are still The senior commanders felt, and
system possible to highly effective and reliable combat justly so, that unless crushing,
support combat communications techniques that will superior, air support was brought to
survive under tactical combat bear upon the enemy defending Utah
operations. conditions that would destroy most and Omaha Beaches, the invasion
other types of systems. At the same would be thrown back into the
time, HF radio and antenna systems English Channel by the Nazis in the
will provide longer ranges and wider first hours of the assault. The
areas of coverage at less cost than commanders also felt that the key to
almost any other military gaining superior air support was good
communication means. radio communications, which would
Until recently, it was not provide the command and control
common knowledge among military edge necessary for victory.
communicators that NVIS HF radio Beverage went directly to the
systems played the key role in the headquarters of the 9th Tactical Air
success of US and Allied Forces Force (9th AF) at Uxbridge near
during the D-Day invasion of London, which was to function as the
Normandy in 1944. air control headquarters for the
NVIS techniques were assault force and controlled 9th Air
incorporated into the Signal support Force (9th AF) air assets located all
planning for D-Day by Dr. H. H. over England. Uxbridge was
Beverage, a well-known early supposed to be in direct radio contact
American radio pioneer who was with the USS ANCON, a command

Figure 1.
and control ship located with the messages to the USS ANCON stating forces portable radios were landed on
invasion fleet. An Admiral and an the number of fighters and bombers the invasion beaches, more problems
Army General aboard the ANCON assigned and their time of arrival. would occur because of the lower
controlled all air attack and naval Officers aboard the USS ANCON power of the radios, expected antenna
gunfire support to the invasion force would then feed the aircraft into the difficulties and all the other problems
as well as to the troops in the assault invasion area by assigning targets encountered when operating a
force. and times of attack to them, so the tactical radio station in combat.
The operation plan called for a thousands of aircraft involved would Beverage later stated, "We found
forward communications center on not run into each other or be shot that a vertically polarized antenna
each of the landing beaches; the USS down by friendly forces. This system (whip antenna) was being used (at
ANCON and 9th AF headquarters at is shown in Figure 1. Uxbridge) similar to ones used at
Uxbridge were to operate on a single During the preparation for the locations overlooking the English
HF radio net with the shore stations invasion, Beverage found that Channel. The propagation of vertical
sending air support requests and Uxbridge was experiencing severe polarization over sea water is
targets to Uxbridge through the problems in getting the message excellent; however, Uxbridge is
ANCON. The 9th AF Commander traffic to and from the USS ANCON about forty miles over land in the
would then reply via a coded radio and expected that when the assault direction of the USS AN CON and

Omaha Beach in France, and thus As we all know, history repeats operating our HF radio equipment are
presents a different problem. The itself because it is trying to teach us a trained properly. With the lessons of
ground wave over land is very poor lesson. The lesson of D-Day for the D-Day in mind, it would also be wise
on both vertical and horizontal Signal Corps should be that HF radio for the Signal Corps to reevaluate the
polarization. The only solution is the and correctly applied antenna and wisdom of removing the HF radio
use of skywave with horizontal frequency assignment techniques equipment (primarily HF radio
polarization (NVIS). Many days just will provide the first in, last out, most teletype) completely from the Signal
prior to the invasion were spent reliable communications system battalions, thus relying strictly on
supervising the change to skywave possible to support combat SATCOM for Beyond-Line-of-Sight
(NVIS). I was worried, with the operations. (BLOS) communications on the
change whether or not the signals to Under the recent reorganization battlefield. In my opinion, it is
and from the USS ANCON and the of the Signal Corps due to MSE, most extremely critical to add both a single
troops going ashore would get HF radios have been removed from channel SATCOM and an HF radio
through. On D-Day I was briefly division and corps Signal battalions, capability to the Combat Net Radio
confused because all frequencies had and only half of the required (CNR) interface facility in MSE. This
been changed to confuse the Improved HF Radio (IHFR) capability will make MSE capable of
Germans. I was greatly relieved of procurement has been funded. HF beyond-line-of-sight
my anxiety when I soon knew that all radio equipment and tactical systems communications quickly and
had performed as planned." have become a combat user and not a cheaply, since all required equipment
Beverage, later received a letter Signal Corps responsibility. already exists including the MSE
from Gen. Brereton, Commander of Untrained users of HF radio tend to facility into which the equipment
9th AF, which read "It is my desire to use only the vertical whip antennas must be installed. This improvement
officially command Dr. H. H. that come with their equipment and will then make MSE more capable of
Beverage of the USSTAF for service then stop when they are unsuccessful supporting the AirLand Battle
performed for the 9th AF during the in operating over wide areas or long concept expressed in our doctrine.
period 20 May 1944 to 16 June 1944. ranges. The present HF radio It is also time for the Signal
Beverage furnished invaluable situation in the Army has many Corps and the Army to re-examine
technical advice and assistance in the parallels to the poor situation that the wisdom of removing HF radio
establishment of 9th AF radio existed in Europe prior to the arrival teletype from the Signal battalions.
systems utilized in the initial stages of Beverage. Let's hope that we don't This action has severely reduced the
of the invasion of the Continent. As a have to learn D-Day's lesson over Army's beyond-line-of-sight tactical
result of this work, NO technical again. communications capability and its
failures in the cross-channel radio Signal officers, particularly those ability to fight AirLand Battle. It has
circuits were experienced. Such an who are assigned as corps and also removed one important means
achievement would not have been division Signal officers and assistant presently in extensive use for
possible without his help." corps and division Signal officers as interoperation with allied forces. We
Such a lesson should not be lost well as Signal officers assigned to must, in my opinion, retain a
on modern Signal soldiers and brigade and battalion staffs must be minimum number of HF radio
Marines. The D-Day invasion, which acutely aware of the application of teletype assemblies in each division
was the largest, most critical HF radio and antenna techniques now and corps Signal battalion sufficient
operation of its type ever conducted that the vast majority of HF to service the major elements of the
in the history of warfare, could not equipment resides outside of the divisions and corps when they are
have succeeded without the Signal battalions and within the units located beyond-line-of-sight and also
necessary close air support provided of other (non-Signal) branches. It is to serve the allied interface function.
by the greatest tactical air force ever the heavy responsibility of these To do this, the existing facilities
assembled. This air support would officers to assure that the proper should be reequipped with modem
not have been possible without NVIS frequency assignments and antenna reliable HF radios, and MODEMS
communications. techniques are employed and that the capable of error detection and
non-Signal battalion personnel correction. In addition, meteor scatter

and SATCOM capabilities should be Corps has learned the lessons of D- The Longest Day, June 6th, 1944
added to the facility as well as an Day. by Cornelius Ryan.
MSE interface so that a "triple threat" State of the Signal Regiment
capability exists for accomplishment References Information Papers, 17th Annual Signal
Conference, December 5-8, 1989.
of the beyond-line-of-sight Genius at Riverhead, a Profile of
communications mission. Harold H. Beverage by Alberta I.
When this is accomplished, then Wallen.
we can truly say, that the Signal

AC articles pave way
15: MARINE TESTS PROVE FIEDLER'S

NVIS CONCLUSIONS
Lt. Col. David M. Fiedler, NJARNG
There is a place in our
architecture for all
means of
transmission, and to
remove a proven,
quickly emplaced,
highly reliable, and
highly survivable
means of tactical
communications
instead of improving it
is a big mistake, which
must be stopped.
For many years, our colleagues

in the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC)
have faced communication problems
identical to Army and Army National
Guard communicators trying to
communicate over corps size areas
without gaps in communications
coverage. In Marine Corps
operations, the transmission ranges
required to communicate between the
landing beaches and the forward line
of troops often can exceed 100
nautical miles with critical units
spread throughout this entire area. Figure 1. Area of test operations.
Because of this Beyond Line of articles about NVIS HF Skywave ARMY COMMUNICATOR (AC)
Sight (BLOS) requirement and a Beyond Line of Sight Fall 1983, Spring 1986,
decided lack of SATCOM assets, my Communications published in the Winter/Spring 1987, Fall 1987, and

(AN/GRA-50 type) half wave dipole
antennas at heights approaching .25
wavelength at the operating
frequencies. Frequency assignments
were made carefully in order to
assure that the radio signals would be
reflected by the ionosphere, since
signals with frequencies higher than
the so called critical frequency
penetrate the ionosphere and are not
returned to the earth (see AC Fall
1983).
Mobile stations used the standard
32-foot whip antenna (AT-1011) bent
90 degrees by using a whip tilt
adaptor, designed by Allan
Christianson (USAF ret.) now of
ASC, LTD, O'Fallon, Illinois, and
recommended in my AC Spring 1989
Figure 2. Mobile antenna configurations using AN/MRC-138
paper (see Figure 2). A second option
Spring 1989, sparked a great deal of Grove, NC (22 miles), Norfolk, VA was a 32-foot wire to simulate the
interest among USMC (167 miles), and Beaufort, SC (244 AT- 1011. Circuit reliability was
communicators. miles). Two mobile stations calculated based on a voice
In the Spring and Summer of consisting of standard AN/GRC-193 communications check made every
1988, units of the Fleet Marine Force radio sets mounted on HMMWVs 15 minutes during the test period (48
Atlantic (FMF Lant) conducted two (AN/MRC-138s) were moved hours). The results were:
separate large scale communications
exercises in order to evaluate my
conclusions about the suitability of
NVIS techniques for employment in
beach heads, landing zones and other
USMC areas of operations using
standard HF radios with fixed and
mobile antennas specifically through the test area at all ranges and Two mobile stations (see Figure
designed to achieve NVIS effects. azimuths in order to confirm my 2) traveled north and south of Camp
cThe results of this effort were assertion (see AC Spring 1986) that Lejeune and stopped every 25 miles.
published in the Marine Corps no skip zone existed when using Using either the 32 foot bent whip or
Gazette in March 1989, and in a NVIS techniques. AN/PRC-104 20 the 32 foot wire produced identical
Marine Corps test report in June watt manpack radios were also used circuit reliability results-to the fixed
1989. The test was conducted over to confirm operational findings using station test over the many stops and
the area shown in Figure 1 in a hub low power (see AC Spring 1989). All checks that were conducted in the
spoke configuration by personnel of fixed stations used standard operational area. The results were:
the 8th (USMC) Communications
Battalion under the direction of Lt.
Col. Tilden V. Click (USMC) and 1st
Lt. Mark W. McCadden (USMC).
The hub of the configuration was at
Camp Lejeune, NC, without stations
at Cherry Point, NC (30 miles), Oak

Figure 3. Inverted "L" antenna
After the fixed and mobile tests 193 produced identical operational AN/GRA-50 antenna kit or any
were completed, a test was conducted results for this test. ordinary wire and insulators as
to confirm that the outstanding test As a check against the results of required. The "inverted L" fixed
results were indeed the result of this test which confirmed tests station results over the test period (72
NVIS propagation. For this test, previously conducted by troops of the hours) were:
AN/PRC-104 low power (20 watts)
manpack radios with standard 10-
foot vertical whip antennas were
employed at Camp Lejeune.
Attempts to contact the other stations
including Oak Grove only 22 miles New Jersey National Guard (see AC), In this test, the 32-foot vertical
away failed since the 10-foot whip the Marines of the Communications whip was connected to the radios
radiated no high angle skywave Company, Headquarters and Service (AN/GRC-193) and placed into the
energy, and the ground wave (low Battalion, 2nd Force Service Support vertical position, and no
angle) signal radiated by the 10-foot Group (FSSG) FMF Lant under the communications was achieved thus
whip was attenuated by the path Command of J. C. Fox (USMC) and providing no ground wave path
losses to the point where it was not 2nd Lt. M. S. Flannery (USMCR) existed between locations, and the
sufficient for communication at Oak conducted similar testing. In this test, above results were caused by NVIS
Grove. Once it was established that Camp Lejeune was net control with propagation.
the AN/PRC-l04 with the vertical Cherry Point, NC (30 miles), Ft. Once fixed station
whip could not communicate in the Bragg, NC (105 miles), Myrtle Beach communications were established,
net, it was then connected to the 32- AFB (116 miles), and Seymour the AN/MRC-138 with whip tilt
foot horizontal wire antenna in order Johnson AFB (57 miles) serving as adaptor (provided by AS
to produce NVIS radiation. The fixed stations. All fixed stations used Christianson Associates) was
results? Not only were "inverted L" antennas 40 feet high dispatched into the area of
communications established with and 100 feet long (see Figure 3) to operations. The whip was shortened
Oak Grove, it was established with a show that simple wire antennas such to 1/2 the 32-foot length of the
other stations in the net as well. This as dipole, "inverted V", "inverted L", antenna of the first test (16 feet) so
proved dramatically, that antenna and with good high angle radiation that a handier configuration and the
frequency rather than transmitter characteristics (NVIS) are ideal for effect of a shorter but still horizontal
power are the deciding factors when HF radio communication over antenna could be observed.
communicating via skywave on HF modern division and corps size areas. The mobile station then traveled
radio. Indeed, a radio of one All of these antennas can be throughout the area bounded by the
twentieth the power of the AN/GRC- fashioned from the standard fixed stations and made radio contact

with each fixed station approximately battlefield and is a viable method of forces with intricate high cost
every six minutes for the entire day. beyond line of sight communications. antenna arrays requiring considerable
In order to test the effects on the What have we learned from the areas for antenna deployment, I say
ionosphere of the time of day, night USMC tests? I think we have proven the Marines have proved that our
tests were conducted after proper the following in the field which is current modern standard HF radio
frequency adjustments had been where it counts: and antenna systems can cover
made by driving the mobile station to • Antenna and frequency are the greater areas, more reliability, with
Roseboro, NC, and back after dark paramount design and operational less cost under almost all conditions,
and performing communication considerations when employing when compared to these other means
checks on the same six-minute combat net radios on the battlefield of communications if you know what
schedule. (true not only for HF but all radio you are doing. I say that there is a
In order to test the effects of communications). place in our architecture for all means
antenna and vehicle orientation, a • Current family of HF radio of transmission, and to remove a
route was selected that would cause equipment. AN/GRC-193, AN/PRC- proven, quickly emplaced, highly
the mobile station to travel in a 104) are more than adequate to cover reliable, and highly survivable means
Figure 8 pattern thus presenting division and corps size areas if proper of tactical communications instead of
every possible azimuth to every fixed antennas and HF frequencies are improving it is a big mistake, which
station in the test. This single drive selected, and the equipment is used must be stopped.
took over six hours to complete. properly. To those who do not agree,
The result of all this driving? A • Simple wire antennas that can Teddy Roosevelt said it best: "Tell it
90% probability of communication be fashioned cheaply from the to the Marines."
between the fixed station and the standard AN /GRA-50 antenna kits
mobile unit with the 16-foot or plain wire are sufficient for I wish to thank the officers
horizontal whip antenna and division and corps operations. named in this article as well as 1st Lt.
AN/GRC-193 radio. Very • While at brief halts or on the Roger W. Roland (USMC) for having
impressive. These results are all the move, highly reliable faith that what I was telling them was
more impressive when one considers communications to mobile stations true and proving it. I also wish to
the high level of atmospheric noise can be achieved by simply bending thank Allan Christianson (USAF ret.)
that existed within the test area the standard vehicle whip antenna for providing valuable technical
during the tests. Heavy into a horizontal position. This can be information and prototype whip tilt
thunderstorms with considerable done with whips as short as 16 feet; adaptors at a great price (gratis).
lightning were present during the test however, longer is better. To do this,
period. Despite the lightning, the a whip tilt adaptor must be brought References
inefficient 16-foot antenna and the into the Army inventory. NVIS: "Highly Successful
inherent high noise level of the • No "skip zone" or gap in Rarely Used", U.S. Marine Corps
frequency band being used 90% communication coverage exists when Gazette, March 1989
reliability for voice communications using NVIS techniques. Test Report, "Near Vertical
was still achieved. These results far To those in the Signal Corps who Incident Skywave (NVIS) Mobile
out-perform VHF line of sight have advocated the removal of HF Communications Exercise (1500
combat net radio results when radio and HF radio teletype (RA TT) 10/OPS/R 23 Jun 89)",
operating in this type area. The from the Signal Battalion (a course Communications Company, 2nd
ranges and areas covered were many on which we are now embarked) in Force Service Support Group, Fleet
times greater than VHF-radio could favor of other forms of battlefield Marine Force Atlantic, Camp
provide, thus proving that HF NVIS tactical communications and to those Lejeune, NC 28542.
can be highly valuable on the modern who would saddle the tactical combat

16: A CLOUD WARMER ANTENNA IS BEST
FOR LOCAL HF COVERAGE
by Stanly E. Harter, KH6GBX Virtually every Amateur Radio mobile HF antenna is
There has been what can be called more than unsuitable for day-to-day tactical communications. They
somewhat mild excitement in Northern California are variously bulky, mechanically weak, won't survive
emergency communications circles over a form of high continual whacks from limbs and low overhead, look like
frequency radio propagation. It's not new, but I venture to Neptune's trident or a misshapen coat rack. They may be
say that very few have used and understood it. "It" is called fine for hobby communications but not for tactical public
NVIS - Near Vertical Incidence Skywave. safety use. In that type of service, we want one, simple
Patricia Gibbons, WA6UBE, presented a paper on antenna that is permanently installed and we don't have to
NVIS at the 1990 Pacific Division ARRL Convention in think about or fuss with again.
San Jose. It caused quite a stir. She quickly ran out of So how do we achieve NVIS? By getting those sky
handouts and has since received dozens of requests for hooks down near the ground. Let's start with the base
more. The handouts included reprints of articles from station antenna. Horizontal, of course. Dipole or long wire.
military communications magazines reporting the results Place the antenna as low as two feet above the ground but
of many tests. no higher than about thirty feet without a counterpoise.
Near vertical incidence skywave means forcing your Use an appropriate and sturdy antenna tuner; you will use
radio signals to travel straight up (i.e., 80-90 degrees) and the one antenna for all frequencies between 2-12 MHz.
back down. This achieves radio coverage in circle having A long-wire antenna is suitable in field setups but not
a radius of 300 miles and more. Stop and think about that recommended on office buildings or other urban
for a moment. Complete coverage within such a circle on environments. The reason is that unbalanced antennas
frequencies between 2 and 10 or 12 Megahertz. frequently create interference problems with telephones
Some readers may wonder what's so good about this. and other communications and electronic equipment.
So now is a good spot to say that if only DX (long These problems are substantially reduced or eliminated
distance) is your thing, skip on and read one of the other with a balanced antenna system.
fine articles in this publication. We are talking about The antenna tuner of preference is one that is
dependable local area high frequency communications - automatic. Such tuners are available now that do not
the type we need for tactical public safety communications require any control cables; they require only the coaxial
in the Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES), transmission line from the transceiver and a 12-volt DC
the Civil Air Patrol, SECURE, search and rescue, forestry, cable. The tuner is placed at the far end of the coaxial
pipeline and similar services. In tactical communications, cable. There are then two basic options: A long-wire or a
we don't want DX. balanced (dipole) antenna. The long-wire can be any
How frustrating it was in years gone by to drive away length - the longer the better, to approach the lowest
from, say, a 4585-kHz base station, only to lose a good operating frequency. A very good ground connection is
400-watt signal a mile from the transmitter! All the while necessary and often quite difficult to obtain on a rooftop.
receiving, loud and clear, a 50-watt transmitter some 200 (When we are talking about running ground connections
miles away. Very frustrating. We really didn't know why. we mean the shortest possible runs of 2- to 3- inch copper
When VHF-FM radios and repeaters came along, most of strap - never wire or braid.) For a balanced antenna, you
us retired HF mobile radios for tactical communications. can place a 4:1 balun on the output of the antenna tuner,
The reasons we haven't enjoyed good HF tactical thence to a 450-ohm feedline to the dipole antenna. Any
communications, whether AM or SSB, have been the base NVIS antenna can be enhanced with a ground along the
and mobile antennas. The classic dipoles, a quarter- to a surface that is 5% longer than the antenna and separated
half-wave up in the air. The mobile antennas, designed for by .15 wavelength at the lowest frequency to be used.
use by Amateur Radio operators, have the same general For the HF-SSB mobile radio, a sixteen-foot whip is
propagation characteristics – low take off angle for DX. probably the best. Such a whip may be both costly and

difficult to find. For NVIS, the antenna is used folded You need not be concerned over the orientation of a
down, both in motion and at rest. That's right, it is not NVIS antenna; it is omnidirectional.
released to go vertical. Most us use the heavy-duty ball Every Monday night from 7-8 p.m. we conduct a State
joint mount, heavy duty spring, and readily available 106- RACES net on 3545.5 kHz using AMTOR. One night the
inch whip. net was concluded and secured. While the hams were
To further improve the NVIS propagation at rest, the cleaning up one of them noticed that we were being called;
mobile whip is adjusted to go parallel to the ground and there it was on the screen. But it belied the loudspeaker;
away from the vehicle. A further enhancement is to there were no discernible AMTOR signals - only a high
remove the whip and run out a long-wire 30, 50, 100 feet noise level. Yet, there was that station, WA6UBE, calling
long. Patricia Gibbons carries orange traffic cones, about us at W6HIR. Yes, it was Patricia Gibbons proving a
18 inches tall, and notched at the top to lay the antenna NVIS point again. She was transmitting to us from 82
wire away from the vehicle. miles away with an antenna lying on the ground along her
The Russian military have been using NVIS antennas driveway and using 3 watts of power!
on their vehicles for quite some time. They appear to be On another statewide evening RACES net, our
about 4 meters long and about six inches above the top Monday night 8 p.m. 3952 kHz voice net, Bill Pennington,
surface of the vehicle. At least one American manufacturer WA6SLA, compared two antennas. One was a vertical and
makes a NVIS antenna for both military and civilian the other was a horizontal quite close to the ground. His
vehicles. On a van, it looks no more obtrusive than a observations were interesting and typical of NVIS
luggage rack. propagation. Almost all of the signals received on the
The automatic antenna tuner is located in the rear of vertical were higher in voltage than the NVIS antenna but,
the vehicle and as close as possible to the mobile antenna be that as it may, the signal-to-noise ratio is superior with
feed point. the NVIS antenna. The noise floor is measurably lower on
An HF-SSB mobile radio was recently installed in one the lower antenna, thereby providing better overall
of our State Office of Emergency Services trucks. The communications.
installer and the vehicle were 80 airline miles away and I heard more than one amateur say, after listening to
the time was 2 p.m. In the State SECURE (State Gibbons' NVIS presentation and subsequent
Emergency Capability Using Radio Effectively) system demonstrations, they decided to jump back into HF-SSB
this calls for using a 7 MHz channel. We established mobile radio again. These people, and I also, are interested
contact; the mobile signal was received here in primarily in the mobile tactical public safety
Sacramento at about S5 to S6. I then asked him to loosen communication applications.
the ball mount, flop the antenna down horizontal and away There is an easy method to improve the NVIS
from the truck. I could tell by the pause and tone of his radiation of your dipole antenna. Let the feed point sag
voice that he thought I had lost it. When he returned to the five to ten feet below the horizontal. This will alter the
air his signal jumped to S9. By the same token he thought radiation to improve the vertical angle to achieve an
I had cut in a linear amplifier because of the improvement approximate 2 dB improvement at no cost.
to my signal. I assured him that the improvement was due Many are excited about an old, but little understood
solely to his flopping his antenna horizontal. and practiced, means of HF radiation. If you need it, try it.
You'll like it.

17: BATTLE FORCE ELECTRONIC MAIL
An Electronic Mail System for Half-Duplex Radio Link Applications
by Terry A. Danielson
Editor's notes on ''Battle Force Electronic Mail" mail between ships Unlike most new communications
High frequency radio is commonly used for inter-ship capabilities provided to U.S. naval vessels in recent years,
communications. The usual propagation mode among this one uses high frequency radio, hence its initial name.
ships deployed over the area typically occupied by a HF e-mail. Until the LINCOLN Battle Group (BG)
carrier battle group would probably be surface wave, not deployed with HF e-mail, inter-ship communications were
NVIS. limited to teletype nets and voice circuits - none of which
Mr. Danielson's group has also deployed the system could support the computer-to-computer exchanges
described on a research submarine. It was able to necessary for conducting business in the information age.
maintain contact with its base in San Diego, including HF e-mail links the battle group with Local Area Network
Internet access, over distances exceeding a thousand (LAN)-like connectivity, even across several hundred
miles. This indicates some HF skywave propagation mode miles of ocean.
was involved. HF e-mail was born out of the Chief of Naval
Of course, how propagation occurs isn't very Operations (CNO N6) and the Space and Naval Warfare
important to the system Mr. Danielson describes. The Systems Command's (SPAWAR PMW-172) interest in
editors have included it because it illustrates the providing better inter-ship connectivity at minimal cost.
versatility and value of HF radio when used in an They, in tum, tasked the Naval Command, Control and
insightful and well executed application. Ocean Surveillance Center, RDT&E Division (NRaD), the
HF nodes are relatively easy to deploy, even under Navy's C4I Laboratory in San Diego, CA, to see if HF
emergency conditions. Care with propagation and radio could be used to accomplish the task. E-mail was
antennas results in links capable of maintaining digital chosen as the transmission medium because it is the only
communications at 4800 bps over NVIS paths. Message non-satellite medium capable of meeting the connectivity
throughput and accuracy is dramatically improved as requirements of dispersed Carrier Battle Group or
compared to combat net radio or voice message handling Amphibious Ready Group operations. A basic system
techniques. block diagram is shown in Figure 1.
The technique described provides communications The HF e-mail system provides secure, error-free
security by means of conventional KG-84C military automatic delivery of e-mail messages, and binary files
encryption equipment. With proper message handling such as images and graphics. The system is built around
discipline it is possible to use civilian encryption the Amateur Radio "JNOS" network operating software
techniques (e.g., Clipper or DES, the U.S. Federal Data which was modified by NRaD to operate at higher speeds
Encryption Standard). Properly implemented, extremely and to accommodate military crypto devices such as the
secure communications are possible. This is possible KG-84C and the KIV- 7. JNOS is a highly capable and
because of the digital nature of the messaging – flexible networking software that uses standard
comparable security is impossible with analog voice Internetworking protocols and packet transmission
techniques. (Note: The Amateur Radio Service is techniques. This MS DOS-based software is capable of
prohibited from using encryption.) supporting networks of several ships, and can serve point-
The Navy has provided a very interesting and thought- to-point links as well. The "HF e-mail" system has been
provoking example of the modern effective use of HF used operationally over UHF radio transceiver links in
radio. areas in the Middle East where surface ducting provides
long range connectivity using line-of-sight media, and has
• been successfully tested over UHF DAMA satellite and
When the ships of the ABRAHAM LINCOLN Battle VHF SINCGARS radio system as well.
Group deployed in April 1995, they departed with a new The system half-duplex protocol interface to the HF
capability for secure, error-free exchange of electronic modem is via an RS-232 synchronous serial

communications port. The crypto, if used, is inserted maritime HF SSB radio telephone (2.1 kHz) will not
between this interface and the modem. The HF support this waveform.
transmission modem selected is one of the commercially For our application, we have chosen Eudora™ for
available products which provide the single-tone serial Windows as the user "client" terminal e-mail software
waveform per MIL-STD-188-ll0A. This is presently the This is a user-friendly email program which is in
most robust high-speed waveform for the HF channel, and widespread use in business and government offices and
can support speeds up to 4.8 kbps. However, modem has an easy-to-use binary file attachment feature. The
performance becomes less robust as the user data rate is connection from Eudora to JNOS is via Ethernet, with the
increased, thus the system works best for speeds of 1.2 to simplified mail transfer protocol (SMTP) and the post
2.4 kbps. At least one vendor is working on a waveform office protocol (POP3) used to send and receive mail
capable of supporting 9.6 kbps over ground wave channels respectively. JNOS netware is based on the open system
where multipath (a skywave phenomenon) is not a factor. interconnection (OSI) model, utilizing the Internet
The system has also operated successfully with the NATO standard TCP/IP protocols.
STANAG 4285 waveform. Following closely on the LINCOLN BG success, we
The modem audio and keyline interface goes directly installed a similar system on board the USS Dolphin, a
to the radio equipment. This connection is made aboard small research submarine. This system was different
ship via patch panels and switchboards. For tactical radios because it was to provide long-range ship-to-shore
such as manpack transceivers, entry is via the handset connectivity, with direct access to the public Internet
connector. The system works over conventional single supporting academic research. To aid in establishment of
sideband (SSB) HF radios, with the only requirement long-range HF channels, we installed a radio transceiver
being reasonable phase stability and a nominal 3.0 kHz with an Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) feature
bandwidth. Narrower bandwidths such as those used for along with an email server and client terminal. An
Figure 4. Battle Force e-mail basic system shipboard block diagram.

identical system was set up at NRaD, with an e-mail for the ENTERPRISE BG and SAIPAN ARG. We
connection into a mailhome on NRaD’s LAN that anticipate outfitting of other BG's and ARG's prior to
provided the Internet access. With the simple-to-operate deployment.
HF ALE radio system, the Dolphin easily "checked her Recent RDT&E effort has resulted in a relatively
mail" two or three times a day at ranges out to 1,250 miles, simple method or providing ''hub-spoke" e-mail
without any requirement for an operator at the NRaD end, communications, whereby the smaller units in the BG or
and only minimal operator effort aboard Dolphin. As a ARG can send email to the "big deck" ship for automatic
result of this success, the Dolphin-s parent command, relay back over their SHF SATCOM links to stateside
Submarine Development Group One, has chosen to obtain parent commands via SIPRNET. Future RDT&E effort
similar HF equipment suites for several of their surface will look at establishing a bulletin board-like "electronic
support craft. These will be used where possible to reduce mailhome" on the big deck for intermittent participants
INMARSAT operating costs for e-mail service during (such as submarines attached to the BG, or MEU units on
research deployments, which has run as high as $40,000 the move). A more sophisticated routing system is
for a month at sea. currently being developed in which email and other data
Building on knowledge gained from the HF will automatically be sent via the best available path,
application, NRaD has improved the capabilities of the whether it be a high data rate UHF line-of-sight system,
software for use on other media, and has reduced the size HF if the recipient is out of UHF range over the horizon,
of the package to a single PC. This capability was or satellite links if available. We are also planning an
demonstrated during JWID-95 using an ultra-portable experimental local system that would permit ships
system intended for field use by Disaster Area operating in Southern California waters to have access to
Surveillance Teams for humanitarian relief. This set can the public Internet via a fixed-frequency station operating
operate over HF, VHF and cellular links, and can support at NRaD. This would provide ship-shore e-mail service for
standard telephone modem email protocols (such as ship's business with other commands, and possibly "sailor
TELNET, PPP, UDP and SLIP) OVER cellular or other e-mail" to families with on-line service access. Radio
full-duplex links, and common half-duplex e-mail access to this system may be expanded to include UHF
protocols (SMTP and POP) over Ethernet connections and line-of-sight and HF ALE as well.
the radio half-duplex links. A more recent version for Battle Force e-mail is the opening salvo in providing
military applications was assembled in late 1995. This more information age tools to the fleet. The ability to
system uses a single PC, KIV-7 crypto and Rockwell exchange a variety of information over HF e-mail was
MDM-3001 to form an extremely compact system. quickly recognized by Fleet operators and Marines
HF e-mail or "Battle Force e-mail" provides the fleet embarked with a MEU as a valuable asset for planning
with an inexpensive, simple method for exchanging data operations while enroute to an operational objective.
among the ships in a carrier battle group, an amphibious Battle Force e-mail, especially in its ultra- portable
ready group, or between groups of a Battle Force - a true form, potentially can be used with forward deployed
at-sea Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) capability. ground forces, onboard U.S. Air Force transport and
CNO N61 has chosen the USS BELLEAU WOOD tanker aircraft, Coast Guard vessels, and other civil and
Amphibious Ready Group (ARG) to receive an HF e-mail military users. In a test sponsored by HQAFC4A, an air-
installation in the near future, with the added requirement ground link using HF ALE radios provided near-
that a portable system be assembled for the embarked continuous public Internet e-mail access for a USAF
Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) for ashore use with transport aircraft while enroute cross-country, using the
their HF radios for an over-the-beach link back to the ARG HF ALE gateway station at NRaD. Battle Force e-mail
for e-mail data exchanges. The system on the LINCOLN will likely host the Defense Messaging system (DMS) e-
BG was cross-decked to the NIMITZ BG in Nov '95 for mail applications as a tactical terminal in the near future.
use during her deployment, and installation is in progress

18: TEST REPORT: NEAR VERTICAL
INCIDENCE SKYWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
DEMONSTRATION
June 24, 1994 This exercise was conducted during summer
conditions (June 24, 1994). During the exercise,
conditions were stable with the solar flux index at 73 and
by Edward J. Farmer, P.E.
the K-index at 0.
SFI and K-index data are computer analyzed to obtain
Overview Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) data for each hour of
High Frequency radio communications using Near the day. For this test, these data were analyzed using
Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) techniques were MINIPROP PLUS, Version 2.0. Data for Washington
demonstrated from a typical narrow mountain canyon - Canyon to OES Headquarters are shown in Table 1. Note
this one near the town of Washington which is that this table is in UTC. The test period ranged from 2200
approximately 12 miles east of Nevada City. UTC (1500 hrs. local) to 0400 (2100 hrs. local). Maximum
Communications were demonstrated with stations located usable frequency data for this path are shown in Figure 1.
at OES Headquarters in Sacramento, and with California This Figure also shows an estimate of the Frequency of
State Military Reserve (CSMR) stations in East Optimum Traffic (FOT) as well as the frequencies used
Sacramento, Vallejo, and Simi Valley. during this test.
NVIS techniques that were demonstrated included: Frequency selection depends on the time of day. In
Frequency selection in concert with propagation general, higher frequencies work better during daytime
conditions. Antenna selection and installation. Antenna because there is less noise and absorption. At night, lower
orientation (horizontal vs. vertical). frequencies work better because both the MUF and
Digital communications using the PACTOR mode absorption decrease. This was demonstrated during the
were demonstrated between Washington Canyon and OES exercise. In the afternoon, a test disclosed that propagation
Headquarters, Washington Canyon and Simi Valley, and was not possible on frequencies as high as 3343.5 kHz. In
OES Headquarters and Simi Valley. early evening propagation at that frequency improved
Reduced power operation (as little as 5 watts) was markedly and it was even possible to communicate in the
successfully demonstrated. medium frequency band at 2490.5 kHz.
All results were as anticipated and were consistent
with NVIS principles.
Antenna selection
Four antenna situations were used at the field site
Operational Factors during this test.
The primary antenna was an approximately resonant
Frequency selection half-wave tape dipole. The center was approximately 30
In NVIS applications, frequency selection is feet above ground and the ends were approximately 20 feet
determined by solar activity (measured by the solar flux above ground. It was fed with 75 feet of RG-58 coaxial
index or SFI) and by geomagnetic activity (categorized by cable. All operation on this antenna used an ICOM IC-735
the geomagnetic activity indices, mainly the Boulder K 100-watt transceiver with an MFJ mobile antenna tuner.
index). Solar flux depends on the 11-year sunspot cycle The second, third, and fourth antennas were used in
and can range from about 65 to over 200 with higher conjunction with an AN/PRC-47 transceiver in order to
numbers being better for radio propagation. The Boulder demonstrate mobile operation. The radio was located on
K index ranges from 0 to 9 with conditions being best at top of a Jeep Cherokee. A ground reference was provided
0. For a complete explanation of frequency selection by draping four counterpoise wires over the vehicle.
criteria, see Reference 1.

and weak but readable at Washington Canyon. The East
Sacramento station had antenna limitations which effected
its operation during the entire test.
At 1510 hrs. Washington Canyon operation was
shifted to the IC-735 with dipole antenna. OES indicated
this contact was CM5 when the field unit was running 100
watts and CM3 with the field unit running 5 watts.
At 1514 hrs. operation was tested at 4518.5 kHz. OES
reported that both the field unit and East Sacramento were
CM1.
At 1516 hrs. operation was shifted to 3343.5 kHz.
There were no contacts among the stations.
At 1531 hrs. operation returned to 5126.0 kHz. The
Figure 1. Propagation conditions
AN/PRC-4 7 was operated with the whip antenna in both
The second antenna was a 15-foot whip in an the horizontal and vertical positions. With the antenna
approximately horizontal position. The radio was inclined horizontal OES reported CMl. With the antenna vertical
somewhat, placing the antenna's angle of departure at OES reported CMO. A standard PRC-47 long-wire
about 30 degrees. In this configuration, the tip of the whip antenna (45 feet) was rigged approximately 4 feet above
was about 3 feet above the earth. ground. OES reported CM2.
The third antenna used the same radio, location, and Between 1600 and 1930 hours several PACTOR links
counterpoise, however the antenna was in the vertical were attempted. There were some equipment and
position. operational difficulties. At the completion of this work
The fourth antenna used the same radio, location, and Washington Canyon and OES had linked and passed data,
counterpoise, however the antenna was a 45-foot long- Washington Canyon and Simi Valley (03C5) had linked
wire which was run through some bushes and was about 3 and passed data, and Simi Valley and OES had linked and
to 4 feet above earth. passed data. It was possible to maintain a link at power
levels as low as 2 watts at Simi Valley and 5 watts at
Procedure Washington Canyon.
See the "Operation Plan" in Appendix A. This plan At 1930 hrs. another set of frequency excursion
was implemented as drafted except Ron Fisher, KE6FIN, experiments was initiated. The frequencies used included
replaced Bill Spicer, KN6MU. The field team was 5126.0 kHz, 4518.5 kHz, 3343.5 kHz, and 2490.5 kHz.
augmented by Dick Philo, KB6ZCU. The solar flux index The results were:
was 73 instead of 72. All stations could communicate on 5126.0. kHz. In the
The field team departed Sacramento at 1200 hrs post-test analysis for this series of frequency changes, East
(local) as planned and arrived on site in Washington Sacramento and OES felt this was the best operating
Canyon at 1400 hrs. The AN/ PRC-4 7 was set up and the frequency.
dipole antenna was erected. Both radios were ready for All stations could communicate on 4518.5 kHz. In the
operation by 1500 hrs. post-test analysis Vallejo (Y2L3) felt this was the best
OES Headquarters kept a log of events and signal operating frequency.
strengths as monitored by and reported to them. This log East Sacramento was unable to operate at 3343.5 kHz.
is in Appendix C. Vallejo had difficulty loading the antenna but could be
At 1500 hrs. Washington Canyon (Y2L30), made heard. In the post-test analysis Simi Valley felt this was
initial contact with OES Headquarters on 5126.0 kHz the best operating frequency.
using the AN/PRC-47 with the whip antenna in the The Washington Canyon unit, OES, and Simi Valley
horizontal position. were able to make contact and communicate on 2490.5
OES indicated the field unit's signal was Circuit Merit kHz. While communication was not difficult, this
(CM) 3. See Appendix B for a description of the Circuit frequency was not as good as the others. Since the sun had
Merit system. Contact was attempted with East not yet set, this result was expected. This frequency would
Sacramento (Y2L 7). That station was unreadable at OES

have become progressively better as the sun went down, with prevailing propagation conditions and NVIS
thus decreasing absorption. communication practices.
The operation was secured at 2027 hrs. The
Washington Canyon field unit returned to Sacramento. Participants
Field Unit; call sign Y2L30; Washington Canyon
Discussion of Results Edward J. Farmer, P.E., AA6ZM; 'lest coordinator
All results were substantially as expected. In general, Richard A Philo, KB6ZCU
frequencies near the MUF worked better than lower Ron Fisher, KE6FIN (CDF VIP)
frequencies. Frequencies near the MUF worked very well. OES Headquarters; call sign "OES Headquarters";
Lower frequencies became serviceable as the sun went 2800 Meadowview Road, Sacramento
down. Stanly E. Harter, ACS/RACES Coordinator
In the mobile unit tests, the performance of the Les Ballinger
horizontal whip was better than the vertical whip. The long CSMR Unit 03C5; Simi Valley, California
wire, even though it was strung through bushes at a height Major Steven P. Hall, CSMR
of about 3 feet, performed quite well - significantly better CSMR Unit Y2L3; Vallejo, California
than either of the two whip antenna orientations. CWO Roger Leone, CSMR
Propagation conditions during the test were CSMR Unit Y2L7; East Sacramento, California
representative of summer conditions during the low 1SGT Ronald Fiskum, CSMR
portion of the 11-year sunspot cycle. At 73, the SFI was
low, but not as low as it can be. While a lower SFI would Observer
have had a negative impact on the test it would not have Fire Captain Specialist Charlie Jakobs, California
been remarkable. The geomagnetic activity index (the Department of Forestry.
Boulder K-index) was very low and this contributed to the
excellent results. As the K-index increases, propagation References:
becomes more uncertain. Under worst case conditions [1] Farmer, Edward J.; "NVIS Propagation at Low
(e.g., K = 9) frequency selection would have been limited, Solar Flux Indices"; Army Communicator magazine;
especially late at night Spring 1994; Ft. Gordon, GA.
This exercise was successful because propagation [2] Shallon, Sheldon C.; MINIPROP PLUS computer
conditions were properly considered. Operating program and user manual; 1993; Los Angeles.
frequencies and antenna types were selected in accordance

Appendix A
Operation Plan Based on conditions reported for the 12 hours
OES I CDF NVIS Demonstration preceding 0900 hrs. (local) 23 June 1994, the following
June 24, 1994 conditions are expected during the test period: SFI = 72;
Mission K-Index= 0
Demonstrate the feasibility of NVIS techniques for Figure 1 illustrates the propagation conditions
providing communication from narrow mountain expected. Table 1 provides path probabilities. Note that
canyons. the time index for Table 1 is UTC. UTC is PDT plus 7
Participants: hours. Table 1 was computed for Sacramento-Stockton
California State Governor's Office of Emergency but is valid for all paths of approximately that length
Services (OES) (72 km) or longer.
2800 Meadowview Road
Sacramento, CA 95832 Mobilization Procedure
The field unit will mobilize at 1200 hrs (local) in
California Division of Forestry (CDF) Sacramento.
The field unit will travel to Nevada City where it
California State Military Department will coordinate with an OES/CDF unit (Bill Spicer,
State Military Reserve Stations KN6MU) on VHF using the Amateur Radio repeater on
Y2L30 The field unit 146.625(-) PL151.4 which is located in Grass Valley.
Y2L3 Vallejo When the units are in proximity they will switch to
Y2L 7 East Sacramento Simplex operation on 144.120. If that frequency is not
03C5 Simi Valley available they will switch to 144.140.
The units will rendezvous on Hwy 20 at the
Propagation Conditions Washington turn-off (approximately 12 miles east of
Figure 1. Propagation Conditions

Nevada City) and will proceed into Washington If a base station with PACTOR capability is
Canyon. available a PACTOR link will be attempted. During the
A suitable site in Washington Canyon will be PACTOR experiment an effort will be made to
selected and field-expedient HF antennas will be determine the lowest transmitter powers at which the
erected. It is intended that the field unit will be on the link can be reliably maintained.
air by 1500 hrs. (local). The field station will secure on or about 2100 hrs.
(local) and will return to Sacramento.
Operating Plan Directory:
To establish initial contact the field unit will call Test Coordinator: Ed Farmer
"Y2L" and "OES Headquarters" on the following Amateur Call: AA6ZM
schedule: Military Call: Y2L30
1500 hrs. 5126.0 kHz USB Home Telephone: (916) 393-4066
1510 hrs. 4518.5 kHz USB Office Telephone: (916) 443-8842
1520 hrs. 3343.5 kHz USB Office FAX: (916) 443-3759
1530 hrs. 5126.0 kHz USB Cellular Telephone: (916) 956-8847
1540 hrs. 4518.5 kHz USB
1550 hrs. 3343.5 kHz USB State OES: Stan Harter, Les Balinger
Military Call: "OES Headquarters"
If contact is not made this same procedure will be Telephone: (916) 262-1603
repeated each hour until 2100 hrs. FAX: (916) 262-1677
If connection is made Y2L7, or the base station with
the best signal, will assume net control duties. The net OES/CDF Field Coordinator: Bill Spicer
will select the optimum operating frequency and Amateur Call: KN6MU
establish normal net operations. Telephone: (916) 288-0312
Operation with the field unit using a vehicular-
mounted horizontal whip antenna will be tested.
Appendix B
High-Frequency SSB Signal Report System
by Circuit Merit
The Circuit Merit system is used by telephone and HF- Breaks squelch. We deem this to be the margin of acceptable
SSB radio professionals. The old R-S-T system of reporting voice communications.
in Amateur Radio is vague, inaccurate and complicated. The CM2 - Static and interference very prevalent. Words are
use of circuit merit better quantifies the quality of a voice missed. Retransmissions are necessary. Won't break squelch
signal. Be honest in your reports and report only the average or squelch is intermittent. This not an acceptable
of communications exchange. communications circuit and a new frequency must be
CM5 - Completely clear with broadcast quality. Each selected.
word fully understood. No objectionable interference or CMl - You can tell only that someone is there but the
noise. Always breaks squelch*. This designation is seldom signal is barely evident and words are unintelligible. Will not
earned. Conditions must be superb. break squelch. This is not an acceptable communications
CM4 - Clear with a slight amount of static and/or circuit and a new frequency must be selected.
interference. Each word is understood. Always breaks CM0 -Absolutely no signal is detectable.
squelch. The most common report for solid voice * A syllabic-derived SINAD squelch designed for High
communications and very good conditions. Frequency Single-Sideband radio receivers.
CM3 - Static and/or interference is present. Bulk of
transmissions are understood without having to be repeated.

Appendix C


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Near Vertical Incidence Skywave Communication

Theory, Techniques, and Validation

Copyright October, 1996

Second printing, August 2000

LTC David M. Fiedler

MAJ Edward J. Farm.er, P.E.

PART ONE. How and Why NVIS Works

Chapter 1 Beyond Line-of-Sight Propagation and Antennas – 10

PART TWO. How to do it

Chapter 5 The HF NVIS Radio Path – 46

PART THREE. Yes, it works!

Chapter 14 NVIS a Key to D-Day Success – 124

Band Frequency Range Bandwidth (MHz)

HOW AND WHY NVIS WORKS

1. Beyond Line-of-Sight Propagation and Antennas by LTC David

Figure 6 - Shirley and Fan Dipole NVIS Base Station Antennas.

Current doctrine is wrong.

For example, if our operating

7. Mount the antenna at or near this

Near-Vertical Incidence Sky- ionosphere will reflect at that location

NVIS antenna fundamentals

This is the second Near vertical incidence sky wave

article deals with

Figure 2 – Transmission line loss.

Figure 3 – Antenna gain versus mounting height.

antenna is to be operated over a range

[1] US Army Field Manual, FM

Figure 5c. Stanford Research Institute (SRI) design "Spider Web"

considering all the specific constraints. In this modern age, the

Near-vertical-incidence skywave (NVIS)

*No unit that I know of except the New

Mobile NVIS: the New Jersey Army National

Figure 2. Series AV-600 NVIS antenna installed on Army UH-1

In summary, vehicular, low power In addition to these techniques, a

Figure 1. Cut 1/2 λ dipole at various heights over perfect ground.

Figure 3. Typical. vertical. radiation

How to survive long range

Out station to base calculations

transmitter power = 20 watts = +43dB

free space path loss = 110dB (approximate)

subsurface antenna loss = 20dB (approximate)

total path loss (out station to base) = 87dB

receiver sensitivity = 110dB

signal to noise ratio required at receiver = 10dB above noise

communications margin (gains less losses) 100dB - 87dB = 13dB (approximate)

AS-2259/GR elements of two different lengths which double as

Figure 6. Performance of ten NVIS antennas at 5 MHz

While the vertical gain is about 4 dB less than the

End-Fed Terminated Wire (EFTW)

Section I. Requirement and Function

Figure 3-1. Simple radio communications network.

Section II. Characteristics

3-4. Electromagnetic Radiation

Figure 3-2. Components of electromagnetic waves.

Figure 3-3. Solid radiation patterns from quarter-wave, half-wave,

Figure 3-4. Vertically polarized signal.

Figure 3-5. Horizontally polarized signal.

100 NVIS Communication

Figure 3-6. Circular polarized wave.

Advantages of Vertical Polarization.