Biology Exam - 2 Cheat Sheet

by TheSoupNazi via cheatography.com/19752/cs/2712/

Global Warming Air Pollution (cont) Types of Ecosystems (cont)

What is climate and climate change? Nitrogen Oxides Tundra

The statistics of the atmosphere and the Nitrogen oxides, partic​ularly nitrogen ype of biome where the tree growth is
change of those statistics over a period of dioxide, are expelled from high temper​ature hindered by low temper​atures and short
time. combus​tion, and are also produced during growing seasons.
thunde​rstorms by electric discharge.
What are the causes of climate change? Taiga
Carbon Monoxide
Earth's Position : Angle of Earth's axis also known as boreal forest or snowfo​rest, is
Shape of Earth's orbit around sun Solar CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non- a biome charac​terized by coniferous forests
Energy (sunspots) Volcanic Activity (gas & ir​rit​ating gas. consisting mostly of pines, spruces and
ash filter sun's rays) Movement of the larches.
Volatile organic compounds
Continents (Pangaea affected the global
Savanna
pattern of winds & ocean currents) VOCs are a well-known outdoor air
pollutant. They are catego​rized as either A savanna or savannah is a grassland
What is Ozone?
methane (CH4) or non-me​thane (NMVOCs). ecosystem charac​terised by the trees being
A form of oxygen that has three oxygen suffic​iently widely spaced so that the canopy
Chloro​flu​oro​carbons
atoms in each molecule instead of the usual does not close. The open canopy allows
two. Harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from sufficient light to reach the ground to support
products are currently banned from use. an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting
What is Tropho​spheric Ozone?
Secondary Sources of Air Pollution primarily of grasses.
"bad ozone"; secondary pollutant - not
Stationary sources include smoke stacks of Chapparal
emitted directly regional air pollutant: cannot
trace the source of original ozone national power plants, manufa​cturing facilities It is shaped by a Medite​rranean climate
level: 10-15 ppb; high episodes common in (facto​ries) and waste incine​rators, as well (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers)
the summer 100-200% increase in last as furnaces and other types of fuel-b​urning and wildfire, featuring summer​-dr​ought
century - industrial rev. heating devices. tolerant plants with hard sclero​phy​llous
Photoc​hemical Smog evergreen leaves, as contrasted with the
associated soft-l​eaved, drought deciduous,
Air Pollution Browni​sh-​orange haze formed by chemical
scrub community of Coastal sage scrub,
reactions involving sunlight, nitrogen oxide,
What is Air Pollution? found below the chaparral biome.
and hydroc​arbons.
Various chemicals (gases, liquids, solids) Alpine
present on the atmosphere in high enough
Types of Ecosystems Alpine climate is the average weather
levels to be harmful to humans, other
(climate) for a region above the tree line.
organisms, or material. Temperate Deciduous Forests
This climate is also referred to as a
Sulfur Oxides are dominated by trees that lose their mountain climate or highland climate.
Sulfur oxides (SOx) - partic​ularly sulfur leaves each year. They are found in areas

dioxide, a chemical compound with the with warm, moist summers and mild winters.
Biomol​ecules
formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes Shortgrass Prairie
Biomol​ecule
and in various industrial processes.
Wester​nmost grasslands of the Great
A biomol​ecule is any molecule that is
Plains, charac​terized by infrequent rainfall,
produced by a living organism, including
low humidity, and high winds; dominated by
large macrom​ole​cules such as proteins,
shallo​w-r​ooted, sod-fo​rming grasses
polysa​cch​arides, lipids, and nucleic acids,
as well as small molecules such as primary
metabo​lites, secondary metabo​lites, and
natural products.

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 Biology Exam - 2 Cheat Sheet
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Biomol​ecules (cont) Biomol​ecules (cont) Agricu​lture (cont)

Types of biomol​ecules Amino acids Polycu​ltures

Small molecules: Lipids, polysa​cch​arides, Amino acids contain both amino and Multiple cropping, in which several crops are
glycol​ipids, sterols, glycer​olipids Vitamins carboxylic acid functional groups. (In grown sequen​tially in one year, and
Hormones, neurot​ran​smi​tters Metabo​lites bioche​mistry, the term amino acid is used interc​rop​ping, when several crops are grown
when referring to those amino acids in at the same time, are other kinds of annual
Saccha​rides
which the amino and carbox​ylate cropping systems known as polycu​ltures.
Monosa​cch​arides are the simplest form of functi​ona​lities are attached to the same
carboh​ydrates with only one simple sugar. Livestock production systems
carbon, plus proline which is not actually an
They essent​ially contain an aldehyde or amino acid). Livestock production systems can be defined
ketone group in their structure. based on feed source, as grassl​and​-based,
Protein structure
mixed, and landle​ss.[94] As of 2010, 30% of
Disacc​harides
The particular series of amino acids that Earth's ice- and water-free area was used
are formed when two monosa​cch​arides, or form a protein is known as that protein's for producing livestock, with the sector
two single simple sugars, form a bond with primary structure. This sequence is employing approx​imately 1.3 billion people.
removal of water. They can be hydrolyzed to determined by the genetic makeup of the
yield their saccharin building blocks by Selective Breeding
indivi​dual. It specifies the order of side-chain
boiling with dilute acid or reacting them with groups along the linear polype​ptide During the second half of the 20th century,
approp​riate enzyme​s.[1] Examples of "​bac​kbo​ne". producers using selective breeding focused
disacc​harides include sucrose, maltose, and on creating livestock breeds and
lactose. crossb​reeds that increased produc​tion,
Agricu​lture
while mostly disreg​arding the need to
Polysa​cch​arides
Agricu​lture Definition preserve genetic diversity. This trend has
are polyme​rized monosa​cch​arides, or led to a signif​icant decrease in genetic
Agricu​lture is the cultiv​ation of animals,
complex carboh​ydr​ates. They have multiple diversity and resources among livestock
plants, fungi, and other life forms for food,
simple sugars. Examples are starch, breeds, leading to a corres​ponding
fiber, biofuel, medicinals and other products
cellulose, and glycogen. decrease in disease resistance and local
used to sustain and enhance human life.
Lignin adapta​tions previously found among
Crop cultiv​ation systems tradit​ional breeds.
Lignin is a complex polyph​enolic
Cropping systems vary among farms Mixed Production Systems
macrom​olecule composed mainly of beta-
depending on the available resources and
O​4-aryl linkages. Grassland based livestock production relies
constr​aints; geography and climate of the
Lipids upon plant material such as shrubland,
farm; government policy; economic, social
rangeland, and pastures for feeding
Lipids (oleag​inous) are chiefly fatty acid and political pressures; and the philosophy
ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs
esters, and are the basic building blocks of and culture of the farmer
may be used, however manure is returned
biological membranes.
Monocu​ltures directly to the grassland as a major nutrient
Further indust​ria​liz​ation led to the use of source.
monocu​ltures, when one cultivar is planted
on a large acreage. Because of the low
biodiv​ersity, nutrient use is uniform and
pests tend to build up, necess​itating the
greater use of pesticides and fertil​izers.

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 Biology Exam - 2 Cheat Sheet
by TheSoupNazi via cheatography.com/19752/cs/2712/

Agricu​lture (cont) Population Profiles Comparison of Prokar​yotes vs. Eukaryotes

Production practices What Factors Affect Birth Rates and Fertility

Tillage is the practice of plowing soil to Rates

prepare for planting or for nutrient Importance of children as a part of the labor
incorp​oration or for pest control. Tillage force. Urbani​zation. Cost of raising and
varies in intensity from conven​tional to no-till. educating children. Availa​bility of reliable
It may improve produc​tivity by warming the birth control methods.
soil, incorp​orating fertilizer and contro​lling
Population A eukaryote is any organism whose cells
weeds, but also renders soil more prone to
Is considered to be the breeding group for contain a nucleus and other structures
erosion, triggers the decomp​osition of
an organism. Charac​ter​istics include: Birth (organ​elles) enclosed within membranes.
organic matter releasing CO2, and reduces
the abundance and diversity of soil rate, death rate, rate of natural increase and
age-sex distri​bution. A prokaryote is a single​-celled organism that
organisms.
lacks a membra​ne-​bound nucleus (karyon),
Pest Control Total fertility rate (TFR) mitoch​ondria, or any other membra​ne-​bound
Pest control includes the management of In a popula​tion, the number of births per organe​lles.
weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. woman
Chemical (pesti​cides), biological Population Profile Function of the Cell Membrane
(bioco​ntrol), mechanical (tillage), and
Population Profiles for Developing and Purpose The cell membrane also plays a
cultural practices are used. Cultural
Developed Countries -snapshot of role in anchoring the
practices include crop rotation, culling, cover
population at a given time cytosk​eleton to provide shape to
crops, interc​rop​ping, compos​ting,
the cell, and in attaching to the
avoidance, and resist​ance. Integrated pest Minimal Viable Population
extrac​ellular matrix and other
management attempts to use all of these The smallest population size at which a cells to help group cells together
methods to keep pest popula​tions below the species is able to sustain its numbers and to form tissues.
number which would cause economic loss, survive.
and recommends pesticides as a last resort. Permeable The cell membrane is select​ively
calculate rate of population increase2 permeable and able to regulate
Water Management what enters and exits the cell,
rate = births​–de​aths/N
Water management is needed where rainfall thus facili​tating the transport of
is insuff​icient or variable, which occurs to Carrying Capacity materials needed for survival.
some degree in most regions of the world. largest number of indivi​duals of one species Movement The movement of substances
[92] Some farmers use irrigation to that an ecosystem can support over time across the membrane can be
supplement rainfall. In other areas such as
either "​pas​siv​e", occurring
the Great Plains in the U.S. and Canada,
Golgi Apparatus without the input of cellular
farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil
energy, or "​act​ive​", requiring the
moisture to use for growing a crop in the
cell to expend energy in
following year.[105] Agricu​lture represents
transp​orting it.
70% of freshwater use worldwide.

A warehouse for receiving, sorting, shipping

and even some manufa​cturing products of the
ER such as proteins are modified and stored
then sent to other destin​ations.

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 Biology Exam - 2 Cheat Sheet
by TheSoupNazi via cheatography.com/19752/cs/2712/

Function of the Cell Membrane (cont) Cell Structure (cont) Lipid Bilayer

Passive Some substances (small Cytosk​ The cytosk​eleton is found underlying Lipid The lipid bilayer is a thin polar
Osmosis molecules, ions) such as carbon eleton the cell membrane in the cytoplasm Bilayer membrane made of two layers of
dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and provides a scaffo​lding for lipid molecules. These
can move across the plasma membrane proteins to anchor to, as membranes are flat sheets that
membrane by diffusion, which is a well as forming organelles that form a continuous barrier around
passive transport process. extend from the cell. all cells.

Protein Nutrients, such as sugars or Ion A transm​embrane protein that

Channels amino acids, must enter the cell, Compos​ition Transp​orter moves ions across a plasma
and certain products of membrane against their
Carboh​y Plasma membranes also contain
metabolism must leave the cell. concen​tration gradient, in
drates carboh​ydr​ates, predom​inantly
Endocy​tosi Endocy​tosis is the process in contrast to ion channels, where
glycop​rot​eins, but with some
s which cells absorb molecules by ions go through passive
glycol​ipids (cereb​rosides and
transport.
engulfing them. gangli​osi​des).
Asymmetry In many naturally occurring
Exocytosis Just as material can be brought Proteins The cell membrane has large
bilayers, the compos​itions of the
into the cell by invagi​nation and content of proteins, typically around
inner and outer membrane
formation of a vesicle, the 50% of membrane volume[11]
leaflets are different. In human
membrane of a vesicle can be These proteins are important for cell
red blood cells, the inner
fused with the plasma membrane, because they are respon​sible for
(cytop​lasmic) leaflet is composed
extruding its contents to the various biological activi​ties.
mostly of
surrou​nding medium.
Lipids The cell membrane consists of three
phosph​ati​dyl​eth​ano​lamine,
classes of amphip​athic lipids:
phosph​ati​dyl​serine and
Cell Structure phosph​oli​pids, glycol​ipids, and
phosph​ati​dyl​ino​sitol and its
sterols. The amount of each
Fluid Biological membranes can be phosph​ory​lated deriva​tives.
depends upon the type of cell, but in
mosaic considered as a two-di​men​sional Phases At a given temper​ature a lipid
the majority of cases phosph​olipids
model liquid in which lipid and protein bilayer can exist in either a liquid
are the most abunda​nt.[10] In RBC
molecules diffuse more or less easily. or a gel (solid) phase. All lipids
studies, 30% of the plasma
Lipid Lipid bilayers form through the have a charac​ter​istic
membrane is lipid.
bilayer process of self-a​sse​mbly. temper​ature at which they
transition (melt) from the gel to
liquid phase.

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 Biology Exam - 2 Cheat Sheet
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Osmosis Proteins Prokar​yotic Cell Structure

Osmosis Definition Are the most diverse carbon compounds in A prokar​yotic cell has three archit​ectural
living organisms. Proteins are polymers of regions:
Osmosis is the sponta​neous net movement
amino acids. At least 20 amino acids are used On the outside, flagella and pili project from the
of solvent molecules through a partially
to build proteins and all have same basic cell's surface. These are structures (not present
permeable membrane into a region of higher
structure. Function of protein is influenced by in all prokar​yotes) made of proteins that
solute concen​tra​tion, in the direction that
its overall shape. facilitate movement and commun​ication
tends to equalize the solute concen​tra​tions
between cells.
on the two sides.
Cell Theory Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope –
Osmotic Pressure generally consisting of a cell wall covering a
Polype​ptide chain
To be the minimum pressure required to plasma membrane though some bacteria also
maintain an equili​brium, with no net Each of these consists of a linear sequence have a further covering layer called a capsule.
movement of solvent. of amino acids connected end to end. It also prevents the cell from expanding and
bursting (cytol​ysis) from osmotic pressure due
Permea​bility Chromatin
to a hypotonic enviro​nment.
Permea​bility depends on solubi​lity, charge, The combin​ation of DNA and proteins that Inside the cell is the cytopl​asmic region that
or chemistry, as well as solute size. consti​tutes eukaryotic chromo​somes; often contains the genome (DNA), ribosomes and
used to refer to the diffuse, very extended various sorts of inclus​ions. Prokar​yotes can
Plasmo​lysis
form taken by chromo​somes when a cell is carry extrac​hro​mosomal DNA elements called
Plasmo​lysis is the process in which cells not dividing. plasmids, which are usually circular. Plasmids
lose water in a hypertonic solution.
Smooth Endopl​asmic Reticulum (smooth ER) encode additional genes, such as antibiotic
Suppose an animal or a plant cell is placed in a resistance genes.
Located in cytoplasm Found in all Eukaryotic
solution of sugar or salt in water.
cells Stores and supplies lipids for cell.
If the medium is hypotonic relative to the cell Protein Synthesis
RNA
cytoplasm — the cell will gain water through
osmosis. If the medium is isotonic — there A type of nucleic acid consisting of a
will be no net movement of water across the polynu​cle​otide made up of nucleotide
cell membrane. If the medium is hypertonic monomers with a ribose sugar and the
relative to the cell cytoplasm — the cell will nitrog​enous bases adenine, guanine, uracil,
lose water by osmosis. & cytosine; usually single stranded;
functions in protein synthesis, genes
regula​tion, & as the genome of some
Adenosine tripho​sphate
viruses.
Adenosine tripho​sphate (ATP) is a nucleoside
Rough Endopl​asmic Reticulum
tripho​sphate used in cells as a coenzyme. Cells are capable of synthe​sizing new proteins,
It is often called the "​mol​ecular unit of The surface of the rough endopl​asmic
which are essential for the modulation and
curren​cy" of intrac​ellular energy transfer. reticulum (often abbrev​iated RER or Rough
mainte​nance of cellular activi​ties. This process
ER) is studded with protei​n-m​anu​fac​turing
involves the formation of new protein molecules
ribosomes giving it a "​rou​gh" appearance
from amino acid building blocks based on
(hence its name).
inform​ation encoded in DNA/RNA. Protein
synthesis generally consists of two major
steps: transc​ription and transl​ation.

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 Biology Exam - 2 Cheat Sheet
by TheSoupNazi via cheatography.com/19752/cs/2712/

Eukaryotic Cell Structure Exclusive Eukaryotic Features (cont) Cellular Processes

Plants, animals, fungi, slime moulds, protozoa, Mitoch​ondria and Chloro​plasts Between successive cell divisions, cells grow
and algae are all eukary​otic. through the functi​oning of cellular metabo​lism.
the power genera​tors: Mitoch​ondria are self-
The plasma membrane resembles that of Cell metabolism is the process by which
r​epl​icating organelles that occur in various
prokar​yotes in function, with minor differ​ences in individual cells process nutrient molecules.
numbers, shapes, and sizes in the
the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present. Metabolism has two distinct divisions:
cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or catabo​lism, in which the cell breaks down
Mitoch​ondria play a critical role in
more linear molecules, called chromo​somes, generating energy in the eukaryotic cell. complex molecules to produce energy and
which are associated with histone proteins. All reducing power, and anabolism, in which the
chromo​somal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, Endopl​asmic reticulum cell uses energy and reducing power to
separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. is a transport network for molecules construct complex molecules and perform other
Some eukaryotic organelles such as targeted for certain modifi​cations and biological functions.
mitoch​ondria also contain some DNA. specific destin​ations, as compared to Complex sugars consumed by the organism
Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or molecules that float freely in the cytoplasm. can be broken down into a less chemically
flagella. Eukaryotic flagella are less complex complex sugar molecule called glucose. Once
Lysosomes and Peroxi​somes
than those of prokar​yotes. inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acid adenosine tripho​sphate (ATP), a form of
hydrol​ases). They digest excess or worn-out energy, through two different pathways.
Anatomy of a Cell
organe​lles, food particles, and engulfed
viruses or bacteria.
Cell Division
Centrosome

the cytosk​eleton organiser: The centrosome

produces the microt​ubules of a cell – a key
component of the cytosk​eleton.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food and waste. Some

vacuoles store extra water. They are often
described as liquid filled space and are
surrounded by a membrane.

Hypert​onic, Iostonic, and Hypotonic

Eukaryotic and prokar​yotic Diagrams

Ribosomes
Exclusive Eukaryotic Features The ribosome is a large complex of RNA
and protein molecules. They each consist of
Cell nucleus
two subunits, and act as an assembly line
A cell's inform​ation center, the cell nucleus
where RNA from the nucleus is used to
is the most conspi​cuous organelle found in a
synthesise proteins from amino acids.
eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's
chromo​somes, and is the place where
almost all DNA replic​ation and RNA
synthesis (trans​cri​ption) occur.

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