Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Exercise Physiology

Assignment on:

“ATP production from Carbohydrates, Protein & Fats”

Submitted To:

Sir Sajjid Gill

Submitted By:

Abu Huraira (14)

MSC Morning
Session 2019-2021

Professor Sajjid Ali Gill

University of the Punjab
Lahore-Department of
sports Sciences & Physical
Education

Submitted on: 06Oct, 2020

Health and Physical Education PU, Lahore

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Introduction to ATP
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a high energy molecule present in living cells. It is also
called cell energy currency The major energy currency of all cells is a nucleotide called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It is the main energy source for majority of the cellular
functions like synthesis of macromolecules (DNA, RNA, and proteins), movement,
transmission of nerve impulses, active transport etc. The ability of ATP to store and release
energy is due to its molecular structure. Each ATP molecule has three subunits: (a)
adenine - a double-ringed nitrogenous base; (b) a ribose - a five-carbon sugar; and (c)
three phosphate groups in a linear chain.

The ability of ATP to store and release energy is

due to its molecular structure. The average athlete
will have approximately 285 grams of stored
ATP in his or her entire body. That amount of ATP
will be consumed in a just few seconds of work.

The covalent bond connecting two phosphates is Figure 1 ATP molecule structure

indicated by the “tilde” (~) and it is a high-energy

bond. The energy in this bond is released as it breaks and inorganic phosphate (Pi) gets
separated from ATP. The breaking of one phosphate bond releases about 7.3 kcal (7,300
calories) per mole of ATP as follows:
ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi + energy (7.3 kcal/mole)
In common energy reactions only the outermost of the two high-energy bonds breaks.
When this happens, ATP becomes ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and one Pi is released. In
some cases, ADP is further broken down to AMP (adenosine monophosphate) and P as
follows:
ADP + H2O --> AMP + Pi + energy (7.3 kcal/mole)

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Atp Synthesis from carbohydrates, Fats & protein

Our body uses three types of molecules to make Atp production or synthesis:
Carbohydrates, Fats and protein. For the synthesis of Atp from these complex molecules
our body digested them into simpler molecules. Complex carbohydrates are usually
hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose, protein into amino acid, while triglycerides(Fat&
lipids) are metabolized to form glycerol and fatty acids. Calories are measurement of a unit
of heat or food energy. For example, we can achieve 4 calories one gram of proteins and
carbohydrates, and 9calories per gram from fats.
In general, carbohydrates form the main energy source for the body. They are the most
efficient at producing ATP or energy (meaning they produce lots more ATP per amount of
the fuel broken down). The body preferentially breaks down carbohydrates first, and
then fats and finally proteins only if the other two fuels are depleted. This is important
as proteins are generally less efficient at generating energy. In addition, proteins perform
several important functions so if they were broken down several systems could fail. To
illustrate an example, in the event of starvation, the body has fewer carbohydrates
available so will start to breakdown the fat
stores in the body. Once all the available
carbohydrate and fat stores have been
depleted, the body will start to break down
proteins to provide energy. The diagram below
provides a summary of the body’s main energy
sources. These get broken down by enzymes
into smaller particles. These small carbon
chains can then enter into special pathways to
generate energy. Figure 2 Nutrients metabolism

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

ATP is typically present in cells at a concentration of 110mM – it is continuously recycled in

organisms to ensure there is a constant energy supply for cellular processes. The average
athlete will have approximately 285 grams of stored ATP in his or her entire body. That
amount of ATP will be consumed in a just few seconds of work. At any time, athletes have
only about 10 seconds worth of ATP-PC. A supplement called creatine monohydrate that
can increase the amount of PC stored in the muscles. It is one of the most researched
ergogenic aids available and it does work. However, it can cause muscle cramps and it is
not recommended for use during hot weather.
ATP can be synthesized by redox reactions that use simple and complex lipids or
carbohydrates as the source of energy. Complex energy sources need to be digested into
simpler molecules before being used in ATP synthesis. Complex carbohydrates are usually
hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose, while triglycerides are metabolized to form glycerol
and fatty acids.
Over a hundred ATP molecules are synthesized from the complete oxidation of
1molecule of fatty acid, and almost 40 ATP molecules result from amino acid and
pyruvate oxidation. Two ATP molecules are synthesized in the cytoplasm via the
conversion of glucose molecules to
pyruvate.

Atp production or synthesis complete

in three Stages or Steps.
1. Glycolysis
2. Krebs cycle
3. Electron Transport
chain
Figure 3 shows that glucose and
Glycerol are used in Glycolysis while
amino acids and fatty acids are used
and make Acetyl CoA and take part in
Krebs or citric acid cycle and Electron
transport chain or oxidative
phosphorylation.
Figure 3 Nutrients in different stages to form atp

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

1. Glycolysis and Carbohydrates

Glycolysis is the process by which one molecule of glucose is converted into two molecules
of pyruvate, two hydrogen ions and two molecules of water. Some glycerol from fats
also used for this purpose.Through this process, the ‘high energy’ molecules of 2 ATP and 2
NADH are synthesized. The pyruvate molecules then proceed to the link reaction, where
acetyl-coA is produced. Acetyl-coA then proceeds to the TCA cycle.

Glycolysis involves the metabolization of glucose and glycerol to form pyruvate. These
reactions take place in the cytoplasm in most organisms and release a net amount of 2
ATPs. Glycolysis oxygen is not involved in this stage. That is why, it occurs in both types
of respiration i.e. aerobic and anaerobic. In glycolysis, glucose (6C) molecule is broken into
two molecules of pyruvic acid (3C).

Figure 4 Glucose anaerobic metabolism

When carbohydrates are broken down in the intestines they are converted to smaller
simple sugars that can be absorbed. Glucose is the main agent produced. Glucose gets taken
up into cells and either gets immediately broken down to produce energy or gets converted
into glycogen (storage form of glucose). The main glycogen stores in the body are in the
liver and muscles. These sources can be utilized for energy if required. A hormone insulin
from pancreas which allows glucose to enter the body’s cell to provide energy. When
glucose is in excess quantity Insulin stores excess glucose in the form of chemical called
glycogen in the liver, muscles and blood . Glucagon a harmone produced by pancreas it
raise the concentration of glucose in the blood stream by breaking down glycogen and this
process is called Glycogenolysis.

I. Glycogen is converted into Glucose (Glycogenolysis) a enzyme which is used in

this reaction is used is GPH(Glycogen Phosphorylase).

Glycogen( C6H10O5 ) ----- GPH-----> Glucose (C6H12O6) (Glycogenolysis)

II. Glucose is than converted into 2 Pyruvate molecules(Glycolysis) or pyruvic acid

the enzyme which is used is PFK(Phosphofructolase).

Glucose C6H12O6 ---- PFK---> 2Pyruvate (C3H4O3 ) + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2Atp + 2H2O
(Glycolysis)

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Fates of Pyruvate
Pyruvate is a versatile and unstable molecule which feeds into numerous pathways.

1. Lactic Acid Formation

Under anaerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
enzyme to lactic acid.

Pyruvate(C3H4O3) ----- LDH-----> Lactate or lactic Acid(C3H6O3) Anaerobic

Figure 5 lactate formation (Anaerobic Glycolysis)

Disadvantage of Lactate or Lactic acid

Excessive anaerobic glycolysis produces large quantities of lactic acid. Lactic acid can
causes fatigue and discomfort. This can exit the cell and enter the bloodstream, and in
sufficient amounts can cause lactic acidosis. At this point, serum pH is reduced which can
lead to organ dysfunction severe and untreated. If there are more mitochondria in our
muscles cell less Lactic acid will produce.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Advantages of Lactate or Lactic Acid

Lactic acid is use to make energy with O2 for this purpose an athlete low the intensity of
exercise and cool down is used to prevent lactic acid or to use it. It produces energy at
fast rate but not more than Atp. If cool down is not done in 48 hour than it cause soreness
due to build up of lactic acid.

Lactate ----------> Energy (Aerobic)

It was a fuel produced by muscle cells all the

time and often the preferred source of energy
in the body: The brain and heart both run more
efficiently and more strongly when fueled by
lactate than by glucose, another fuel that
circulates through the blood.

Lactic acid that comes from pyruvate is

transported to the liver where it is converted to
Figure 6 Lactate conversion to Glucose
glucose in the presence of O2 via Cori Cycle. The
Cori cycle functions more efficiently when muscle activity has ceased. This allows the
oxygen debt to be repaid such that the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain
can produce energy at peak efficiency. The Cori cycle is a much more important source of
substrate for gluconeogenesis than food. The amount of oxygen required for this is often
referred to as O2 debt.

The Cori Cycle is named after its

discoverers, Carl Ferdinand Cori and
Gerty Cori.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

2. Pyruvate Decorboxylation or Oxidation

Pyruvate(C3H4O3) + O2+ NAD+ ----- Coenzyme A-----> C02 + acetyl CoA +NADH

It is the conversion of Pyruvate into acetyl-CoA. Pyruvate oxidation is the step that
connects Glycolysis and Krebs cycle. After glycolysis, in the presence of Oxygen pyruvate
is converted to acetyl CoA to enter the TCA or Krebs’s Cycle. In mitochondria Coenzyme A
helps to convert Pyruvate into acetyl CoA and Co2 and NADH are also produced.

Figure 7 Pyruvate conversion into Acetyl CoA

In conversion of Pyruvate to acetyl CoA, each pyruvate molecule losses one carbon atom
with the release of carbon dioxide . During the breakdown of pyruvate, electrons are
transferred to NAD+ to produce NADH, which will be used by the cell to produce ATP.

Fats and protein use for the production of Atp

Acetyl CoA derived from the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in
cells is all used in the Krebs’s cycle to generate energy. Therefore, this is an important
metabolic pathway that unites carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism in living
organisms.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Lipid metabolism
The metabolism of lipids involves the following processes:

1. Lipolysis:

Fats ------> fatty acid + Glycerol

This refers to the breakdown of the fats into their fatty acid and other components. Some
of these agents can enter directly into the Krebs cycle for oxidation. Triglycerides get
broken down into fatty acids and glycerol. The latter is converted into pyruvic acid which
can enter the Krebs cycle. To obtain energy from fat, triglycerides must be broken down by
hydrolysis into their two principal
components, fatty acids and glycerol.
This process, called Lipolysis, takes
place in the cytoplasm. The resulting
fatty acids are oxidized by β-
oxidation into acetyl CoA, which is
used by the Krebs cycle. The glycerol
that is released from triglycerides
are directly enters the glycolysis
pathway. Because one triglyceride
molecule yields three fatty acid
molecules with as much as 16 or
more carbons in each one, fat
molecules yield more energy than
carbohydrates and are an important
source of energy for the human body.
Figure 8 Lipolysis of Fats
Triglycerides yield more than twice the
energy per unit mass when compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Therefore, when
glucose levels are low, triglycerides can be converted into acetyl CoA molecules and used
to generate ATP through aerobic respiration.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

2. Beta-oxidation:
Fatty acid---------> Acetyl-CoA

This refers to the breakdown of fatty acids within the mitochondria. ATP is generated
from this process as well as acetyl-CoA which can enter the Krebs cycle and produce more
energy. Lipid metabolism is efficient in terms of ATP production. However, lipids aren’t
soluble in the blood so their stores can be difficult to access. Therefore they aren’t relied on
for the production of large amounts of ATP in a short time but rather are used when
carbohydrate supplies are limited.

Ketosis or Ketone body Oxidation:

Ketosis refers to an increased concentration of ketone bodies within the blood. It is

caused by metabolism of fats in the absence of sufficient carbohydrate metabolism. It is
thus a feature of starvation, diabetes mellitus (as insulin is not available to transport
glucose to cells) and occasionally occurs when diets consist almost entirely of fat. When
carbohydrates are unavailable for energy the body switches to metabolism of fatty acids.
The body takes these from adipose tissue (the body’s fat stores). The fatty acids generated
can either be broken down for energy or may be converted to ketone bodies within the
liver. Some ketones can be excreted in the breath and give it a sweet smell (acetone
breath).

Organs that have classically been thought to be dependent solely on glucose, such as the
brain, can actually use ketones as an alternative energy source. This keeps the brain
functioning when glucose is limited. When ketones are produced faster than they can be
used, they can be broken down into CO and acetone.

ATP synthesis

Acetyl-CoA generated by the beta-oxidation pathway enters the mitochondrial TCA

cycle, where is further oxidized to generate NADH and FADH2 . The NADH and FADH2
produced by both beta oxidation and the TCA cycle are used by the mitochondrial
electron transport chain to produce ATP. Complete oxidation of one palmitate molecule
(fatty acid containing 16 carbons) generates 129 ATP molecules.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Protein metabolism
When proteins are digested, the bonds between amino acids are broken and they are
released. Normally the amino acids will be recycled and used to produce new proteins.
However if energy sources are limited, the amino acids may be used to generate energy.
This should only occur when carbohydrate and fat energy stores are depleted as
proteins make up several important structures in the body. If
they are extensively metabolized it may interfere with the
function of tissues. The following processes occur in protein
metabolism:

1. Deamination:

Amino Acids--> NH2 removed- -> NH3- -> Urea is formed

in liver and excreted in urine
Figure 9 Structure of Protein
In order to enter cellular respiration, amino acids must first
have their amino group removed. This step makes ammonia (NH3) as a waste product,
and this ammonia is converted to urea by Liver. Your liver releases this urea into the
blood stream and is the major organic waste carried in our blood stream. When they
clinically measure the amount of urea in your blood, that is commonly known as the BUN
level. BUN stands for Blood Urea Nitrogen (Urea contains Nitrogen). This blood is then
filtered by our kidneys and appears in our urine as the major organic waste of our urine
and removed from the body through urine. The first step in breaking down amino acids is
removal of the amino group. The amino acid is converted to a compound called a
ketoacid which can enter the Krebs cycle.

2. Oxidation of amino acids:

Ketoacid -----> Acetyl-CoA

This refers to the breakdown of ketoacids and generation of ATP, similar to acetyl-CoA
in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. After Deamination (removal of amino group
from amino acid) the Ketoacid (or ketone bodies) are converted into Acetyl-CoA which
take part in krebs cycle to make Atp.

Atp Synthesis

The amount of ATP produced from protein metabolism is slightly less than glucose
metabolism for equivalent weights. Once they’ve been deaminated, different amino
acids enter the cellular respiration pathways at different stages.

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2. Krebs Cycle (inner mitochondria space)

Acetyl-CoA -----> 6NADH+ 2FADH2 + H+ +2ATP+4CO2

Acetyl CoA derived from the metabolism of

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in cells is all
used in the Kreb’s cycle to generate energy.
Therefore, this is an important metabolic pathway
that unites carbohydrate, fat, and protein
metabolism in living organisms.

In this cycle Acetyl CoA is converted into Atp and

Co2 (a waste product which is expelled through
breathing). NADH and FADH2 molecules
generated as byproducts of the citric acid cycle
are fed into the electron transport chain where
they are oxidized to produce ATPOverall, the
Krebs’s cycle yields 2 ATP molecules, 6 NADH
molecules, and 2 reduced flavin adenine
Figure 10 Krebs cycle or Citric Acid cycle
dinucleotide (FADH ) molecules.

• Krebs cycle is series of

reaction is aerobic cell
What are NADH and FADH2 ? metabolism.
• Krebs cycle is also called
NADH and FADH2 are electron carrier or redoxing Citric acid cycle,
cofactor that are created during the Krebs cycle and Tricarboxlic Acid
utilized during the last part of respiration, the electron cycle(TCA).
transport chain. NADH and FADH2 have stored energy. • A British biochemist, Sir
NAD+ (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD Hans Krebs discovered
(flavin adenine dinucleotide) are in oxidized form and this series of reactions
these two are present in the inner mitochondria of the cell. that is why it is called the
Krebs cycle.

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NAD+ is a oxidizing agent(that oxidize other and Easy to remember

reduce itself). It accepts electrons and H+ and
• Oxidation- Oil=Lose of e
become reduced to NADH, Which is used as
reducing agent to donate electron in electron • Reduction= gain of e
transport chain. FADH2 is also a oxidizing agent.
These electron transfer reactions are the main • Oxidizing agent = (that
function of NAD and FADH2. oxidize other and reduce
itself)
FAD+ accepts a hydrogen ion H+ and 2e electron
(become reduced) and forms FADH in Krebs cycle • + ve sign comes when
which moves to the electron transport chain and electron is less than
donates a pair of electrons transport chain (become proton means it can
oxidized). This process is same with the FAD+. accept electron(reduced)
and is oxidizing agent e.g.
Note: NADH is also formed in Glycolysis process.
NAD+

3. Electron Transport Chain

NADH and FADH molecules generated as byproducts of the citric acid cycle are fed into the
electron transport chain where they are oxidized to produce ATP with the help of the
enzyme ATP synthase. The main function of the electron transport chain is the production
of ATPs from NADH and FADH.

The electron transport chain is a series of electron transporters embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In
the process, protons (H+) are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space,
and oxygen is reduced to form water. The electron transport chain consists of a series of
oxidation-reduction reactions that lead to the release of energy. A summary of the
reactions in the electron transport chain is:

NADH + 1/2O2 + H+ + ADP + Pi → NAD+ + ATP + H2O

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

Summary

Figure 11 Metabolism of Nutrients for Atp production

Carbohydrates form the main energy source for the body. They are the most efficient at
producing ATP or energy (meaning they produce lots more ATP per amount of the fuel
broken down). The body preferentially breaks down carbohydrates first, and then fats
and finally proteins only if the other two fuels are depleted. This is important as
proteins are generally less efficient at generating energy. we can achieve 4 calories one
gram of proteins and carbohydrates, and 9calories per gram from fats.

Only Carbohydrates are used in anaerobic respiration but Protein and Fat are used to
make Acetyl- CoA which take part in Krebs cycle and ETC. Fat produce more Atp than
protein and Carbohydrates. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats supply 90% of the dry weight
of the diet and 100% of its energy.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

In Glycolysis step of ATP production only Carbohydrates and glycerol take part and 2
ATP are produced. And in Krebs cycle 2 ATP are produced in which all nutrients( Crabs,
Fats, protein) are used to make acetyl CoA.

Figure 12 Cellular respiration steps

In Electron transport chain of the glucose molecule 34 ATP are produced and hence a
glucose molecule produce total 38 ATP. Almost 35 ATP are produced from a amino acid
complete oxidation. In complete oxidation of palmitate molecule (fatty acid containing
16 carbons) generates 129 ATP molecules.

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Exercise Physiology Prof Sajjid Gill

References and Recommended Reading:

Articles

1. Connecons between cellular respiraon and other pathways ( Authors: Khan Academy)
2. 1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11997128 2.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12745923 3.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11997128
3. Cahill, G. F., Jr. Fuel metabolism in starvation. Annual Review of Nutrition 26, 1–22 (2006) Iyer,
A., et al. Inflammatory lipid mediators in adipocyte function and obesity. Nature Reviews
Endocrinology 6, 71–82 (2010) Kaelin, W. G., Jr., & Thompson, C. B. Q&A: Cancer: Clues from cell
metabolism Nature 3, 562–564 (2010) Kodde, I. F., et al. Metabolic and genetic regulation of
cardiac energy substrate preference. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology - Part A:
Molecular & Integrative Physiology 146, 26–39 (2007) Kresge, N., Simoni, R. D., & Hill, R. L. Otto
Fritz Meyerhof and the elucidation of the glycolytic pathway. Journal of Biological Chemisry 280,
e3 (2005) Kroemer, G., & Pouyssegur, J. Tumor cell metabolism: Cancer's Achilles' heel. Cancer
Cell 13, 472–482 (2008) Vander Heiden, M. G., Cantley, L. C., & Thompson, C. B. Understanding
the Warburg effect: The metabolic requirements of cell proliferation Science 22, 1029–1033
(2009) van der Vusse, G. J., et al. Critical steps in cellular fatty acid uptake and utilization.
Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 239, 9–15 (2002)

4. References Fine EJ, Feinman RD. Thermodynamics of weight loss diets. Nutr Metab (Lond).
2004;1(1):15. [Abstract (http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/1/1/15/abstract) |
Full text (http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/1/1/15)] Guyton AC, Hall JE.
Textbook of Medical Physiology (10th edition). Edinburgh: WB Saunders Company; 2000. [Book
(http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.authors/725071/description#description)]
Johnson L. Essential Medical Physiology (2nd edition). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins; 1998. [Book (http://www.elsevier.com/inca/679462)] Martini F, Ober WC.
Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology (5th edition). New Jersey, NJ: Prentice-Halll; 2001.
[Book (http://books.google.com.au/books?id=EZt8QgAACAAJ)]

5. Bakker, B. M., Mensonides, F. I. C., Teusink, B., van Hoek, P., Michels, P. A. M., and Westerhoff,
H. V., Compartmentation Protects Trypanosomes from the Dangerous Design of Glycolysis, Proc.
Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 97(5):2087–2092, 2000. Fothergill-Gilmore, L. A., and Michels, P. A.,
Evolution of Glycolysis, Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 59:105–135, 1993. Frommer, W. B., Schulze, W.
84:274–288, 2006

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