YEAR 10 CHEMISTRY

Periodic Table Review

Element Symbols
• Scientists use symbols to represent the names of different elements.
• Element symbols consist of one or two letters.
• The first letter is always a capital, and if there is a second letter it is always in
lower case.
Structure of the Periodic Table
• Elements are arranged in rows and columns.
• The horizontal rows are called periods.
• Each period is given a number, starting from the top.
Structure of the Periodic Table
• Elements are arranged in rows and columns.
• The vertical columns are called groups.
• Each group is given a number, starting from the left.
Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
• Metals are found on the left side of the periodic table.
• Non-metals are found on the right side of the periodic table.
• Metalloids are found in a staircase shape between the metals and the non-metals.
Metals form approximately 75 % of the periodic table.
• Group 1 (also known as alkali metals) have low melting points, are soft and very
reactive.
• Group 2 (also known as alkaline earth metals) are relatively soft and reactive.
• Groups 3 to 12 are the transition metals. Many can form coloured compounds
and some are magnetic. The only metals not silver in colour are copper (Cu) and
gold (Au).
Metal Reactivity
• Some metals are more reactive than others.
• Metals become more reactive moving down a group and to the left of the periodic
table.

Non-metals
While only 18 elements are considered to be non-metals, they make up most of the crust
and atmosphere of Earth, as well as all living organisms.
• Group 17 (also known as halogens) have seven valence electrons, only group to
contain gases, a liquid (Bromine) and solids.
• Group 18 (also known as noble gases) are all gases and have a full valence shell,
so are very unreactive.
Metalloids
• A small number of elements along the diagonal boundary between metals and
non-metals.
• They have properties of both metals and non metals.
Collision Theory and Reaction Rates
Chemical Reactions
• Chemical reactions involve breaking bonds in the reactants and forming new
bonds in the products.
• Reactions involve a chemical change and yield one or more products, with different
properties to the reactants.
Collision Theory
• For particles to react, three things need to happen:
1. Particles must collide.
2. The collisions must have enough energy to break old bonds and form
new ones.
3. Particles must collide in the correct orientation for particles to
rearrange and make new compounds.
Collision Theory
• When substances are mixed, a chemical reaction sometimes occurs when the
particles collide.
• Not every collision result in a reaction.
Reaction Rate
• How fast a chemical reaction occurs is called the reaction rate.
• Some chemical reactions happen quickly, like explosions, welding, burning gas or
fireworks – they have a fast reaction rate.
• Some chemical reactions proceed slowly, like metal rusting, fruit ripening and
organic materials decaying – they have a slow reaction rate.

Controlling the Rate of Chemical Reactions

• There are five main factors that affect the rate of reaction.
• They are:
• Surface area of reactants
• Temperature of reactants
• Concentration of reactants
• Action of a catalyst
• Nature of reactants
• These factors can increase or decrease the number of collision per
unit of time, and therefore increase or decrease the rate of reaction.
Surface Area of Reactants
• The greater the surface area exposed in a reaction, the greater the number of
collisions.
• More collisions means there is a greater likelihood of a successful collision – so
faster reaction rate.
• For example, it is a lot quicker to cook potatoes if they are cut into smaller pieces,
than if they are whole.
• There is more surface exposed in smaller pieces.

Temperature of Reactants
• Increasing the temperature of the reactants causes an increase in the average
kinetic energy of the particles.
• This affects the reaction rate in two ways:
• More particles have enough energy to react.
• More collisions occur since the reactant particles are moving faster.
• People often put glow sticks in the fridge or freezer to make them last
longer. The decrease in temperature slows down the reaction rate.

Concentration of Reactants
• If the concentration of reactants is increased, there will be more frequent collisions
between the particles.
• If the particles collide more often, there will be a greater likelihood of a successful
collision.
Action of a Catalyst
• A catalyst is a substance that increases the reaction rate, but is not consumed in
the reaction.
• A catalyst provides the reactants with an alternative pathway that needs less
energy.
• More collisions will have enough energy to react.
• There are catalysts in your digestive system called enzymes.
• The enzymes increase the rate at which your food is digested.

Action of a Catalyst
• Hydrogen peroxide (used to bleach hair) decomposes slowly into water and
oxygen.
• 2 H2O2  2 H2O + O2
• Potassium iodide can be used to speed up this process.
• This reaction is often called Elephant’s Toothpaste.
Nature of Reactants
• The state of matter of the reactants can affect the speed of a reaction.
• Liquids will often react more quickly than solids.
• The particles in the liquid are able to move more freely than those in a solid,
colliding more frequently.
• Reactions involving substances dissolved in a solution will be fast.
• The particles are free to move within the liquid and will collide more frequently.
Structure of the Atom
Where are the sub-atomic particles located?
• Protons and neutrons are tightly packed in the nucleus of an atom.
• Electrons are moving in regions of space around the nucleus.
• It is not possible to say exactly where an electron is and how fast it is moving.
• Instead we describe a region of space where an electron is likely to be – this is
called an ELECTRON CLOUD.
• Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons as protons.
• Atoms usually have about as many neutrons as protons.
• Adding a proton makes a new kind of atom.
• Adding a neutron makes an isotope of that atom, a heavier version of that atom.

• Atomic Number is the number of protons in an element and also electrons in a

neutral atom of the element.
• Atomic Mass is the number of protons and neutrons added together in an isotope
of an element.
Isotopes
• Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons are
called isotopes.
• Isotopes are named by their mass number as they have a different mass (because
of the different number of neutrons they contain

All carbon atoms have 6 protons.

C-12 has 6 neutrons
C-13 has 7 neutrons
C-14 has 8 neutrons

Atomic Mass and the Periodic Table

• The atomic masses of most elements on the periodic table are not whole numbers.
• This is because the masses are a weighted average of all the isotopes of that
element
Electron Configuration and Electron Dot Diagrams
• Although scientists cannot say exactly where an electron is and how fast it is
travelling, they can determine the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus.
• The electrons occupy energy levels.
• A simple model that shows how electrons exist in atoms is shown below for an
atom of calcium.

2,8,18,32
• An abbreviated way of writing this electron structure for calcium would be: 2, 8,
8, 2
• This is called its electron configuration.
• Electrons can only be in an energy level if they have the correct amount of energy.
• Energy levels can contain sub-levels called orbitals.
• An orbital can contain a maximum of two electrons.
• In energy level diagrams, the electrons are drawn in pairs, showing they occupy
the same orbital. This is only done if an energy level contains more than 4
electrons.
Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table
• An element’s position can tell its electron configuration.
• The row number (from top to bottom) is the period.
• The period number indicates the number energy levels.
• For example, period 2 elements have 2 energy levels and period 6 elements have 6
energy levels.
• The column number (from left to right) is the group.
• The group number indicates the number of valence electrons.
• For example, group 2 elements have 2 valence electrons, group 14 elements have 4
valence electrons and group 17 elements have 7.
• An element’s chemical properties are controlled by its valence electrons.
• Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties because they have
the same number of valence electrons.

Electron Dot Diagrams

• Sometimes we only want to show the valence electrons, as these are the electrons
involved in chemical reactions.
• This is done with an electron dot diagram.
• Electron dot diagrams show the electrons in the outermost energy level.
• The number of electrons to draw can be identified using the group number from
the periodic table.
• Aluminium is in group 13, so it has 3 valence electrons.
• These are drawn as dots around the element symbol.

Aℓ
Rules for electron dot diagrams
1. Electrons are represented by a dot
2. Electrons are placed in 4 regions (orbitals) around the symbol for the element with
a maximum of 2 electrons in each orbital.
3. Maximum number of 8 valence electrons in the outermost energy level.

• The number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in an element relates to

properties of the element.
• The different properties of elements determine how they are used.
• The valence electrons in atoms determine their chemical properties and how they
react with other elements.
• Electron dot diagrams are a simple way to show an atom’s valence electrons and
can be used to show how atoms bond together to form compounds.
Excited Electrons
• In an atom, the electrons are found in specific areas around the nucleus called
electron shells.
• When energy (often thermal or electrical) is added to the atom, the electrons in the
outermost shell can jump to a shell further away from the nucleus.
• When an electron has jumped to a higher electron shell, it is called an excited
electron.
• Excited electrons eventually drop back to their original shell.
• When they do this, the extra energy is emitted as light (a photon).

Colours of Light Emitted

• The colour of light emitted changes depending on the element and can be used to
identify different elements.
• For example, compounds containing sodium will produce a yellow colour, whereas
potassium produces a pale purple
• The colours emitted by different compounds can be used to help identify the
metallic element in the compound.
• Each element emits a unique combination of colours, which can be analysed to
determine the element.
Ions and Valency
Group 18 – The noble gases: Chemistry’s role models
• The noble gases are very unreactive, they are inert gases.
• Their electron configuration is the reason why noble gases are inert.
He 2
Ne 2 8
Ar 2 8 8
Kr 2 8 18 8
Xe 2 8 18 18 8
Rn 2 8 18 18 32 8
• All noble gases have 8 electrons in their outer energy level, with the exception of
helium which has only 2 electrons.
• This make the noble gases very stable and unreactive.
• In a chemical reaction, the valence electrons of atoms interact.
• Electrons are shared or exchanged during the reaction.
• At the end of the reaction, atoms have the same electron configuration as the
noble gas with the closest atomic number.
• Most elements react to get 8 electrons in their outermost energy level.
• Fluorine has 7 valence electrons, so it will gain one more to have 8 electrons in the
outermost energy level.
• Depending on which makes the least change to the atom, atoms either:
• gain electrons to fill their valence energy level or
• lose electrons to empty their valence energy level
• If an atom already has a full valence energy level, it
does not gain or lose electrons.
• Atoms which have gained or lost electrons are called ions.
• They are no longer neutral – they have become charged.
Positive Ions
• Positive ions form when atoms lose electrons.
• The number of electrons lost gives the amount of positive charge.
• The charge is written at the top right of the symbol.

Electron configuration of sodium: 2, 8, 1

Sodium loses 1 valence electron to another element.
A sodium ion has the same electron configuration as neon (2, 8) – the nearest noble
gas.
When sodium loses 1 electron, its overall charge becomes +1

Na
+
Positive Ions. Examples:
• Al3+ : an aluminium ion forms when an aluminium atom loses its 3 valence
electrons
• Li+ : a lithium ion forms when a lithium atom loses its 1 valence
electron
• Ca2+ : a calcium ion forms when a calcium atom loses its 2 valence
electrons
Negative Ions
• Negative ions form when atoms gain electrons.
• The number of electrons gained gives the amount of negative charge.
• The charge is written at the top right of the symbol.

Electron configuration of oxygen: 2, 6

Oxygen gains 2 valence electrons from another element.
An oxide ion has the same electron configuration as neon (2, 8) – the nearest
noble gas.
When oxygen gains 2 electrons, its overall charge becomes -2.

O -
2

Negative Ions. Examples

• F- : a fluoride ion forms when a fluorine atom gains 1 valence electron
• P3- : a phosphide ion forms when a phosphorus atom gains 3 valence electrons
• S2- : a sulfide ion forms when a sulfur atom gains 2 valence electrons

The periodic table is divided into metal and non-metal elements.

Metal elements tend to form positive ions.
Non-metal elements tend to form negative ions.
Important points about Ions:
i. Ions have a charge because the number of electrons and protons are no longer
equal.
ii. Metal ions keep the name of the metal atom.
iii. For non-metal atoms, the end of the name changes to “ide”. i.e. fluorine becomes
fluoride
iv. The charge on an ion is called its valency.
v. Some metals can have different valencies. When naming the ion, the valency is
written as roman numerals in brackets after the element name i.e. Fe2+ is Iron (II)
and Fe3+ is Iron (III)
vi. Ions never occur alone in a substance. In any substance containing ions, the total
positive charge always equals the total negative charge so that the substance is
neutral.
Periodic Table Trends

 The Periodic Table is a chart of all of the elements known.

 They are arranged in 18 groups (columns) and several periods (rows).
 Most of the elements are metals and exist as solids, except mercury.
 The remainder of the Periodic Table are non-metals and many of these exist as
gases at room temperature, for example oxygen and nitrogen.
 There are some non-metals such as silicon (Si) that are called metalloids. They are
non-metals, which have some of the same properties as metals.

Metals form approximately 75 % of the periodic table.

• Group 1 (also known as alkali metals) have one valence electron, low melting
points, soft and very reactive.
• Group 2 (also known as alkaline earth metals) have two valence electrons, are
relatively soft and reactive.
• Groups 3 to 12 are the transition metals. Many form more than one ion, they
have coloured compounds, some are magnetic, and copper (Cu) and gold (Au) are
not silver in colour.
Non-metals
While only 18 elements are considered to be non-metals, they make up most of the crust
and atmosphere of Earth, as well as all living organisms.
• Group 17 (also known as halogens) have seven valence electrons, only group to
contain gases, a liquid (Bromine) and solids.
• Group 18 (also known as noble gases) are all gases and have a full valence shell,
so are very unreactive.
Metalloids
• A small number of elements along the diagonal boundary between metals and
non-metals.
• They have properties of both metals and non metals.

Trends in the Periodic Table - Atomic size

• An atom’s size is measured using the diameter of the atom
• Atomic size increases from top to bottom of a group. A new energy level is added
going down the group, making the atoms larger.
• Atomic size decreases from left to right of a period. The electrons are pulled in
more tightly as the number of positive protons in the nucleus increases.
Trends in the Periodic Table - Reactivity
• Some elements are more reactive than others.
• Metals become more reactive moving down a group and left across a period.
• Larger atoms lose electrons more easily, so they are more reactive
• Non-metals become more reactive moving up a group and right across a period.
• Smaller atoms attract electrons more easily, so they are more reactive.
TYPES OF BONDING
Types of Bonding
• Elements react with each other to obtain the same electron configuration as a
noble gas, becoming more stable.
• Reactions involve the valence electrons of the elements interacting.
• When the valence electrons of atoms interact, it causes atoms to join together and
a chemical bond is formed.
There are three bonding types:
 Metallic bonding in substances composed of metals only
 Ionic bonding in substances composed of metals and non-metals
 Covalent bonding in substances composed of non-metals only

Types of Bonding – Metallic bonding

• Metal atoms have a weak hold on their valence electrons.
• The valence electrons are free to move throughout the metal without being bound
to one particular atom.
• The electrons are ‘shared’ by the metal atoms and are called delocalised
electrons.
 Types of Bonding – Covalent bonding
• Non-metal atoms bond to other non-metal atoms by sharing valence
electrons.
• Electrons are shared so that the valence shell of each atom is full.
• Hydrogen atoms have one valence electron.
• Two hydrogen atoms form a bond by sharing their electrons, so they both have two
electrons, filling their valence energy levels.
Covalent bonds are found in most small molecules, for example water, carbon
dioxide and oxygen

Types of Bonding – Ionic bonding

• Ionic bonds form when a metal atom transfers its valence electrons to non-metal
atoms.
• The metal becomes positively charged and the non-metal becomes negatively
charged.
• An ionic bond forms from the electrostatic attraction between the oppositely
charged ions.
• Each ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, building up a 3-D
structure called a lattice.
You will need to take notes on:
• how each type of bond is formed
• The properties of each type of bond
• An explanation of each property

Properties of Metallic Bonds

• Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat. The
delocalised electrons carry a charge and are able to move
through the metal.
• Metals are malleable (can be bent or reshaped). The
delocalised forces of attraction in the lattice means that
when the metals are hit with a hammer they will bend
without breaking. The lattice structure can adapt to a new shape.
• A lot of energy is required to melt metals and overcome the strong force of
attraction between the positive metal atoms and the delocalised electrons. This
means that metals have high melting and boiling points.
Properties of Covalent Bonds
• Covalent substances are neutral substances, so do not conduct electricity, even
when dissolved in water. The electrons are shared between atoms in bonds,
therefore there are no free moving charged particles, so no current flows.
• Covalent substances are brittle and break easily. When force is applied to the
solid, the weak bonds between molecules are broken and the solid shatters.
• The forces holding the molecules together are weak, so little energy is required to
separate them. This results in a low melting point and low boiling point for the
substance.

Properties of Ionic Bonds

• Ionic compounds are brittle. When pressure is applied to the lattice, ions of like-
charge are forced to come close together. The repulsion force of like-charges is
enough to break the lattice.
• This electrostatic force of attraction is very strong between ions in the lattice, so
ionic substances generally have high melting and boiling points.
Properties of Ionic Bonds
• Ionic substances in the solid state cannot conduct electricity. The ions are in fixed
positions, so there is no movement of electrical charge.
• When the ionic substance is dissolved in water or in molten form, the ions are free
to move and can conduct electricity.
Electron Dot Diagrams for ionic bonds
Ionic Bonding
• Ionic bonding involves electrons being transferred between atoms.
• Electrons will be given and taken so that each ion ends up with a full
valence shell.
• For example, a sodium atom will donate its valence electron to a
chlorine atom, filling the chlorine’s valence shell.
• The two atoms become ions and bond together through electrostatic
attraction, forming sodium chloride.

Electron Dot Diagrams for Ionic Bonds

• Electron dot diagrams can be used to show bonds between elements.
• These diagrams only show valence electrons, which are the electrons
involved in bonding.
• Similar to the energy level diagrams we have drawn previously, ions
are written in square brackets, with the charge at the top right corner.
• Sodium chloride is formed when a sodium atom and a chlorine atom
react. This can be shown as:

Chemical formula: NaCl

Electron Dot Diagrams for Ionic Bonds
• It is useful to draw electron dot diagrams for the individual atoms
before drawing the diagram for the ionic compound.
• This will help you visualise where the electrons are going.
• Magnesium oxide is formed when a magnesium atom and an oxygen
atom react. This can be shown as:

Chemical formula: MgO

Electron Dot Diagrams for Ionic Bonds
• Sometimes more than one non-metal atom is needed to
accommodate all the valence electrons from the metal.
• Magnesium chloride is formed when magnesium and chlorine react.
• Magnesium gives one electron to one chlorine atom, filling its valence
shell.
• A second chlorine atom is needed to accept the magnesium’s other
electron.
• This is shown by putting a 2 in front of the chloride ion in the dot
diagram.
Electron Dot Diagrams for Ionic Bonds
• Sometimes more than one metal atom is needed to fill the valence
shell of the non-metal.
• Sodium oxide is formed when two sodium atoms and an oxygen atoms
react.
• The sodium atom gives its electron to the oxygen atom.
• An electron from a second sodium atom is needed to fill the oxygen’s
valence shell.
• This is shown by putting a 2 in front of the sodium ion.

Chemical formula: Na2O