Ad Math Module

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOs)
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
PART A
COMPLEX ANALYSIS
LESSON 1
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Learning Outcomes
Course Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1 2 3 4
1. Understand the similarities and differences
between a real analysis and a complex analysis,
and
2. Apply the fundamental rules of algebra in
evaluating complex numbers.
A complex number is any number of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers and 𝑖
is the imaginary unit. We denote any member of a set of complex numbers by the complex
variable 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
• The real part of 𝑧, denoted by 𝑅𝑒(𝑧), is 𝑥.
• The imaginary part of 𝑧, denoted by 𝐼𝑚(𝑧), is 𝑦.
• The imaginary unit 𝑖 is equal to √−1.
Note: 𝑖 = √−1 = 𝑖
2
𝑖 2 = (√−1) = −1 = −1
𝑖3 = 𝑖2 ∙ 𝑖 = (−1) ∙ 𝑖 = −𝑖
𝑖4 = 𝑖2 ∙ 𝑖2 = (−1) ∙ (−1) = 1
𝑖5 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖 = (1) ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖
𝑖6 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖2 = (1) ∙ (−1) = −1
𝑖7 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖3 = (1) ∙ (−𝑖 ) = −𝑖
𝑖8 = 𝑖4 ∙ 𝑖4 = (1) ∙ (1) = 1
⋮ ⋮
Complex Conjugate, 𝒛̅. The complex conjugate of the complex number 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 is 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏.
Illustration:
1. If 𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖7, then the complex conjugate 𝑧̅ = 3 − 𝑖7.
2. If 𝑧 = −5 − 𝑖, then the complex conjugate 𝑧̅ = −5 + 𝑖.
Equality. Two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 are equal, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 , if

and only if 𝑅𝑒(𝑧1 ) = 𝑅𝑒(𝑧2 ) and 𝐼𝑚(𝑧1 ) = 𝐼𝑚(𝑧2 ).
Arithmetic Operations. Complex numbers obey the fundamental rules of algebra.
• Addition (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = (𝑎 + 𝑐 ) + 𝑖 (𝑏 + 𝑑 )
• Subtraction ( 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) − (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = (𝑎 − 𝑐 ) + 𝑖 (𝑏 − 𝑑 )
• Multiplication (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 ) = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑖𝑏𝑐 + 𝑖 2 𝑏𝑑
= 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑖𝑏𝑐 + (−1)𝑏𝑑
= 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑖𝑎𝑑 + 𝑖𝑏𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑
= (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 ) + 𝑖(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 )
𝑎+𝑖𝑏 𝑎+𝑖𝑏 𝑐−𝑖𝑑 (𝑎+𝑖𝑏)(𝑐−𝑖𝑑) 𝑎𝑐−𝑖𝑎𝑑+𝑖𝑏𝑐−𝑖 2 𝑏𝑑
• Division = 𝑐+𝑖𝑑 ∙ 𝑐−𝑖𝑑 = =
𝑐+𝑖𝑑 (𝑐+𝑖𝑑)(𝑐−𝑖𝑑) 𝑐 2 −𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑖𝑐𝑑−𝑖 2 𝑑2
𝑎𝑐−𝑖𝑎𝑑+𝑖𝑏𝑐−(−1)𝑏𝑑
= 𝑐 2 −𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑖𝑐𝑑−(−1)𝑑2
𝑎𝑐−𝑖𝑎𝑑+𝑖𝑏𝑐+𝑏𝑑
= 𝑐 2 −𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑖𝑐𝑑+𝑑2
(𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑑)+𝑖(𝑏𝑐−𝑎𝑑)
= 𝑐 2+𝑑2
• Commutative Laws 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧1
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 𝑧1
• Associative Laws 𝑧1 + (𝑧2 + 𝑧3 ) = (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) + 𝑧3
𝑧1 (𝑧2 𝑧3 ) = (𝑧1 𝑧2 )𝑧3
• Distributive Laws 𝑧1 (𝑧2 + 𝑧3 ) = 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 𝑧3
Example 1.1 Evaluate the following and write the answer in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
1. 𝑖 4 + 2𝑖 3 − 3𝑖 2 + 6𝑖 − 1
= 1 + 2(−𝑖 ) − 3(−1) + 6𝑖 − 1
= 1 − 2𝑖 + 3 + 6𝑖 − 1
= (1 + 3 − 1) + 𝑖(−2 + 6)
= 3 + 𝑖4
2. 𝑖 191 − 2𝑖 99 + 5𝑖 32
= (𝑖 2 )95 ∙ 𝑖 − 2(𝑖 2 )49 ∙ 𝑖 + 5(𝑖 2 )16
= (−1)95 ∙ 𝑖 − 2(−1)49 ∙ 𝑖 + 5(−1)16
= (−1) ∙ 𝑖 − 2(−1) ∙ 𝑖 + 5(1)
= −𝑖 + 2𝑖 + 5
= 5 + 𝑖(−1 + 2)
=5+𝑖
3. 𝑖(2 − 𝑖 ) + 𝑖3(1 + 𝑖2)

= (𝑖2 − 𝑖 2 ) + (𝑖3 + 𝑖 2 6)
= [𝑖2 − (−1)] + [𝑖3 + (−1)(6)]
= 𝑖2 + 1 + 𝑖3 − 6
= (1 − 6 ) + 𝑖 (2 + 3 )
= −5 + 𝑖5
𝑖
4. 1+𝑖
𝑖 1−𝑖
= 1+𝑖 ∙ 1−𝑖
𝑖(1−𝑖)
= (1+𝑖)(1−𝑖)
𝑖−𝑖 2
= 1−𝑖+𝑖−𝑖 2
𝑖−(−1)
= 1−(−1)
𝑖+1
= 1+1
1+𝑖
= 2
1 1
= 2+𝑖2
1−5𝑖
5. 7 − (1 − 𝑖 )(2 + 𝑖 ) + 𝑖
1−5𝑖 𝑖
= 7 − (2 + 𝑖 − 𝑖2 − 𝑖 2 ) + ∙𝑖
𝑖
(1−5𝑖)𝑖
= 7 − [2 + 𝑖 − 𝑖2 − (−1)] +
𝑖2
𝑖−5𝑖 2
= 7 − (2 + 𝑖 − 𝑖2 + 1) + 𝑖2
𝑖−5(−1)
= 7 − [(2 + 1) + 𝑖 (1 − 2)] + (−1)
𝑖+5
= 7 − (3 − 𝑖 ) + (−1)
= 7 − (3 − 𝑖 ) − (5 + 𝑖 )
= 7−3+𝑖−5−𝑖
= (7 − 3 − 5) + 𝑖 (1 − 1)
= −1 + 𝑖0
= −1
Geometric Interpretation. A complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be plotted as a point (𝑥, 𝑦) in the

complex plane or simply the 𝒛-plane. The horizontal axis is called the real axis and the vertical
axis is called the imaginary axis.
Modulus or Absolute Value. The modulus of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, denoted by |𝑧| or 𝑟, is the real
number
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Geometrically, 𝑟 is the distance of point 𝑧 from the origin.
Argument or Phase. The argument of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, denoted by arg 𝑧 or 𝜃, is

𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑥
Geometrically, 𝜃 is the directed angle from the positive x-axis to OP in the figure below. Note that
by convention, all angles should be measured in radians and is positive in the counterclockwise
sense.
P
• Principal Argument, Arg 𝒛. The principal argument of 𝑧 is the argument in the interval
−𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.
Note: For most computations, the principal argument, 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧, will be used instead of the
argument, 𝜃.
Recall From Trigonometry. Reference angle, 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 , is the acute angle that the given angle
makes with the 𝑥-axis.
Source: omnicalculator.com
In order to compute for the argument, 𝜃, use the following equations:
Quadrant I: 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant II: 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant III: 𝜃 = 𝜋 + 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant IV: 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
In order to compute for the principal argument, 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧, use the following equations:
Quadrant I: 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓

Quadrant II: 𝜃 = 𝜋 − 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Quadrant III: 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝜋
Quadrant IV: 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = −𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
Example 1.2. For the given complex number, plot 𝑧 in the complex plane. Also, find the real
and imaginary part of 𝑧, the modulus and the argument of 𝑧, and the principal
argument of 𝑧.
1. 𝑧 = 7 − 𝑖2
a. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 7
b. 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = −2
c. 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
= √(7)2 + (−2)2
= √49 + 4
= √53
𝑦
d. 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = tan−1 (𝑥 )
2
= tan−1 (7), QIV
= 0.2783, QIV
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 0.2783
= 6.0049
e. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = −𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= −0.2783
5 1
2. 𝑧 = − 2 − 𝑖 2
5
a. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = − 2
1
b. 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = − 2
5 2 1 2
c. 𝑟 = √(− 2) + (− 2)
25 1
= √4 +4
26
=√
4
√26
= 2
1
d. 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = tan −1
( ), QIII
2
5
2
1
= tan−1 (5), QIII
= 0.1974, QIII
𝜃 = 𝜋 + 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 𝜋 + 0.1974
= 3.3390
e. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝜋
= 0.1974 − 𝜋
= −2.9442
3. 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖2
a. 𝑅𝑒(𝑧) = 1
b. 𝐼𝑚(𝑧) = 2
c. 𝑟 = √(1)2 + (2)2
= √5
2
d. 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓 = tan−1 (1), QI
= 1.1071, QI
𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 1.1071
e. 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓
= 1.1071
PROBLEM SET 1
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Evaluate the following.
(2−𝑖4)(3−𝑖)
1. 1+𝑖
2
2. (1−𝑖)(2+𝑖3)(2−𝑖4)
1 1 2 5
( +𝑖 )−( −𝑖 )
3. 2
3
4 3 3
13 7
(1−𝑖 )+(− + )
4 3 3
For Problems 4 – 6, let 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Find the indicated expression.
1
4. 𝑅𝑒 (𝑧̅ )
5. 𝐼𝑚(3𝑧 − 2𝑧̅ + 𝑖 )
𝑧
6. |1+𝑧̅ |
For Problems 7 and 8, find a complex number 𝑧 satisfying the given equation.
7. 𝑧 + 2𝑧̅ + 3 − 𝑖 = 0
1−𝑖2
8. 𝑧 − 2𝑧̅ = 1+𝑖7
For Problems 9 and 10, evaluate the given complex number and find the modulus, the argument,
and the principal argument of the final answer.
9. (1 − 𝑖 )3
(2−𝑖5)+4𝑖 3
10. (2+𝑖) 2
LESSON 2
POWERS AND ROOTS
Learning Outcomes
Course Le rning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Express a complex number 𝑧 in terms of its polar
form, and
2. Calculate the powers and roots of 𝑧.
Polar Form. The rectangular form of a complex number can be easily expressed in its polar form
using the following relation:
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
{
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Thus, a nonzero complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be written as 𝑧 = (𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) + 𝑖 (𝑟 sin 𝜃 ).
The polar form of a complex number is expressed as
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
Multiplication and Division. For two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 =
𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) in polar form, the multiplication and division are as follows:
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )]
𝑧1 𝑟
= 𝑟1 [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
𝑧2 2
Moreover, |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |

𝑧 |𝑧 |
| 1 | = |𝑧1 |
𝑧2 2
arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2

𝑧
arg (𝑧1 ) = arg 𝑧1 − arg 𝑧2
2
Example 2.1. Write the given complex number in polar form.
1. 𝑧 = −5
0
𝑟 = √(−5)2 + (0)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (5), −𝑥-axis
= √25 = 0, −𝑥-axis
=5 =𝜋
= 5(cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
2. 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖2
2
𝑟 = √(2)2 + (−2)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (2), QIV
= √8 𝜋
= , QIV
4
= 2√2 7𝜋
= 4
7𝜋 7𝜋
= 2√2 [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
𝜋
Alternatively, using the principal argument, 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = − 4
𝜋 𝜋
= 2√2 [cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )]
3
3. 𝑧 = 1−𝑖
Let 𝑧1 = 3 and 𝑧2 = 1 − 𝑖
𝑟1 = √(3)2 + (0)2 𝑟2 = √(1)2 + (−1)2

= √9 = √2
=3
0 1
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧1 = tan−1 (3), +𝑥-axis 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧2 = tan−1 (1), QIV
𝜋
=0 = 4, QIV
𝜋
= −4
𝑧1 𝑟1
= [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
𝑧2 𝑟2
3 𝜋 𝜋
= [cos (0 − (− )) + 𝑖 sin (0 − (− ))]
√2 4 4
3√2 𝜋 𝜋
= [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
2 4 4
Powers of 𝒛. The nth power of 𝑧 for any integer 𝑛 is given by
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
DeMoivre’s Formula. When 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃, it follows that 𝑟 = 1 and
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃
DeMoivre’s formula is useful in deriving certain trigonometric identities.
Example 2.2. Compute the indicated power. Express the answer in rectangular form.
1. (2 + 𝑖3)5
3
𝑟 = √(2)2 + (3)2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (2), QI
= √13 = 0.9828

5
𝑧 5 = (√13) [cos(5(0.9828)) + 𝑖 sin(5(0.9828))]
= 609.3382(cos 4.9140 + 𝑖 sin 4.9140)
= 609.3382(cos 4.9140) + 𝑖609.3382(sin 4.9140)
= 122.0187 − 𝑖596.9962
9
2. (−1 − 𝑖√2)
√2
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (√2)
2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 ( 1 ), QIII
= 0.9553 − 𝜋
= √3
= −2.1863

9
𝑧 9 = (√3) [cos(9(−2.1863)) + 𝑖 sin(9(−2.1863))]
= 140.2961(cos(−19.6767) + 𝑖 sin(−19.19.6767))
= 140.2961(cos(−19.6767)) + 𝑖140.2961 (sin(−19.6767))
= 94.9777 − 𝑖103.2581
𝜋 𝜋 6
3. (cos 8 + 𝑖 sin 8 )
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑧 = cos + 𝑖 sin . Then 𝑟 = 1 and 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = .
8 8 8

𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 6 = (1)6 [cos (6 ( 8 )) + 𝑖 sin (6 ( 8 ))]
3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos 4 + 𝑖 sin 4
= −0.7071 + 𝑖0.7071
Roots of 𝒛. The 𝑛 nth roots of a nonzero complex number 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) are given by
1 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝜃 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
𝑛 𝑛
Where 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛 − 1.
The root 𝑤 of a complex number 𝑧 obtained by using the principal argument of 𝑧 with 𝑘 = 0
is called the principal nth root of 𝒛.
Example 2.3 Compute all the roots.

1
1. (4)3
0
𝑟 = √(4)2 + (0)2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (4), +𝑥-axis
=4 =0
1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2
𝑛 𝑛
1
0+2𝜋(0) 0+2𝜋(0)
𝑤0 = (4)3 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1
= (4)3 [cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0]
= 1.5874 cos 0 + 𝑖 1.5874 sin 0
= 1.5874
1
0+2𝜋(1) 0+2𝜋(1)
𝑤1 = (4)3 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1
2𝜋 2𝜋
= (4) [cos
3 + 𝑖 sin ]
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= 1.5874 cos 3 + 𝑖 1.5874 sin 3
= −0.7937 + 𝑖1.3747
1
0+2𝜋(2) 0+2𝜋(2)
𝑤2 = (4)3 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
3 3
1
4𝜋 4𝜋
= (4) [cos
3 + 𝑖 sin ]
3 3
4𝜋 4𝜋
= 1.5874 cos 3 + 𝑖 1.5874 sin 3
= −0.7937 − 𝑖1.3747
1
2. (−2𝑖 )2
2
𝑟 = √(0)2 + (−2)2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (0), −𝑦-axis
=2 =−2
𝜋
1
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1
𝑛 𝑛
1 𝜋 𝜋
− +2𝜋(0) − +2𝜋(0)
𝑤0 = (2) [cos (2 2
) + 𝑖 sin ( 2
)]
2 2
1
𝜋 𝜋
= (2) [cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )]
2
𝜋 𝜋
= 1.4142 cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 1.4142 sin (− 4 )
=1−𝑖
1 𝜋 𝜋
− +2𝜋(1) − +2𝜋(1)
𝑤1 = (2) [cos (2 2
) + 𝑖 sin ( 2
)]
2 2
1
3𝜋 3𝜋
= (2) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
2
3𝜋 3𝜋
= 1.4142 cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 1.4142 sin ( 4 )
= −1 + 𝑖
1
3. (−1 + 𝑖 )4
1
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (1)2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (1), QII
= √2 =𝜋−4=
𝜋 3𝜋
4
1
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3
𝑛 𝑛
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(0) +2𝜋(0)
𝑤0 = (√2)4 [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4 4
1
4 3𝜋 3𝜋
= (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
16 16
3𝜋 3𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= 0.9067 + 𝑖0.6058
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(1) +2𝜋(1)
4 4 4
𝑤1 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
11𝜋 11𝜋
= (√2)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
16
11𝜋 11𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= −0.6058 + 𝑖0.9067
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(2) +2𝜋(2)
4 4 4
𝑤2 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
19𝜋 19𝜋
= (√2)4 [cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
19𝜋 19𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= −0.9067 − 𝑖0.6058
1 3𝜋 3𝜋
+2𝜋(3) +2𝜋(3)
4 4 4
𝑤3 = (√2) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
27𝜋 27𝜋
= (√2)4 [cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 16 )]
27𝜋 27𝜋
= 1.0905 cos ( 16 ) + 𝑖 1.0905 sin ( 16 )
= 0.6058 − 𝑖0.9067
Example 2.4. Find all solutions of the given equation.
1. 𝑧 4 + 1 = 0
𝑧 4 = −1
1 1
(𝑧 4 )4 = (−1)4
1
𝑧 = (−1)4
0
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (0)2 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (1), −𝑥-axis
=1 =𝜋
1
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )], 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3
𝑛 𝑛
1
𝜋+2𝜋(0) 𝜋+2𝜋(0)
𝑤0 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
𝜋 𝜋
= (1)4 [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
𝜋 𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= 0.7071 + 𝑖0.7071
1
𝜋+2𝜋(1) 𝜋+2𝜋(1)
𝑤1 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
3𝜋 3𝜋
= (1) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4
3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= −0.7071 + 𝑖0.7071
1
𝜋+2𝜋(2) 𝜋+2𝜋(2)
𝑤2 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
5𝜋 5𝜋
= (1) [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4
4 4
5𝜋 5𝜋
= cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )
= −0.7071 − 𝑖0.7071
1
𝜋+2𝜋(3) 𝜋+2𝜋(3)
𝑤3 = (1)4 [cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )]
4 4
1
7𝜋 7𝜋
= (1) [cos ( 4 ) + 𝑖 sin ( 4 )]
4
7𝜋 7𝜋
= cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin ( )
4 4
= 0.7071 − 𝑖0.7071
PROBLEM SET 2
POWERS AND ROOTS
Express the following complex number in its polar form.
𝜋
1. 1 − 𝑖 2
2+5𝑖
2. −4−7𝑖
3. 𝑖 7 (√3 − 𝑖10)(2 − 𝑖5)

For Problems 4 – 6, compute the indicated power.
4
4. (−√6 + 𝑖√2)
𝜋 𝜋 7
5. [√2 (cos 7 + 𝑖 sin 7 )]
𝑖 5
6. (− 3−2𝑖 )
For Problems 7 and 8, find and graph all the roots in the complex plane.
1
7. (3 + 𝑖4)5
2
8. (−1 + 𝑖 )3
For Problems 9 and 10, find all the solutions of the given equation.
9. 𝑧 4 − 3𝑖𝑧 2 − 2 = 0
10. 𝑧 8 − 2𝑧 4 + 1 = 0
LESSON 3
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Define a complex function, and
2. Evaluate exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

hyperbolic, and inverse trigonometric functions of a
complex variable.
Recall from Calculus. A real function 𝑓 defined on a set 𝑆 of real numbers is a rule that
assigns to every 𝑥 in 𝑆 a real number 𝑓(𝑥), called the value of 𝑓 at 𝑥.
In complex analysis, 𝑆 is a set of complex numbers. And a function 𝑓 defined on 𝑆 is a rule

that assigns to every 𝑧 in 𝑆 a complex number 𝑤, called the value of 𝑓 at 𝑧. This can be
written as
𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)
Hence, a complex function 𝑓 (𝑧) is equivalent to a pair of real functions 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑣 (𝑥, 𝑦),
each depending on the two real variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.
Example 3.1. Find the 𝑅𝑒 𝑓, and 𝐼𝑚 𝑓 and their values at the given point 𝑧.
1. 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 5𝑧 at 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖2
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 5𝑧
𝑓 (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)2 − 5(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦)
= (𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑖 2 𝑦 2 ) − (5𝑥 + 𝑖5𝑦)
= [𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 + (−1)𝑦 2 ] − (5𝑥 + 𝑖5𝑦)
= [𝑥 2 + 𝑖2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ] − 5𝑥 − 𝑖5𝑦
= (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥) + 𝑖(2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦)
𝑢 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥
𝑅𝑒 𝑓 (1 − 𝑖2) = (1)2 − (−2)2 − 5(1)
= −8
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) = 2𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦
𝐼𝑚 𝑓 (1 − 𝑖2) = 2(1)(−2) − 5(−2)
=6
1
2. 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧+1 at 𝑧 = 𝑖2
1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧+1
1
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = (𝑥+𝑖𝑦)+1
1
= (𝑥+1)+𝑖𝑦
1 (𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)+𝑖𝑦 ∙ (𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= [(𝑥+1)+𝑖𝑦][(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦]
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2 −𝑖 2 𝑦 2
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2 −(−1)𝑦 2
(𝑥+1)−𝑖𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2
+𝑦 2
(𝑥+1) 𝑦
= (𝑥+1)2+𝑦 2 − 𝑖 (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦 2
(𝑥+1)
𝑢 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦 2
(0+1)
𝑅𝑒 𝑓 (𝑖2) = (0+1)2+(2)2
1
=5
𝑦
𝑣 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑓 (𝑧) = (𝑥+1)2 +𝑦 2
2
𝐼𝑚 𝑓(𝑖2) = (0+1)2+(2)2
2
=5
Exponential Function. The definition of 𝑒 𝑧 in terms of the real functions 𝑒 𝑥 , cos 𝑦, and sin 𝑦 is
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)
• Note that the so-called Euler formula is given by 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦.

• The exponential form of a complex number, 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) can now be
written as
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Example 3.2. Express 𝑒 𝑧 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
𝜋
1. 𝑧 = 𝑖 6
𝜋
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒𝑖6
𝜋 𝜋
= cos 6 + 𝑖 sin 6
= 0.8660 + 𝑖0.5000
𝜋
2. 𝑧 = 2 − 𝑖 4
𝜋
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 2−𝑖 4
𝜋
= 𝑒 2 𝑒 −𝑖 4
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 2 [cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 sin (− 4 )]
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑒 2 cos (− 4 ) + 𝑖 𝑒 2 sin (− 4 )
= 5.2249 − 𝑖5.2249
3. 𝑧 = −0.25 − 𝑖
𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 −0.25−𝑖
= 𝑒 −0.25 𝑒 −𝑖
= 𝑒 −0.25 [cos(−1) + 𝑖 sin(−1)]
= 𝑒 −0.25 cos(−1) + 𝑖 𝑒 −0.25 sin(−1)
= 0.4208 − 𝑖0.6553
Logarithmic Function. For 𝑧 ≠ 0, and 𝜃 = arg 𝑧,
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
• The principal value of ln 𝑧 is the complex logarithm corresponding to 𝑛 = 0 and 𝜃 =

𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧. This can be written as
𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧
Example 3.3. Express ln 𝑧 in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏. Also evaluate the principal value of ln 𝑧.
1. 𝑧 = −5
5
𝑟 = √(0)2 + (−5)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (0), −𝑥-axis
=5 =𝜋
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 (𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
ln(−5) = ln(5) + 𝑖 (𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
= 1.6094 + 𝑖 (𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
For the principal value: 5

𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (0), −𝑥-axis
=𝜋
= ln(5) + 𝑖𝜋
= 1.6094 + 𝑖3.1416
2. 𝑧 = −12 + 𝑖5
5
𝑟 = √(−12)2 + (5)2 𝜃 = tan−1 (12), QII
= 13 = 0.3948, QII
= 2.7468
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 (𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

ln(−12 + 𝑖5) = ln(13) + 𝑖 (2.7468 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
= 2.5649 + 𝑖(2.7468 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 (12), QII
= 0.3948, QII
= 2.7468
= ln(13) + 𝑖2.7468
= 2.5649 + 𝑖2.7468
3. 𝑧 = √3 − 𝑖7
7
2 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ), QIV
𝑟 = √(√3) + (−7)2 √3
= 1.3282, QIV
= 7.2111
= 4.9550
ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 (𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

ln(√3 − 𝑖7) = ln(7.2111) + 𝑖 (4.9550 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
= 1.9756 + 𝑖(4.9550 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …
𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = tan−1 ( ), QIV
√3
= 1.3282, QIV
= −1.3282
= ln(7.2111) − 𝑖1.3282
= 1.9756 − 𝑖1.3282
Example 3.4. Find all values of the given quantity.
1. 𝑒 𝑧−1 = −𝑖𝑒 2
𝐿𝑛 ((𝑒 𝑧−1 )) = 𝐿𝑛 (−𝑖𝑒 2 )

𝑧 − 1 = 𝐿𝑛(−𝑖𝑒 2 ) 𝑟 = 𝑒2
𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = − 2
𝜋
𝑧 − 1 = ln 𝑒 2 + 𝑖 (− 2 )
𝜋
𝑧 − 1 = 2 + 𝑖 (− 2 )
𝜋
𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖 (− 2 )
2. (−𝑖 )𝑖
Convert first −𝑖 to exponential form.

𝜋
𝑟 = 1 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = − 2
𝜋 𝜋
−𝑖 = 1𝑒 𝑖(− 2 ) = 𝑒 𝑖(− 2 )
𝜋 𝑖
(−𝑖 )𝑖 = (𝑒 𝑖(− 2 ) )
2(−𝜋)
= 𝑒𝑖 2
𝜋
(−1)(− )
=𝑒 2
𝜋
= 𝑒2
3. log(−5 − 𝑖2)
𝑧 = −5 − 𝑖2
𝑟 = √29 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = −2.7611
𝑧 = √29𝑒 −𝑖2.7611
log 𝑧 = log(√29𝑒 −𝑖2.7611 )

= log(√29) + log(𝑒 −𝑖2.7611 )
= log(√29) + (−𝑖2.7611) log 𝑒
= log(√29) − 𝑖(2.7611 log 𝑒)
= 0.7312 − 𝑖1.1991
4. log 2+𝑖 (3 − 𝑖5)
Let 𝑥 = log 2+𝑖 (3 − 𝑖5)
(2 + 𝑖 )𝑥 = 3 − 𝑖5
𝐿𝑛 ((2 + 𝑖 )𝑥 ) = 𝐿𝑛 (3 − 𝑖5)
𝑥 𝐿𝑛 (2 + 𝑖 ) = 𝐿𝑛 (3 − 𝑖5)
𝐿𝑛 (3−𝑖5)
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑛 (2+𝑖)
For 𝑧1 = 3 − 𝑖5 , 𝑟1 = √34 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧1 ) = −1.0304

For 𝑧2 = 2 + 𝑖 , 𝑟2 = √5 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧2 ) = 0.4636
𝐿𝑛 (3−𝑖5) ln √34−𝑖1.0304
𝑥= = ln(√5)+𝑖0.4636
𝐿𝑛 (2+𝑖)
1.7632−𝑖1.0304
= 0.8047+𝑖0.4636
= 1.0912 − 𝑖1.9092
5. (3 + 𝑖4)(1+𝑖2)
Convert 3 + 𝑖4 in exponential form.
𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖4 , 𝑟 = 5 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = 0.9273

𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖4 = 5𝑒 𝑖0.9273
(1+𝑖2)
(3 + 𝑖4)(1+𝑖2) = (5𝑒 𝑖0.9273 )
(1+𝑖2)
= (𝑒 ln 5+𝑖0.9273 )
= 𝑒 (ln 5+𝑖0.9273)(1+𝑖2)
= 𝑒 −0.2452+𝑖4.1462
= 𝑒 −0.2452 𝑒 𝑖4.1462
= 0.7825(cos 4.1462 + 𝑖 sin 4.1462)
= −0.4197 − 𝑖0.6604
Trigonometric Function. If 𝑥 is a real variable, then Euler’s formula gives
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 and

𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥
By adding (or subtracting) the above equations, we can obtain an equation for cos 𝑥 (or sin 𝑥 )
in terms of exponential functions.
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
cos 𝑥 = (1)
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
sin 𝑥 = (2)
𝑖2
Let 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑦 and from (1),
𝑒 𝑖(𝑖𝑦) + 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑖𝑦)
cos 𝑖𝑦 =
2
𝑖2𝑦 2
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑦
=
2
𝑒 −𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦
=
2
= cosh 𝑦
Also, let 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑦 and from (2),
𝑒 𝑖(𝑖𝑦) − 𝑒 −𝑖(𝑖𝑦)
sin 𝑖𝑦 =
𝑖2
2 2
𝑒 𝑖 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑖 𝑦
=
𝑖2
𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦
=
2𝑖
𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 𝑖
= ∙
𝑖2 𝑖
𝑖 (𝑒 −𝑦 − 𝑒 𝑦 )
=
2𝑖 2
𝑖 (𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑦 )
−𝑦
=
−2
𝑖(−𝑒 −𝑦 + 𝑒 𝑦 )
=
2
= 𝑖 sinh 𝑦
Recall: The definitions of hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine in terms of the real exponential
functions 𝑒 𝑦 and 𝑒 −𝑦 are as follows:
𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
cosh 𝑦 =
2
𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
sinh 𝑦 =
2
Evaluating cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) and sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) respectively gives
cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦

= cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − sin 𝑥 (𝑖 sinh 𝑦)
= cos 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦

= sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 (𝑖 sinh 𝑦)
= sin 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + 𝑖 cos 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
Note: The trigonometric identities are also the same in the complex case.
Hyperbolic Functions. For any complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑒 𝑧 +𝑒 −𝑧
cosh 𝑧 = and
2
𝑒 𝑧 −𝑒 −𝑧
sinh 𝑧 = 2
Evaluating cosh 𝑧 and sinh 𝑧 respectively gives
cosh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
sinh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦
Example 3.6. Evaluate the following.
1. sin(3 + 𝑖4)
= sin 3 cosh 4 + 𝑖 cos 3 sinh 4

= 3.8537 + 𝑖(−27.0168)
= 3.8537 − 𝑖27.0168
2. tan(3 − 𝑖7)
sin(3 − 𝑖7)
=
cos(3 − 𝑖7)
sin 3 cosh(−7) + 𝑖 cos 3 sinh(−7)
=
cos 3 cosh(−7) − 𝑖 sin 3 sinh(−7)
77.3785 + 𝑖(542.8288)
=
−542.8296 − 𝑖 (−77.3784)
77.3785 + 𝑖542.8288
=
−542.8296 + 𝑖77.3784
= −3.8645𝑥10−7 − 𝑖
= −𝑖
3. sinh(2 + 3𝑖 )
= sinh 2 cos 3 + 𝑖 cosh 2 sin 3

= −3.5906 + 𝑖0.5309
4. sech(1 − 𝑖2)
1
=
cosh(1 − 𝑖2)
1
=
cosh 1 cos(−2) + 𝑖 sinh 1 sin(−2)
1
=
−0.6421 + 𝑖(−1.0686)
1
=
−0.6421 − 𝑖1.0686
= −0.4131 + 𝑖0.6876
5. sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2)
Let 𝑥 = sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2)
sin 𝑥 = sin(sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2))

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= 1 + 𝑖2
𝑖2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = (1 + 𝑖2 )(𝑖2)
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = −4 + 𝑖2 (multiply both sides by 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 )
2
(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) − 1 = (−4 + 𝑖2)𝑒 𝑖𝑥
2
(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) − (−4 + 𝑖2)𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 1 = 0 (use quadratic formula)
−[−(−4 + 𝑖2)] ± √[−(−4 + 𝑖2)]2 − 4(1)(−1)

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =
2(1)
(−4+𝑖2)±√(12−𝑖16)+4
= 2
(−4+𝑖2)±√16−𝑖16
= 2
(−4+𝑖2)±4√1−𝑖
= 2
Evaluate √1 − 𝑖.
𝜋
𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 , 𝑟 = √2 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = − 4
1 𝜋
− +2𝜋(0)
4
𝑤0 = (√2)2 ∠ = 1.0987 − 𝑖0.4551
2
1 𝜋
− +2𝜋(1)
2 4
𝑤1 = (√2) ∠ = −1.0987 + 𝑖0.4551
2
(−4+𝑖2)±4√1−𝑖
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = (use the principal square root, 𝑤0 )
2
(−4 + 𝑖2) + 4(1.0987 − 𝑖0.4551)

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 0.1974 + 𝑖0.0898
ln(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) = ln(0.1974 + 𝑖0.0898𝑖 )
𝑖𝑥 = ln(0.2169) + 𝑖0.4269
ln(0.2169) + 𝑖0.4269
𝑥=
𝑖
𝑥 = 0.4276 + 𝑖1.5283
(−4 + 2𝑖 ) − 4(1.0987 − 𝑖0.4551)

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = −4.1974 + 𝑖1.9102
ln(𝑒 𝑖𝑥 ) = ln(−4.1974 + 𝑖1.9102)
𝑖𝑥 = ln(4.6116) + 𝑖2.7145
ln(4.6116) + 𝑖2.7145
𝑥=
𝑖
𝑥 = 2.7145 − 𝑖1.5286
6. coth−1 (1 + 𝑖 )
Let 𝑥 = coth−1 (1 + 𝑖 )
coth 𝑥 = coth(coth−1 (1 + 𝑖 ))
cosh 𝑥
= 1+𝑖
sinh 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 +𝑒−𝑥
2
𝑒𝑥 −𝑒−𝑥 =1+𝑖
2
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥
=1+𝑖
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 + 𝑒 = (1 + 𝑖 )(𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
𝑥 −𝑥
(multiply both sides by 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1 = (1 + 𝑖 )(𝑒 2𝑥 − 1)
𝑒 2𝑥 + 1 = 𝑒 2𝑥 − 1 + 𝑖𝑒 2𝑥 − 𝑖
𝑖𝑒 2𝑥 = 2 + 𝑖
2+𝑖
𝑒 2𝑥 = 𝑖
𝑒 2𝑥 = 1 − 𝑖2
ln(𝑒 2𝑥 ) = ln(−1 + 𝑖2)
2𝑥 = ln(√5) − 𝑖1.1071
ln(√5)−𝑖1.1071
𝑥= 2
𝑥 = 0.4024 − 𝑖0.5536
PROBLEM SET 3
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
Express each of the following in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.
1. sin(2 − 𝑖 )
2. cosh(1 − 𝑖2)
3. 𝑒 𝑧 = −2
4. 2𝑖
5. 𝐿𝑛 (−3 + 𝑖4)
6. (1 − 𝑖 )2−𝑖3
7. tanh−1 𝑖
8. cos −1 5
For Problems 9 and 10, prove or disprove the following.
9. 𝑒̅̅̅𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧̅
10. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐿𝑛 𝑧 = ln 𝑧̅
LESSON 4
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Understand the transform concept and define the
Laplace transform, and
2. Evaluate the Laplace transforms of elementary
functions.
The concept of transform is not a new field of study. Recall in calculus that differentiation and
integration are transforms – meaning that these operations transform a particular function into
another function. Moreover, the differential operator D is another example of transforming a
function of a large class into another function. Another operator 𝐿, the Laplace transform of a
function, will be discussed in this section which is essential particularly in the study of initial value
problems involving linear differential equations with constant coefficients.
Definition of the Laplace Transform. Let 𝐹(𝑡) be any function such that its integral exists.
The Laplace transform of 𝐹(𝑡), denoted by 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)}, is a function 𝑓(𝑠) defined by
∞
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑠)
0
The Laplace operator L is a linear operator and the linearity property applies; meaning, that the
transform of a linear combination of functions is a linear combination of the transforms. This is
illustrated below:
𝐿{𝑐1 𝐹1 (𝑡) + 𝑐2 𝐹2 (𝑡) + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑘 𝐹𝑘 (𝑡)} = 𝑐1 𝐿{𝐹1 (𝑡)} + 𝑐2 𝐿{𝐹2 (𝑡)} + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑘 𝐿{𝐹𝑘 (𝑡)}
Example 4.1. Evaluate the Laplace transform of the following functions.
1. 𝐹(𝑡) = 1
∞
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (1) 𝑑𝑡
∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Let 𝑢 = −𝑠𝑡
𝑑𝑢 = −𝑠 𝑑𝑡
1 ∞
= − 𝑠 ∫0 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1
= − 𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 )|∞
0
1
= − 𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑠(∞) − 𝑒 −𝑠(0) )
1
= − 𝑠 (0 − 1 )
1
= − 𝑠 (−1)
1
=𝑠
1
∴ 𝐿{1} = 𝑠
2. 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡
∞
0
∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
∞
= ∫0 𝑡𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Use IBP.
𝑢=𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 = − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
1 ∞ 1
= 𝑡 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) − ∫0 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑡
1 1 ∞
= − 𝑠 𝑡𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 + 𝑠 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 1
= (− 𝑡𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) |∞
0
𝑠 𝑠2
1 1 1 1
= (− 𝑠 (∞)𝑒 −𝑠(∞) − 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠(∞) ) − (− 𝑠 (0)𝑒 −𝑠(0) − 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠(0) )
1
= (0 − 0) − (0 − 𝑠 2 (1))
1
= − (− 𝑠 2)
1
=
𝑠2
1
∴ 𝐿{𝑡} = 𝑠 2
3. 𝐹(𝑡) = cos 𝑡
∞
0
∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (cos 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Use IBP.
𝑢 = cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 = − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
1 ∞ 1
= (cos 𝑡) (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) − ∫0 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) (− sin 𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1 1 ∞
= − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 − 𝑠 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑢 = sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1
𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑣 = − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
1 1 1 ∞ 1
= − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 − 𝑠 [(sin 𝑡) (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) − ∫0 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡]
1 1 1 ∞
= − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡 − 𝑠 ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞ 1 1 1 ∞
∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡 − 𝑠2 ∫0 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞ 1 ∞ 1 1
∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑠2 ∫0 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡
𝑠 2+1 ∞ 1 1
𝑠2
∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡
1 1
∞ − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡+ 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡
∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠 𝑠
𝑠2 +1
𝑠2
𝑠2 1 1
= (𝑠 2+1) (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 cos 𝑡 + 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 sin 𝑡) |∞
0
𝑠2 1 1 −𝑠(∞)
=( ) [(− 𝑒 −𝑠(∞) cos(∞) + 𝑒 sin(∞)) −
𝑠 2+1 𝑠 𝑠2
1 1 −𝑠(0)
(− 𝑒 −𝑠(0) cos(0) + 𝑠2 𝑒 sin(0))]
𝑠
𝑠2 1
= (𝑠 2+1) [(0 + 0) − (− 𝑠 (1) + 0)]
𝑠2 1
= (𝑠 2+1) (𝑠 )
𝑠
= 𝑠 2+1
𝑠
∴ 𝐿{cos 𝑡} = 𝑠 2+1
𝑡2 , 0<𝑡<2
4. 𝐺 (𝑡) = {
3, 𝑡>2
∞
𝐿{𝐺(𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐺(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
0
2 ∞
= ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡 2 ) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (3) 𝑑𝑡
2 ∞
= ∫0 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 3 ∫2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
Use IBP (shortcut) for ∫0 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡.
+ 𝑡2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
- 2𝑡 1
− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
+2 1 −𝑠𝑡
2𝑒 𝑠
1
0 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑠3
1 2 2 1
= (− 𝑠 𝑡 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 − 𝑠 2 𝑡𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 − 𝑠 3 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) |20 + 3 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) |∞
2
1 2 2
= [(− (2)2 𝑒 −𝑠(2) − (2)𝑒 −𝑠(2) − 𝑒 −𝑠(2) ) −
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3
1 2 2
(− (0)2 𝑒 −𝑠(0) − 2 (0)𝑒 −𝑠(0) − 3 𝑒 −𝑠(0) )] +
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 1
3 [(− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠(∞) ) − (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠(2) )]
4 4 −2𝑠 2 2
= [(− 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 −2𝑠 ) − (0 − 0 − (1))] +
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠3 𝑠3
1
3 [0 − (− 𝑒 −2𝑠 )]
𝑠
4 4 2 2 3
= − 𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 𝑠 2 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 𝑠 3 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 𝑠 3 + 𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑠
1 4 −2𝑠
= − 𝑠 𝑒−2𝑠 −
𝑠2
𝑒 − 𝑠23 𝑒−2𝑠 + 𝑠23
𝑡2 , 0<𝑡<2 1 4 2 2
∴ 𝐿 {𝐺(𝑡) = { } = − 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 2 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 3 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 3
3, 𝑡>2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
Transforms of Some Basic Functions. Below are Laplace transforms of common functions.
These formulas can be easily utilized to evaluate 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} without using the integration
presented above.
1
𝐿{1} =
𝑠
𝑛!
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
𝑠 𝑛+1
1
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
𝑠−𝑎
𝑘
𝐿{sin 𝑘𝑡} =
+ 𝑘2𝑠2
𝑠
𝐿{cos 𝑘𝑡} = 2
𝑠 + 𝑘2
𝑘
𝐿{sinh 𝑘𝑡} = 2
𝑠 − 𝑘2
𝑠
𝐿{cosh 𝑘𝑡} = 2
𝑠 − 𝑘2
1. 𝐹(𝑡) = cos 𝑡
Using the formula,

𝑠
𝐿{cos 𝑘𝑡} = 𝑠 2+𝑘 2
𝐿{cos 𝑡}: 𝑘 = 1
𝑠
𝐿{cos 𝑡} = 𝑠 2+(1)2
𝑠
= 𝑠 2+1
(Note that the same answer was obtained in Example 4.1 Number 3)
2. 𝐹 (𝑡) = 3 cos 5𝑡
Using the formula,

𝑠
𝐿{cos 𝑘𝑡} = 𝑠 2+𝑘 2
𝐿{3 cos 5𝑡} = 3 𝐿{cos 5𝑡}: 𝑘 = 5

𝑠
3 𝐿{cos 5𝑡} = 3 (𝑠 2+(5)2 )
3𝑠
= 𝑠 2+25
3. 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑒 −3𝑡
Using the formula,

1
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
𝑠−𝑎
𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 }: 𝑎 = −3
1
𝐿{𝑒 −3𝑡 } = 𝑠−(−3)
1
= 𝑠+3
1
4. 𝐹(𝑡) = 6 𝑡 4
Using the formula,

𝑛!
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑠 𝑛+1
1 1
𝐿 {6 𝑡 4 } = 6 𝐿{𝑡 4 }: 𝑛 = 4
1 1 4!
𝐿{𝑡 4 } = 6 (𝑠 4+1)
6
1 4(3)(2)(1)
= 6( )
𝑠5
4
= 𝑠5
5. 𝐹(𝑡) = sin 4𝑡 + cosh 2𝑡 − 8𝑒 2𝑡
𝐿{sin 4𝑡 + cosh 2𝑡 − 8𝑒 2𝑡 } = 𝐿{sin 4𝑡} + 𝐿{cosh 2𝑡} − 8 𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 }
𝑘 4 4
𝐿{sin 𝑘𝑡} = : 𝐿{sin 4𝑡} = =
𝑠 2 +𝑘 2 𝑠 2 +(4)2 𝑠 2+16
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝐿{cos 𝑘𝑡} = 𝑠2+𝑘 2 : 𝐿{cosh 2𝑡} = 𝑠2 −(2)2 = 𝑠2 −4
1 1
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } = 𝑠−𝑎 : 𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 } = 𝑠−2
𝐿{sin 4𝑡 + cosh 2𝑡 − 8𝑒 2𝑡 } = 𝐿{sin 4𝑡} + 𝐿{cosh 2𝑡} − 8 𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 }

4 𝑠 1
= 2 + 2 − 8( )
𝑠 +16 𝑠 −4 𝑠−2
4 𝑠 8
= 𝑠2 +16 + 𝑠2−4 − 𝑠−2
Translation Theorems. The translation theorems help us in obtaining the Laplace transforms of
some functions not included in the formula presented above. These theorems also provide an
easy way of evaluating the transform by not using the definition via integration. Two translation
theorems will be presented below.
1. Translation on the s-axis. The first translation theorem or first shifting theorem can be
used for obtaining the Laplace transform of any function 𝐻 (𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ∙ 𝐹 (𝑡); meaning, a
function 𝐹 (𝑡) multiplied with 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 . The theorem states that 𝑠 will be replaced by 𝑠 − 𝑎
in the transform of 𝐹 (𝑡). By definition,
If 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠) and 𝑎 is any real number, then
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐹(𝑡)} = 𝑓 (𝑠 − 𝑎)
Example 4.3. Evaluate the 𝐿{𝐻 (𝑡)}.
1. 𝐻 (𝑡) = 𝑒 3𝑡 cos 5𝑡
Using the First Translation Theorem,
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠 − 𝑎)

𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 cos 5𝑡}: 𝐹(𝑡) = cos 5𝑡 , 𝑎 = 3
Evaluate 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} first.

𝑠
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{cos 5𝑡} (Use formula: 𝐿{cos 𝑘𝑡} =
𝑠 2 +𝑘 2
)
𝑠
= 𝑠 2+(5)2
𝑠
= 𝑠 2 +25
𝑠
𝐿{𝑒 3𝑡 cos 5𝑡} = (𝑠 2+25) (Replace 𝑠 by 𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝑠→𝑠−3
(𝑠−3)
= (𝑠−3)2 +25
𝑠−3
= 𝑠 2−6𝑠+9+25
𝑠−3
= 𝑠 2−6𝑠+34
2. 𝐻 (𝑡) = 𝑡 3 𝑒 −6𝑡
𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠 − 𝑎)

𝐿{𝑡 3 𝑒 −6𝑡 }: 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡 3 , 𝑎 = −6
Evaluate 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} first.

𝑛!
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡 3 } (Use formula: 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑠𝑛+1)
3!
= 𝑠 3+1
3(2)(1)
= 𝑠4
6
= 𝑠4
6
𝐿{𝑡 3 𝑒 −6𝑡 } = (𝑠 4) (Replace 𝑠 by 𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝑠→𝑠−(−6)
6
= (𝑠 4 )
𝑠→𝑠+6
6
= (𝑠+6)4
3. 𝐻 (𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 (𝑡 − 1)2
Rewrite 𝐻 (𝑡) first.
𝐻 (𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 (𝑡 − 1)2
= 𝑒 2𝑡 (𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 1)
= 𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 − 2𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝑡
𝐿{𝐻 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 − 2𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 + 𝑒 2𝑡 }

= 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 } − 2𝐿{𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 } + 𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 } (Use linearity property)
➢ 𝐿{ 𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 }: 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 , 𝑎 = 2
𝑛!
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡 2 } (Use formula: 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑠𝑛+1)
2!
= 𝑠 2+1
2(1)
= 𝑠3
2
= 𝑠3
2
𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 } = (𝑠 3) (Replace 𝑠 by 𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝑠→𝑠−2
2
= (𝑠−2)3
➢ 𝐿{𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 }: 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡 , 𝑎 = 2
𝑛!
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡} (Use formula: 𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 } = 𝑠𝑛+1)
1!
= 𝑠 1+1
1
= 𝑠2
1
𝐿{𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 } = (𝑠 2) (Replace 𝑠 by 𝑠 − 𝑎)
𝑠→𝑠−2
1
= (𝑠−2)2
1 1
➢ 𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 } = 𝑠−2 (Use formula: 𝐿{𝑒 𝑎𝑡 } =
𝑠−𝑎
)
𝐿{𝐻 (𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 } − 2𝐿{𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 } + 𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 }
2 1 1
= (𝑠−2)3 − 2 ((𝑠−2)2 ) + 𝑠−2
2 2 1
= (𝑠−2)3 − (𝑠−2)2 +
𝑠−2
2. Translation on the t-axis. Translation on the t-axis is useful especially in solving

ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with complicated functions. Some applications
include single waves, discontinuous inputs or inputs acting for some time only, periodic
inputs, or impulsive forces acting for an instant.
Unit Step Function (Heaviside Function). The unit step function is a representation of
functions that are either “on” or “off”. One example is a voltage impressed on a circuit which
can be turned off after a period of time. It is convenient to define this as a function
represented by 0 (off) up to a certain time 𝑡 = 𝑎 and then by 1 (on) after that time. By
definition,
The unit step function 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) is given by
0, 0≤𝑡<𝑎
𝑈 (𝑡 − 𝑎 ) = {
1, 𝑡≥𝑎
The graph of the unit step function is given below.
In general, when a function defined for 𝑡 ≥ 0 is multiplied by 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎), the unit step
function “turns off” the portion of the graph on the interval 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑎 as seen above. For
instance, if we have a function 𝑓 (𝑡) = cos 𝑡 and we want to “turn off” a portion of the graph
on the interval 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝜋, we simply form the product 𝑓(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎), which in our case,
cos 𝑡 ∙ 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋).
Moreover, the unit step function can also be used to write piecewise-defined functions in a
compact form. A general piecewise-defined function given by
𝑔 (𝑡 ) , 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑎
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = {
ℎ (𝑡 ) , 𝑡≥𝑎
can be written as
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = 𝑔 (𝑡 ) − 𝑔 (𝑡 )𝑈 ( 𝑡 − 𝑎 ) + ℎ ( 𝑡 )𝑈 (𝑡 − 𝑎 ) (Eqn. 4.1)
Also, a function defined as
𝑔 (𝑡 ) , 0≤𝑡<𝑎
𝑓 ( 𝑡 ) = { ℎ (𝑡 ) , 𝑎≤𝑡<𝑏
𝑗 (𝑡 ) , 𝑡≥𝑏
can be written as
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) + [ℎ(𝑡) − 𝑔(𝑡)]𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) + [𝑗(𝑡) − ℎ(𝑡)]𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑏) (Eqn. 4.2)
Example 4.4. Convert the following functions into unit step functions.
𝑡−1, 𝑡 <1
1. 𝑓 (𝑡 ) = {
𝑡+1, 𝑡 >1
Use Eqn. 4.1.
𝑡−1, 𝑡 < 1
𝑓 (𝑡) = { : 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 − 1 , ℎ(𝑡) = 𝑡 + 1 , 𝑎 = 1
𝑡+1, 𝑡 > 1
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) − 𝑔(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) + ℎ(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)

= ( 𝑡 − 1) − (𝑡 − 1)𝑈 (𝑡 − 1) + (𝑡 + 1 )𝑈 (𝑡 − 1)
(factor out 𝑈(𝑡 − 1))
= (𝑡 − 1) − [(𝑡 − 1) − (𝑡 + 1)]𝑈(𝑡 − 1)
= ( 𝑡 − 1) − [ 𝑡 − 1 − 𝑡 − 1 ] 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1)
= (𝑡 − 1) − (−2)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)
= ( 𝑡 − 1) + 2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1)
10𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 3
2. 𝑓 (𝑡) = {
0, 𝑡>3
Use Eqn. 4.1.
10𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 3
𝑓 (𝑡) = { : 𝑔(𝑡) = 10𝑡 , ℎ(𝑡) = 0 , 𝑎 = 3
0, 𝑡>3
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) − 𝑔(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) + ℎ(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)

= 10𝑡 − 10𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 3) + 0𝑈(𝑡 − 3)
= 10𝑡 − 10𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 3)
3. Given the graph of 𝑓 (𝑡), find the corresponding unit step function.
𝑔(𝑡), 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎
First, find the piecewise-defined function 𝑓 (𝑡) = { .
ℎ(𝑡), 𝑡 > 𝑎
The graph is composed of two linear functions divided at 𝑎 = 1 (see
figure below).
•(1, 1)
(0, 0) (2, 0)
• •
𝑎=1
For the left portion of the graph, we get two points (1, 1) and (0, 0).
𝑦 −𝑦
Using the two-point form, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑡2 −𝑡 1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ):
2 1
0−1
𝑦 − 1 = 0−1 (𝑡 − 1)
𝑦−1 =𝑡−1
𝑦=𝑡
𝑔 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡
For the right portion of the graph, we get two points (1, 1) and
𝑦 −𝑦
(2, 0). Using the two-point form, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ):
𝑡 −𝑡2 1
0−1
𝑦 − 1 = 2−1 (𝑡 − 1)
−1
𝑦 − 1 = 1 (𝑡 − 1 )
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑡 − 1)
𝑦 = −(𝑡 − 1) + 1
𝑦 = −𝑡 + 1 + 1
ℎ(𝑡) = −𝑡 + 2
𝑔(𝑡), 𝑡 ≤ 𝑎
Hence, the piecewise-defined function, 𝑓(𝑡) = { is
ℎ(𝑡), 𝑡 > 𝑎
𝑡, 𝑡≤1
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = {
−𝑡 + 2, 𝑡 > 1
Using Eqn. 4.1:
𝑡, 𝑡≤1
𝑓 (𝑡) = { : 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡 , ℎ(𝑡) = −𝑡 + 2 , 𝑎 = 1
−𝑡 + 2, 𝑡 > 1
𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑔(𝑡) − 𝑔(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) + ℎ(𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)

= 𝑡 − 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1) + (−𝑡 + 2)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)
(factor out 𝑈(𝑡 − 1))
= 𝑡 − [𝑡 − (−𝑡 + 2)]𝑈(𝑡 − 1)
= 𝑡 − [ 𝑡 + 𝑡 − 2] 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1)
= 𝑡 − (2𝑡 − 2)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)
Second Translation Theorem. The second translation theorem or second shifting theorem
states that
If 𝐿{𝐹(𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠) and 𝑎 > 0 , then
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈 (𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} (Eqn. 4.3)
Moreover,
𝑒 −𝑎𝑠
𝐿{𝑈 (𝑡 − 𝑎)} = (Eqn. 4.4)
𝑠
And an alternative form of Eqn. 4.3 is given below
𝐿{𝐺 (𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎)} (Eqn. 4.5)
Example 4.5. Find the Laplace transform of the following.
1. 𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}
Use Eqn. 4.3.
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)}
𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}: 𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑡 − 1 , 𝑎 = 1

𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡
𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑒 −(1)𝑠 𝐿{𝑡}
1!
= 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 1+1)
𝑒 −𝑠
= 𝑠2
2. 𝐿{(𝑡 − 3)2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 3)}
Use Eqn. 4.3.
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)}
𝐿{(𝑡 − 3)2 𝑈(𝑡 − 3)}: 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑡 − 3 , 𝑎 = 3

𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑡 2
𝐿{(𝑡 − 3)2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 3)} = 𝑒 −(3)𝑠 𝐿{𝑡 2 }

2!
= 𝑒 −3𝑠 (𝑠2+1 )
2
= 𝑒 −3𝑠 (𝑠3 )
2𝑒 −3𝑠
= 𝑠3
3. 𝐿{sin(𝑡 − 𝜋)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋)}
Use Eqn. 4.3.
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)}
𝐿{sin(𝑡 − 𝜋) 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋)}: 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = sin(𝑡 − 𝜋) , 𝑎 = 𝜋

𝐹 (𝑡) = sin 𝑡
𝐿{sin(𝑡 − 𝜋)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋)} = 𝑒 −(𝜋)𝑠 𝐿{sin 𝑡}

1
= 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 (𝑠 2+(1)2 )
1
= 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 (𝑠 2+1)
𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
= 𝑠 2+1
4. 𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}}
Use Eqn. 4.3.
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)}
𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}: 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑡 2 + 1 , 𝑎 = 1
To solve for 𝐹 (𝑡), express 𝑡 2 + 1 as a function of 𝑡 − 1.

𝑡 2 + 1 = 𝑎(𝑡 − 1)2 + 𝑏(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑐 (Quadratic equation)
𝑡 2 + 1 = 𝑎(𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 1) + 𝑏(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑐
= 𝑎𝑡 2 − 2𝑎𝑡 + 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑡 − 𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑡 2 + 1 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + (−2𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑡 + (𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐)
Collect the terms.

𝑡2 : 1 = 𝑎
𝑡: 0 = −2𝑎 + 𝑏
0 = −2(1) + 𝑏
𝑏=2
𝑘: 1 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐
1 = (1) − (2) + 𝑐
𝑐=2
𝑡 2 + 1 = 𝑎(𝑡 − 1)2 + 𝑏(𝑡 − 1) + 𝑐

𝑡 2 + 1 = (1)(𝑡 − 1)2 + (2)(𝑡 − 1) + (2)
𝑡 2 + 1 = (𝑡 − 1)2 + 2(𝑡 − 1) + (2)
𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}} = 𝐿{[(𝑡 − 1)2 + 2(𝑡 − 1) + (2)]𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}

= 𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} + 2𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} +
2𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}
➢ 𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}: 𝐹(𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑡 − 1 , 𝑎 = 1

𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2
2 −(1)𝑠
𝐿{(𝑡 − 1) 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑒 𝐿{𝑡 2 }
2!
= 𝑒 −𝑠 ( 2+1 )
𝑠
2
= 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠3 )
➢ 𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}: 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝑡 − 1 , 𝑎 = 1

𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡
𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑒 −(1)𝑠 𝐿{𝑡}
1!
= 𝑒 −𝑠 ( 1+1 ) 𝑠
1
= 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠2 )
𝑒−(1)𝑠
➢ 𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑠
(Use Eqn. 4.4)
𝑒−𝑠
= 𝑠
𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}}

= 𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} + 2𝐿{(𝑡 − 1)𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} +
2𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}
2 1 𝑒 −𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑠 ( 3 ) + 2 [𝑒 −𝑠 ( 2 )] + 2 ( )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
2𝑒 −𝑠 2𝑒 −𝑠 2𝑒 −𝑠
= + +
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠
Alternative Solution using Eqn. 4.5.
𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}}
𝐿{𝐺 (𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎)}
𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}}: 𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 + 1 , 𝑎 = 1

𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎) = 𝐺 (𝑡 + 1) = (𝑡 + 1)2 + 1
= (𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1) + 1
= 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 2
𝐿{(𝑡 2 + 1)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}} = 𝑒 −(1)𝑠 𝐿{𝑡2 + 2𝑡 + 2}

2! 1! 1
= 𝑒 −𝑠 [𝑠 2+1 + 2 (𝑠 1+1) + 2 ( 𝑠 )]
2 1 1
= 𝑒 −𝑠 [𝑠 3 + 2 (𝑠 2) + 2 ( 𝑠 )]
2𝑒 −𝑠 2𝑒 −𝑠 2𝑒 −𝑠
= + +
𝑠3 𝑠2 𝑠
5. 𝐿{cos 𝑡 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋)}
Use Eqn. 4.5.
𝐿{𝐺 (𝑡)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)} = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝐿{𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎)}
𝐿{cos 𝑡 𝑈{𝑡 − 𝜋}}: 𝐺(𝑡) = cos 𝑡 , 𝑎 = 𝜋

𝐺(𝑡 + 𝑎) = 𝐺(𝑡 + 𝜋) = cos(𝑡 + 𝜋)
= cos 𝑡 cos 𝜋 − sin 𝑡 sin 𝜋
= (cos 𝑡)(−1) − (sin 𝑡)(0)
= − cos 𝑡
𝐿{cos 𝑡 𝑈(𝑡 − 𝜋)} = 𝑒 −(𝜋)𝑠 𝐿{− cos 𝑡}

𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝜋𝑠 [− (𝑠 2+(1)2 )]
𝑠𝑒 −𝜋𝑠
=−
𝑠 2+1
6. Find the transform of the function defined by
2, 0<𝑡<1
1 2 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = { 2 𝑡 , 1<𝑡<2
𝜋
cos 𝑡 , 𝑡> 2
Use Eqn. 4.2.
𝑔 (𝑡 ) , 0≤𝑡<𝑎
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = { ℎ(𝑡 ) , 𝑎≤𝑡<𝑏
𝑗 (𝑡 ) , 𝑡≥𝑏
= 𝑔(𝑡) + [ℎ(𝑡) − 𝑔(𝑡)]𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎) + [𝑗(𝑡) − ℎ(𝑡)]𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑏)
2, 0<𝑡<1
1 2 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = 2 𝑡 , 1<𝑡<
2
𝜋
cos 𝑡 , 𝑡>
{ 2
1 2 1 𝜋
= 2 + [2 𝑡 − 2] 𝑈(𝑡 − 1) + [cos 𝑡 − 2 𝑡 2 ] 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 )
1 𝜋
= 2 + 2 𝑡 2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1) − 2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1) + cos 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 ) −
1 2 𝜋
2
𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 )
1 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝐿 {2 + 𝑡2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1) − 2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1) + cos 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − ) − 𝑡2 𝑈 (𝑡 − )}
2 2 2 2
1 2
= 2𝐿{1} + 2 𝐿{𝑡 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} − 2𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} +
𝜋 1 𝜋
𝐿 {cos 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2)} − 2 𝐿 {𝑡2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2)}
1
➢ 𝐿{1} = 𝑠
➢ 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)}: 𝐺(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 , 𝑎 = 1

𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎) = 𝐺 (𝑡 + 1) = (𝑡 + 1)2
= 𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1
𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑒 −(1)𝑠 𝐿{𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 1}

2 2 1
= 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠 )
𝑒 −𝑠
➢ 𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} = 𝑠
𝜋 𝜋
➢ 𝐿 {cos 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 )} : 𝐺(𝑡) = cos 𝑡 , 𝑎 = 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎) = 𝐺 (𝑡 + 2) = cos (𝑡 + 2 )
𝜋 𝜋
= cos 𝑡 cos − sin 𝑡 sin
2 2
= cos 𝑡 (0) − sin 𝑡 (1)
= − sin 𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
𝐿 {cos 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − )} = 𝑒 − 2 𝑠 𝐿{− sin 𝑡}
2 𝜋
1
= 𝑒 −2 𝑠 (− 𝑠2 +1)
𝜋
1
= −𝑒 − 2 𝑠 ( )
𝑠 2 +1
𝜋 𝜋
➢ 𝐿 {𝑡2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2)} : 𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑡 2 , 𝑎 = 2
𝜋 𝜋
2
𝐺 (𝑡 + 𝑎) = 𝐺 (𝑡 + 2) = (𝑡 + 2 )
𝜋2
= 𝑡 2 + 𝜋𝑡 + 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋2
2
𝐿 {𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − )} = 𝑒 − 2 𝑠 𝐿 {𝑡 2 + 𝜋𝑡 + }
2 4
𝜋
2 𝜋 𝜋2
= 𝑒 −2 𝑠 ( 3 + + )
𝑠 𝑠2 4𝑠
1
𝐿{𝑓(𝑡)} = 2𝐿{1} + 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1)} − 2𝐿{𝑈(𝑡 − 1)} +
2
𝜋 1 𝜋
𝐿 {cos 𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 )} − 2 𝐿 {𝑡 2 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 )}
1 1 2 2 1 𝑒−𝑠
= 2 ( 𝑠 ) + 2 [𝑒−𝑠 (𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠 )] − 2 ( )+
𝑠
𝜋 𝜋
− 𝑠 1 1 − 𝑠 2 𝜋 𝜋2
[−𝑒 2 (𝑠2+1)] − 2 [𝑒 2 (𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 4𝑠 )]
𝜋
2 −𝑠 1 1 1 2𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠 1
= +𝑒 ( 3+ + )− −𝑒 2 (2 )−
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠2 2𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 +1
𝜋
1 𝜋 𝜋2
𝑒 − 2 𝑠 (𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 )
ADDITIONAL OPERATIONAL PROPERTIES
Derivatives of Transforms. Laplace Transform of 𝒕𝒏 𝑭(𝒕)

The Laplace transform of the product of a function 𝐹(𝑡) with 𝑡 𝑛 can be solved by getting the
𝑛-th derivative of the Laplace transform of 𝐹(𝑡) as shown below.
If 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠) and 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … , then

𝑑𝑛
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝐹(𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 [𝑑𝑠 𝑛 (𝑓(𝑠))] (Eqn. 4.6)
Example 4.6. Solve the Laplace transform of the following.
1. 𝐿{𝑡 cos 𝑡}
𝐿{𝑡 cos 𝑡}: 𝐹 (𝑡) = cos 𝑡 , 𝑛 = 1
𝑑
𝐿{𝑡 cos 𝑡} = (−1)1 [𝑑𝑠 (𝐿{cos 𝑡})] (First derivative)
𝑑 𝑠
= (−1)1 [𝑑𝑠 (𝑠 2+1)]
(𝑠 2 +1)(1)−𝑠(2𝑠)
= −[ (𝑠 2+1)2
] (Quotient Rule)
𝑠 2 +1−2𝑠 2
= −[ (𝑠 2+1)2
]
1−𝑠 2
= − [(𝑠 2+1)2 ]
𝑠 2−1
= (𝑠 2+1)2
2. 𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 }
𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 }: 𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 , 𝑛 = 2
𝑑2
𝐿{𝑡 2 𝑒 2𝑡 } = (−1)2 [𝑑𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑒 2𝑡 })] (Second derivative)
𝑑2 1
= (−1)2 [𝑑𝑠 2 (𝑠−2)]
𝑑 (𝑠−2)(0)−1(1)
= 𝑑𝑠 [ (𝑠−2)2
] (1st der: Quotient Rule)
𝑑 −1
= 𝑑𝑠 [(𝑠−2)2] (2nd der: Quotient Rule)
(𝑠−2)2 (0)−(−1)[2(𝑠−2)]
=[ [(𝑠−2) 2]2
]
2(𝑠−2)
= (𝑠−2)4
2
= (𝑠−2)3
𝒕
Transforms of Integrals. Laplace Transform of ∫𝟎 𝑭(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
The Laplace transform of the integral of 𝐹 (𝑡) is given below.
If 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠), then

𝑡 1
𝐿 {∫0 𝐹(𝑡)𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 𝑓(𝑠) (Eqn. 4.7)
Example 4.6. Find the Laplace transform of the following.

𝑡
1. 𝐿 {∫0 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡}
𝑡 1
𝐿 {∫0 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 [𝐿{𝑡𝑒 𝑡 }]
𝑑
𝐿{𝑡𝑒 𝑡 } = (−1)1 [𝑑𝑠 (𝐿{𝑒 𝑡 })] (Use Eqn. 4.6)
𝑑 1
= (−1)1 [𝑑𝑠 (𝑠−1)]
(𝑠−1)(0)−1(1)
= −[ (𝑠−1)2
]
1
= (𝑠−1)2
𝑡 1
𝐿 {∫0 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 [𝐿{𝑡𝑒 𝑡 }]
1 1
= 𝑠 [(𝑠−1)2 ]
1
= 𝑠(𝑠−1)2
𝑡
2. 𝐿 {∫0 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡}
𝑡 1
𝐿 {∫0 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 [𝐿{𝑡 3 }]
3!
𝐿{𝑡 3 } = 𝑠 3+1 (Use Eqn. 4.6)
3(2)(1)
= 𝑠4
6
= 𝑠4
𝑡 1
𝐿 {∫0 𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡} = 𝑠 [𝐿{𝑡 3 }]
1 6
= 𝑠 (𝑠 4 )
6
= 𝑠5
Transform of a Periodic Function. If a periodic function 𝐹 has period 𝑝, 𝑝 > 0, then

𝐹(𝑡 + 𝑝) = 𝐹(𝑡). The Laplace transform of a periodic function can be obtained by integration
over one period. This is given below.
𝑏
1
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 𝑎
where the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] represents the length of the period 𝑝.
Example 4.7. Find the Laplace transform of the following g.
1.
The graph above shows a periodic function of period 𝑝 = 2. This

means that the graph of 𝐹(𝑡) repeats every 2 units.
To solve for the 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)}, define first the function over one period. In
this case, define 𝐹 (𝑡) in the interval [0, 2]. See the figure below.
•(1,1)
•
(0, 0)
•(2, 0)
For the left portion of the graph, we get two points (1, 1) and (0, 0).
𝑦 −𝑦
Using the two-point form, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑡2 −𝑡 1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ):
2 1
0−1
𝑦 − 1 = 0−1 (𝑡 − 1)
𝑦−1 =𝑡−1
𝑦=𝑡
𝑔 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡
For the right portion of the graph, we get two points (1, 1) and
𝑦 −𝑦
(2, 0). Using the two-point form, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ):
𝑡2 −𝑡1
0−1
𝑦 − 1 = 2−1 (𝑡 − 1)
−1
𝑦 − 1 = 1 (𝑡 − 1 )
𝑦 − 1 = − (𝑡 − 1)
𝑦 = −(𝑡 − 1) + 1
𝑦 = −𝑡 + 1 + 1
ℎ(𝑡) = −𝑡 + 2
The function 𝐹 (𝑡) can now be defined over the interval [0, 2] as
𝑡, 0≤𝑡<1
𝐹 (𝑡 ) = {
−𝑡 + 2 , 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
1 𝑏
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 1−𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 where 𝑝 = 2 and [𝑎, 𝑏] = [0,2]
1 2
= 1−𝑒 −𝑠(2) ∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1 1 2
= 1−𝑒 −𝑠(2) [∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−𝑡 + 2) 𝑑𝑡]
1
∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (Use IBP: Shortcut)
+𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
1
-1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑠
1
0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑠2
1 1
= [𝑡 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ] |10
1 1 1 1
= [(1) (− 𝑒 −𝑠(1) ) − 𝑒 −𝑠(1) ] − [(0) (− 𝑒 −𝑠(0) ) − 𝑒 −𝑠(0) ]
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠2
1 1 1
= (− 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠 ) − (0 − 𝑠2 (1))
1 1 1
= − 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠 + 𝑠2
2
∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−𝑡 + 2) 𝑑𝑡
2 2
= − ∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + 2 ∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1 1 1
= − [𝑡 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ] |12 + 2 [(− 𝑠 ) (𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 )] |12
1 1 1 1
= − {[(2) (− 𝑒 −𝑠(2) ) − 𝑒 −𝑠(2) ] − [(1) (− 𝑒 −𝑠(1) ) − 𝑒 −𝑠(1) ]}
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠2
1 1
+2 {[(− 𝑠 ) (𝑒 −𝑠(2) )] − [(− 𝑠 ) (𝑒 −𝑠(1) )]}
2 1 1 1
= − [(− 𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒 −2𝑠 ) + 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠 ) +
1 1
2 [− 𝑠 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 ]
2 1 1 1 2 2
= 𝑠 𝑒−2𝑠 + 𝑠2 𝑒−2𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑒−2𝑠 + 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠
1 1 1
= 𝑠2 𝑒−2𝑠 + 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠
1 1 2
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 1−𝑒 −𝑠(2) [∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−𝑡 + 2) 𝑑𝑡]
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑠 [(− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝑠2) + (𝑠2 𝑒 −2𝑠 + 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠 )]
1 2 1 1
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑠 (− 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 2 𝑒 −2𝑠 ) (Combine like terms)
1 −2𝑒 −𝑠 +1+𝑒 −2𝑠

= 1−𝑒 −2𝑠 ( ) (Get LCD)
𝑠2
𝑒 −2𝑠 −2𝑒 −𝑠+1

= 𝑠 2(1−𝑒 −2𝑠 )
(𝑒 −𝑠 −1)(𝑒 −𝑠 −1)
= 𝑠 2(1−𝑒 −𝑠 )(1+𝑒 −𝑠 ) (Get factors)
(𝑒 −𝑠 −1)(𝑒 −𝑠 −1)
=
𝑠 2(−1)(𝑒 −𝑠−1)(1+𝑒 −𝑠)
(𝑒 −𝑠 −1)
= 𝑠 2(−1)(1+𝑒 −𝑠 )
−(𝑒 −𝑠 −1)
= 𝑠 2(1+𝑒 −𝑠 )
1−𝑒 −𝑠
= 𝑠 2(1+𝑒 −𝑠 )
2.
The graph above shows a periodic function of period 𝑝 = 2. This means that the
graph of 𝐹 (𝑡) repeats every 2 units.
To solve for the 𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)}, define first the function over one period. In this case,
define 𝐹(𝑡) in the interval [−1, 1]. See the figure below.
• (1,1)
•
(−1, −1)
To define the graph over the interval [−1, 1], we get two points (1, 1) and
𝑦 −𝑦
(−1, −1). Using the two-point form, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2 1 (𝑡 − 𝑡1 ):
𝑡 −𝑡
2 1
−1−1
𝑦 − 1 = −1−1 (𝑡 − 1)
−2
𝑦 − 1 = −2 (𝑡 − 1)
𝑦−1 =𝑡−1
𝐹 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡
Therefore,
𝐹 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡 , − 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
1 𝑏
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 1−𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 where 𝑝 = 2 and [𝑎, 𝑏] = [−1, −1]
1 1
= 1−𝑒 −𝑠(2) ∫−1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1 1
= 1−𝑒 −𝑠(2) ∫−1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1
∫−1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (Use IBP: Shortcut)
+𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
1
-1 − 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑠
1
0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡
𝑠2
1 1
= [𝑡 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ] |1−1
1 1 1 1
= [(1) (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠(1) ) − 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠(1) ] − [(−1) (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠(−1) ) − 𝑠2 𝑒 −𝑠(−1) ]
1 1 1 1
= (− 𝑒−𝑠 − 2 𝑒−𝑠 ) − ( 𝑒𝑠 − 2 𝑒𝑠 )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 1 1 1
= − 𝑠 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠2 𝑒−𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑒𝑠 + 𝑠2 𝑒𝑠
1 1
𝐿{𝐹 (𝑡)} = 1−𝑒 −𝑠(2) ∫−1 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1 1 1 1 1
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑠 (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠 − 𝑠 2 𝑒 −𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑒 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 𝑒 𝑠 )
1 −𝑠𝑒 −𝑠 −𝑒 −𝑠 −𝑠𝑒 𝑠 +𝑒 𝑠
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑠 ( 𝑠2
)
1 −𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠+1)−𝑒 𝑠 (𝑠−1)
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑠 ( )
𝑠2
3. Find the transform of the square-wave function defined as
1 , 0<𝑡<𝑐
𝐹(𝑡, 𝑐 ) = {
−1, 𝑐 < 𝑡 < 2𝑐
where 𝐹 (𝑡 + 2𝑐, 𝑐 ) = 𝐹(𝑡, 𝑐 ). Also, graph 𝐹(𝑡, 𝑐 ) over 2 periods.
The graph of 𝐹 (𝑡, 𝑐 ) over 2 periods is given below.
−2𝑐 −𝑐 𝑐 2𝑐
1 𝑏
𝐿{𝐹(𝑡, 𝑐 )} = 1−𝑒 −𝑠𝑝 ∫𝑎 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡, 𝑐 )𝑑𝑡 where 𝑝 = 2𝑐 and
[𝑎, 𝑏] = [0,2𝑐]
1 2𝑐 −𝑠𝑡
= −𝑠(2𝑐) ∫0
𝑒 𝐹(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1−𝑒
1 𝑐 2𝑐
= [∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (1) 𝑑𝑡 + ∫𝑐 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (−1) 𝑑𝑡]
1−𝑒 −𝑠(2𝑐) 0
1 𝑐 2𝑐
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 (∫0 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − ∫𝑐 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡)
1 1 1
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 [(− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) |𝑐0 − (− 𝑠 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 ) |2𝑐
𝑐 ]
1 1 1
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 [− 𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑠(𝑐) − 𝑒 −𝑠(0) ) + 𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑠(2𝑐) − 𝑒 −𝑠(𝑐) )]
1 1 1
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 [− 𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 − 1) + 𝑠 (𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 − 𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 )]
1 𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 1 𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 𝑒 −𝑐𝑠
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 (− +𝑠+ − )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
1 2𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 1 𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 (− +𝑠+ )
𝑠 𝑠
1 −2𝑒 −𝑐𝑠+1+𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠
= 1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 ( )
𝑠
𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 −2𝑒 −𝑐𝑠+1
= 𝑠(1−𝑒 −2𝑐𝑠 )
(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠−1)(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠−1)
= 𝑠(1−𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 )(1+𝑒 −𝑐𝑠)
(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠−1)(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 −1)
= 𝑠(−1)(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠−1)(1+𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 )
(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠−1)
=
𝑠(−1)(1+𝑒 −𝑐𝑠)
−(𝑒 −𝑐𝑠−1)
= 𝑠(1+𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 )
1−𝑒 −𝑐𝑠
= 𝑠(1+𝑒 −𝑐𝑠 )
PROBLEM SET 4
THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
For Numbers 1 and 2. Find the Laplace transform of the following functions using the definition via
integration.
1. 𝐹(𝑡) = 5 sin 3𝑡
1, 0<𝑡 <2
2. 𝐺 (𝑡) = {
𝑡, 𝑡>2
For Numbers 3-5. Solve the Laplace transform of the following using the formula.
3. 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑒 −2𝑡−5
1
4. 𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑡 5 − 4 𝑒 −9𝑡 + 5(𝑡 − 1)2
5. 𝐻(𝑡) = cos 2 𝑡 Hint: Use an appropriate trigonometric identity.

For Numbers 6-10. Use the translation theorems to solve for the Laplace transform of the
following functions.
6. 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 cosh 𝑡
𝑡
7. 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑒 2𝑡 [9 − 5𝑡 + 10 sin (4)]
1, 0≤𝑡<4
8. 𝐺 𝑡 = { 0 ,
( ) 4≤𝑡<5
1, 𝑡≥5
9. 𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑈(𝑡 − 2)
10. 𝐺 (𝑡) = 𝑒 2−𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2)

11. Graph the function 𝑓 (𝑡) = (3 + 𝑡)[𝑈(𝑡 − 2) − 𝑈 (𝑡 − 3)].
Also, find its Laplace transform.
12. Evaluate: 𝐿{𝑡𝑒 2𝑡 sin 6𝑡}
𝑡
13. Evaluate: 𝐿 {∫0 𝑡 2 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡}
For Numbers 14 and 15. Find the Laplace transform of the following periodic functions.
14. Sawtooth function

15. Full-wave rectification of sin 𝑡
LESSON 5
THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Understand the concept of inverse Laplace
transform, and
2. Evaluate the inverse Laplace transforms of certain
functions using suitable approaches.
If 𝑓 (𝑠) represents the Laplace transform of a function 𝐹 (𝑡), we say that 𝐹(𝑡) is the inverse
Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑠). This can be written as
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑓(𝑠)}
Some Inverse Laplace Transforms. Below are some standard forms which can be easily used
to obtain the inverse Laplace transform.
1
𝐿−1 { } = 1
𝑠
1 𝑡 𝑛−1
𝐿−1 { 𝑛 } = , 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
𝑠 (𝑛 − 1)!
1
𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
𝑠−𝑎
1 𝑡 𝑛−1
𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡
( ), 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
(𝑠 − 𝑎 )𝑛 (𝑛 − 1)!
𝑘
𝐿−1 { 2 } = sin 𝑘𝑡
𝑠 + 𝑘2
𝑠
𝐿−1 { 2 } = cos 𝑘𝑡
𝑠 + 𝑘2
𝑘
𝐿−1 { 2 } = sinh 𝑘𝑡
𝑠 − 𝑘2
𝑠
𝐿−1 { 2 } = cosh 𝑘𝑡
𝑠 − 𝑘2
𝑠 1
𝐿−1 { 2 2 2
}= (𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑡)
(𝑠 + 𝑘 ) 2𝑘
1 1
𝐿−1 { 2 2 2
} = 3 (sin 𝑘𝑡 − 𝑘𝑡 cos 𝑘𝑡)
(𝑠 + 𝑘 ) 2𝑘
The inverse Laplace transform is also a linear transform; therefore, the linearity property applies
as illustrated below:
𝐿−1 {𝛼1 𝑓1 (𝑠) + 𝛼2 𝑓2 (𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑘 𝑓𝑘 (𝑠)} = 𝛼1 𝐿−1 {𝑓1 (𝑠)} + 𝛼𝐿−1 {𝑓2 (𝑠)} + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑘 𝐿−1 {𝑓𝑘 (𝑠)}
Moreover, the inverse Laplace transform of the translation theorems are given below:
First Translation Theorem: 𝐿−1 {𝑓 (𝑠 − 𝑎)} = 𝐿−1 {𝑓 (𝑠)𝑠→𝑠−𝑎 } = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝐹 (𝑡)
Second Translation Theorem: 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)} = 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈(𝑡 − 𝑎)
Example 5.1. Evaluate the inverse Laplace transform.
3
1. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2}
1 𝑡 𝑛−1
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 {𝑠 𝑛} = (𝑛−1)!.
3
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2} : 𝑛 = 2
1 1
𝐿−1 {3 (𝑠 2)} = 3 (𝐿−1 {𝑠 2})
𝑡 2−1 𝑡
= 3 ((2−1)!) = 3 (1!) = 3𝑡
1
2. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+9}
𝑘
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+𝑘 2 } = sin 𝑘𝑡.
1
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+9} : 𝑘 = 3
1 1 3
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+(3)2 } = 𝐿−1 {3 (𝑠 2+(3)2 )}
1 3
= 3 (𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+(3)2 })
1
= 3 sin 3𝑡
𝑠
3. 𝐿−1 { }
𝑠 2+2
𝑠
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+𝑘 2 } = cos 𝑘𝑡.
𝑠
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+2} : 𝑘 = √2
𝑠
𝐿−1 { 2 } = cos √2𝑡
𝑠 2+(√2)
1
4. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 5}
1 𝑡 𝑛−1
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 { 𝑛} = (𝑛−1)!.
𝑠
1
𝐿−1 {𝑠 5} : 𝑛 = 5
1 𝑡 5−1
𝐿−1 {𝑠 5} = (5−1)!
𝑡4 𝑡4
= = 4(3)(2)(1)
4!
1
= 24 𝑡 4
𝑠+9
5. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16}
Use linearity property first.

𝑠+9 𝑠 9
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 +16} + 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16}
𝑠 𝑠
➢ 𝐿−1 { }: 𝑘 = 4 (Pattern: 𝐿−1 {𝑠2+𝑘 }
2 = cos 𝑘𝑡)
𝑠 2+16
−1 { 𝑠
𝐿 } = cos 4𝑡
𝑠 +(4)2
2
9 𝑘
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16} : 𝑘 = 4 (Pattern: 𝐿−1 {𝑠2+𝑘 }
2 = sin 𝑘𝑡)
1 4 9 4
𝐿−1 {9 (4) (𝑠2+(4)2 )} = 𝐿−1 {4 (𝑠 2+(4)2 )}
9 4
= 4 (𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+(4)2 })
9
= 4 sin 4𝑡
𝑠+9 𝑠 9
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16} + 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+16}
9
= cos 4𝑡 + 4 sin 4𝑡
4
6. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)5 }
1 𝑡 𝑛−1
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−𝑎)𝑛} = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 ((𝑛−1)!).
4
𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)5 } : 𝑛 = 5 , 𝑎 = −1
1 1
𝐿−1 {4 ((𝑠+1)5 )} = 4𝐿−1 {((𝑠+1)5 )}
𝑡 5−1
= 4 (𝑒 (−1)𝑡 ((5−1)!))
𝑡4 𝑡4
= 4 (𝑒 −𝑡 ( 4! )) = 4 (𝑒 −𝑡 (4(3)(2)(1)))
𝑡4
= 4𝑒 −𝑡 (4(3)(2)(1))
1
= 6 𝑡 4 𝑒 −𝑡
𝑠
7. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+9)2 }
𝑠 1
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 }= (𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑡)
+𝑘 2 )2 2𝑘
.
𝑠
𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+9)2 } : 𝑘 = 3
𝑠 1
𝐿−1 {[𝑠 2 +(3)2 ]2 } = 2(3) (𝑡 sin 3𝑡)
1
= 6 𝑡 sin 3𝑡
1
8. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+25)2 }
1 1
The pattern is similar to 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+𝑘 2 )2 } = 2𝑘 3 (sin 𝑘𝑡 − 𝑘𝑡 cos 𝑘𝑡).
.
1
𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+25)2 } : 𝑘 = 5
𝑠 1
𝐿−1 {[𝑠 2 +(5)2 ]2 } = 2(5)3 (sin 5𝑡 − 5𝑡 cos 5𝑡)
1
= 250 (sin 5𝑡 − 5𝑡 cos 5𝑡)
𝑒 −2𝑠
9. 𝐿−1 { 𝑠−4 }
(The second translation theorem is at work here because of the term 𝑒 −2𝑠 ).
Use 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)} = 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈 (𝑡 − 𝑎)
𝑒 −2𝑠 1
𝐿−1 { 𝑠−4 } : 𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑠−4 , 𝑎 = 2
1
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠−4} = 𝑒 4𝑡
𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑒 4𝑡
𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝐹(𝑡 − 2) = 𝑒 4(𝑡−2)
𝑒 −2𝑠
𝐿−1 { 𝑠−4 } = 𝑒 4(𝑡−2) 𝑈(𝑡 − 2)
𝜋
− 𝑠
𝑠𝑒 2
10. 𝐿−1
{ 𝑠 2+9 }
𝜋
(The second translation theorem is at work here because of the term 𝑒 − 2 𝑠 ).
Use 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)} = 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎)𝑈 (𝑡 − 𝑎)

𝜋
− 𝑠
−1 𝑠𝑒 2 𝑠 𝜋
𝐿 { 𝑠 2+9 } : 𝑓(𝑠) = 𝑠 2+9 , 𝑎 = 2
𝑠
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 +9} = cos 3𝑡
𝐹 (𝑡) = cos 3𝑡
𝜋 𝜋
𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎) = 𝐹 (𝑡 − ) = cos [3 (𝑡 − )] 2 2
𝜋 3𝜋
cos [3 (𝑡 − )] = cos (3𝑡 − )
2 2
3𝜋 3𝜋
= cos 3𝑡 cos 2 + sin 3𝑡 sin 2
= (cos 3𝑡)(0) + (sin 3𝑡)(−1)
= − sin 3𝑡
𝜋
− 𝑠
−1 𝑠𝑒 2 𝜋
𝐿 { 𝑠 2+9 } = − sin 3𝑡 𝑈 (𝑡 − 2 )
Obtaining the Inverse Laplace Transform by Completing the Square. Recall from Algebra
the process of completing the square. Say we have a quadratic equation of the form
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0. The assumption is that the equation can be factored as a perfect square
(𝑥 + 𝑝)2 . The following steps summarize the method of completing the square.
Step 1: Factor out 𝑎 (which is the coefficient of 𝑥 2 ).
𝑏 𝑐
𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎) = 0
𝑏
Step 2: Get 𝑎 (which is the coefficient of 𝑥) and divide it by 2. Afterwards, get its
square and add and subtract it to the equation and group accordingly.
𝑏 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏2
= 2𝑎 → (2𝑎) = 4𝑎2
2
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏2 𝑐
𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 4𝑎2 − 4𝑎2 + 𝑎) = 0
𝑏 𝑏2 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑎 [(𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 4𝑎2 ) + (𝑎 − 4𝑎2)] = 0
Step 3: Get the factored form of the “grouped” term. This is already a perfect square.
𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑎 [(𝑥 + 2𝑎) + (𝑎 − 4𝑎2 )] = 0
15
1. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4𝑠+13}
Get the denominator and complete the square.
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 13 = 0
4 2 4 2
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + (2) − (2) + 13 = 0
[𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + (2)2 ] + [13 − (2)2 ] = 0
(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4) + (13 − 4) = 0
(𝑠 + 2 )2 + 9 = 0
15 15
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4𝑠+13} = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 +9}
1
= 15 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 +9})
(The first translation theorem is at work here since from the denominator, we can
see that 𝑠 → 𝑠 − (−2) or 𝑠 → 𝑠 + 2 where 𝑎 = −2).
1
= 15 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 +(3)2 })
1 3
= 15 [𝐿−1 {3 ((𝑠+2)2 +(3)2 )}]
15 3
= (𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 +(3)2 })
3
= 5𝑒 −2𝑡 sin 3𝑡
𝑠
2. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+6𝑠+25}
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 25 = 0
6 2 6 2
𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + ( ) − ( ) + 25 = 0
2 2
[𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + (3)2 ] + [25 − (3)2 ] = 0
(𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 9) + (25 − 9) = 0
(𝑠 + 3)2 + 16 = 0
𝑠 𝑠
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+6𝑠+25} = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +16}
𝑠
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +(4)2}
(𝑠+3)−3
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +(4)2}
(𝑠+3) −3
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2+(4)2} + 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +(4)2 } (Linearity property)
(𝑠+3) 1
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +(4)2} − 3 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2+(4)2 })
(𝑠+3) 1 4
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +16} − 3 [𝐿−1 {4 ((𝑠+3)2 +16)}]
(𝑠+3) 3 4
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+3)2 +16} − 4 (𝐿−1 {((𝑠+3)2 +16)})
3
= 𝑒 −3𝑡 cos 4𝑡 − 4 𝑒 −3𝑡 sin 4𝑡
2𝑠+5
3. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4𝑠+9}
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 9 = 0
4 2 4 2
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + (2) − (2) + 9 = 0
[𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + (2)2 ] + [9 − (2)2 ] = 0
(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4) + (9 − 4) = 0
(𝑠 + 2 )2 + 5 = 0
2𝑠+5 2𝑠+5
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4𝑠+9} = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 +5}
2𝑠 5
= 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2+5} + 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2+5} (Linearity property)
𝑠 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2+5}) + 5 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 +5})
(𝑠+2)−2 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) + 5 (𝐿−1 { 2 })
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
(𝑠+2) −2 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 } + 𝐿−1 { 2 }) + 5 (𝐿−1 { 2 })
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
(𝑠+2) 1 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 } − 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 })) + 5 (𝐿−1 { 2 })
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
(𝑠+2) 1 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) − 4 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) + 5 (𝐿−1 { 2 })
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
(𝑠+2) 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) + 𝐿−1 { 2 }
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
(𝑠+2) 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) + 𝐿−1 { 2 }
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
(𝑠+2) 1 √5
= 2 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) + (𝐿−1 { 2 })
(𝑠+2)2 +(√5) √5 (𝑠+2)2 +(√5)
1
= 2𝑒 −2𝑡 cos √5 𝑡 + 𝑒 −2𝑡 sin √5 𝑡
√5
4𝑠+7
4. 𝐿−1 {3𝑠 2+5𝑠+9}
3𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 9 = 0
5 9
3 (𝑠 2 + 3 𝑠 + 3) = 0
5
3 (𝑠 2 + 3 𝑠 + 3) = 0
5 2 5 2
5
3 [𝑠 2 3
+ 3 𝑠 + ( 2 ) − ( 2 ) + 3] = 0 3
5 5 2 5 2
3 [𝑠 2 + 3 𝑠 + (6) − (6) + 3] = 0
5 5 2 5 2
3 [(𝑠 2 + 3 𝑠 + (6) ) + (3 − (6) )] = 0
5 25 25
3 [(𝑠 2 + 3 𝑠 + 36) + (3 − 36)] = 0
5 2 83
3 [(𝑠 + 6) + 36] = 0
4𝑠+7 4𝑠+7
𝐿−1 {3𝑠 2 +5𝑠+9} = 𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
}
3[(𝑠+ ) + ]
6 36
1 4𝑠+7
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
})
(𝑠+ ) +
6 36
1 4𝑠 7
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
} + 𝐿−1 {
5 2 83
}) (Linearity property)
(𝑠+ ) + (𝑠+ ) +
6 36 6 36
1 4𝑠 1 7
= (𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
}) + (𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
})
3 (𝑠+ ) + 3 (𝑠+ ) +
6 36 6 36
4 𝑠 7 7
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
}) + 3 (𝐿−1 { 5 2 83
})
(𝑠+ ) + (𝑠+ ) +
6 36 6 36
5 5 5
see that 𝑠 → 𝑠 − (− 6) or 𝑠 → 𝑠 + 6 where 𝑎 = − 6).
4 𝑠 7 1
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 2 }) + (𝐿−1 { 2 })
5 2 √83 3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
5 5
4 (𝑠+ )− 7 1
= (𝐿−1 { 6
2
6
}) + (𝐿−1 { 2 })
3 5 2 √83 3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
5 5
4 (𝑠+ ) −
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 6
2} + 𝐿
−1 { 6
2 }) +
5 2 √83 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
7 1
(𝐿−1 { 2 })
3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6
5 5
4 (𝑠+ ) 4 −
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 6
2 }) + (+𝐿
−1 { 6
2 })
5 2 √83 3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
7 1
(𝐿−1 { 2 })
3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6
5
4 (𝑠+ ) 4 5 1
−1
= 3 (𝐿 { 2
6
}) − 3 (6) (+𝐿−1 { 2 })
5 2 √83 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
7 1
(𝐿−1 { 2 })
3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6
5
4 (𝑠+ ) 10 1
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 2
6
}) − (+𝐿−1 { 2 })
5 2 √83 9 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
7 1
(𝐿−1 { 2 })
3 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6
5
4 (𝑠+ ) 11 1
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 2
6
}) + (+𝐿−1 { 2 })
5 2 √83 9 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
5 √83
4 (𝑠+ ) 11 1
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 6
2 }) + (+𝐿−1 { √83 ( 6
2 )})
5 2 √83 9 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) 6 (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
5 √83
4 (𝑠+ ) 11 1
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 6
2 }) + ( √83 ) (+𝐿−1 {( 6
2 )})
5 2 √83 9 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) 6 (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
5 √83
4 (𝑠+ ) 22
= 3 (𝐿−1 { 6
2 }) + (+𝐿−1 {( 6
2 )})
5 2 √83 3√83 5 2 √83
(𝑠+ ) +( ) (𝑠+ ) +( )
6 6 6 6
5 5
4 √83 22 √83
= 3 𝑒 −6 cos 𝑡 +3 𝑒 −6 sin 𝑡
6 √ 83 6
Obtaining the Inverse Laplace Transform by Partial Fraction. Recall from Algebra that a
𝑁(𝑥)
rational expression of the form can be factored into linear and irreducible quadratic factors
𝐷(𝑥)
𝑁(𝑥)
with real coefficients. The assumption is that is a proper fraction, that is, the degree of the
𝐷(𝑥)
𝑁(𝑥)
numerator 𝑁(𝑥) is less than that of the denominator 𝐷(𝑥 ). Decomposing into partial
𝐷(𝑥)
fractions leads to the following four cases:
Case 1: Distinct Linear Factors
For every distinct factor of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 found in the denominator, there corresponds
𝐴
a partial fraction decomposition of the form 𝑎𝑥+𝑏. In general, we write
𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵 𝑁
= + +⋯+
𝐷(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑛
Case 2: Repeated Linear Factors
For every linear factor of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 repeated 𝑛 times found in the denominator,
𝐴 𝐵
there corresponds a partial fraction decomposition of the form 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 + (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2 + ⋯. In
general, we write
𝑁 (𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝑁
= + 2
+ 3
+⋯+
(
𝐷 𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
Case 3: Distinct Quadratic Factors
For every irreducible quadratic factor of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 found in the

𝐴𝑥+𝐵
denominator, there corresponds a partial fraction decomposition of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐.
In general, we write
𝑁 (𝑥) 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁
= 2 + 2 +⋯+
𝐷(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑜
Case 4: Repeated Quadratic Factors
For every irreducible quadratic factor of the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 repeated 𝑛 times

found in the denominator, there corresponds a partial fraction decomposition of the form
𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶𝑥+𝐷
+ (𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐)2 + ⋯. In general, we write
𝑎𝑥 2+𝑏𝑥+𝑐
𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁
= + +⋯+
𝐷(𝑥) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)2 (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
For evaluating the arbitrary constants in the partial fraction decomposition, two methods can be
utilized: (1) by assigning values to the variable and (2) by equating like powers of the variable.
Example 5.3. Evaluate the inverse Laplace transform of the following.
2𝑠
1. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)}
Case 1 applies.
2𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)
= 𝑠+1 + 𝑠−2
𝐴(𝑠−2)+𝐵(𝑠+1)
= (Get the LCD)
(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)
(Solving A and B by assigning values to the variable)
2𝑠 𝐴(𝑠−2)+𝐵(𝑠+1)
(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)
= (𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)
2𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1) (Get the numerator)
If 𝑠 = 2: 2𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵 (𝑠 + 1)
2(2 ) = 𝐴 (2 − 2) + 𝐵 (2 + 1)
4 = 𝐴 (0) + 𝐵 (3)
4 = 3𝐵
4
𝐵=3
If 𝑠 = −1: 2𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1)

2(−1) = 𝐴(−1 − 2) + 𝐵(−1 + 1)
−2 = 𝐴(−3) + 𝐵(0)
−2 = −3𝐴
2
𝐴=3
2𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)
= 𝑠+1 + 𝑠−2
2 4
3 3
= +
𝑠+1 𝑠−2
2 4
2𝑠
𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)} = 𝐿−1 { 𝑠+1
3
+ 3
}
𝑠−2
2 1 4 1
= 3 (𝐿−1 {𝑠+1}) + 3 (𝐿−1 {𝑠−2})
2 4
= 3 𝑒 −𝑡 + 3 𝑒 2𝑡
4𝑠 2+3𝑠−5
2. 𝐿−1 { (𝑠−3)3
}
Case 2 applies.
4𝑠 2+3𝑠−5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(𝑠−3)3
= 𝑠−3 + (𝑠−3)2 + (𝑠−3)3
𝐴(𝑠−3)2 +𝐵(𝑠−3)+𝐶
= (Get the LCD)
(𝑠−3)3
(Solving A, B, and C by equating like powers of the variable)
4𝑠 2+3𝑠−5 𝐴(𝑠−3)2 +𝐵(𝑠−3)+𝐶

(𝑠−3)3
= (𝑠−3) 3
4𝑠 + 3𝑠 − 5 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 3)2 + 𝐵(𝑠 − 3) + 𝐶
2
(Get the numerator)
4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 − 5 = 𝐴(𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 + 9) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 3) + 𝐶
4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 − 5 = 𝐴𝑠 2 − 6𝐴𝑠 + 9𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶
For the variable 𝑠 2 : 4=𝐴
For the variable 𝑠: 3 = −6𝐴 + 𝐵

3 = −6(4) + 𝐵
3 = −24 + 𝐵
3 + 24 = 𝐵
𝐵 = 27
For the constant term: −5 = 9𝐴 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶

−5 = 36 − 81 + 𝐶
−5 − 36 + 81 = 𝐶
𝐶 = 40
4𝑠 2+3𝑠−5 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(𝑠−3)3
= 𝑠−3 + (𝑠−3)2 + (𝑠−3)3
4 27 40
= 𝑠−3 + (𝑠−3)2 + (𝑠−3)3
4𝑠 2 +3𝑠−5 4 27 40
𝐿−1 { (𝑠−3)3
} = 𝐿−1 { + (𝑠−3)2 + (𝑠−3)3 }
𝑠−3
4 27 40
= 𝐿−1 {𝑠−3} + 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)2 } + 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)3 }
1 1 1
= 4 (𝐿−1 { }) + 27 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)2}) + 40 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)3 })
𝑠−3
1
➢ 𝐿−1 { } = 𝑒 3𝑡
𝑠−3
1 1
➢ 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)2 } = 𝐿−1 {𝑠2 } where 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑛 = 2
𝑠→𝑠−3
𝑡 2−1
= 𝑒 3𝑡 ((2−1)! )
𝑡
= 𝑒 3𝑡 (1! )
= 𝑡𝑒 3𝑡
1 1
➢ 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)3 } = 𝐿−1 { 3 } where 𝑎 = 3 , 𝑛 = 3
𝑠 𝑠→𝑠−3
𝑡 3−1
= 𝑒 3𝑡 ((3−1)! )
𝑡2
= 𝑒 3𝑡 ( 2! )
1
= 2 𝑡 2 𝑒 3𝑡
4𝑠 2 +3𝑠−5 1 1 1
𝐿−1 { (𝑠−3)3
} = 4 (𝐿−1 { }) + 27 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)2}) + 40 (𝐿−1 {(𝑠−3)3 })
𝑠−3
1
= 4(𝑒3𝑡 ) + 27(𝑡𝑒3𝑡 ) + 40 (2 𝑡2 𝑒3𝑡 )
= 4𝑒3𝑡 + 27𝑡𝑒3𝑡 + 20𝑡2 𝑒3𝑡
𝑠 3+3𝑠 2+6𝑠−8
3. 𝐿−1 { (2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4) }
Cases 1 and 2 apply.
𝑠 3+3𝑠 2 +6𝑠−8 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
(2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4)
= 𝑠−4 + 2𝑠+1 + (2𝑠+1)2 + (2𝑠+1)3
𝐴(2𝑠+1)3 +𝐵(𝑠−4)(2𝑠+1) 2+𝐶(𝑠−4)(2𝑠+1)+𝐷(𝑠−4)
= (2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4)
(Get the LCD)
(Solving A, B, C and D by equating like powers of the variable)
𝑠 3 +3𝑠 2+6𝑠−8 𝐴(2𝑠+1)3 +𝐵(𝑠−4)(2𝑠+1)2 +𝐶(𝑠−4)(2𝑠+1)+𝐷(𝑠−4)

(2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4)
= (2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4)
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 6𝑠 − 8 = 𝐴(2𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 4)(2𝑠 + 1)2 +
3 2 3
𝐶(𝑠 − 4)(2𝑠 + 1) + 𝐷(𝑠 − 4)

(Get the numerator)
𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 − 8 = 𝐴(8𝑠 3 + 12𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1) +
𝐵(𝑠 − 4)(4𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶(2𝑠 2 − 7𝑠 − 4) +
𝐷(𝑠 − 4)
𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 − 8 = 𝐴(8𝑠 3 + 12𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 1) +
𝐵(4𝑠 3 − 12𝑠 2 − 15𝑠 − 4) +
𝐶(2𝑠 2 − 7𝑠 − 4) + 𝐷(𝑠 − 4)
𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 6𝑠 − 8 = 8𝐴𝑠 3 + 12𝐴𝑠 2 + 6𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴 +
3 2
4𝐵𝑠 3 − 12𝐵𝑠 2 − 15𝐵𝑠 − 4𝐵 +

2𝐶𝑠 2 − 7𝐶𝑠 − 4𝐶 + 𝐷𝑠 − 4𝐷
For the variable 𝑠 3 : 1 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐵 (1)
For the variable 𝑠 2 : 3 = 12𝐴 − 12𝐵 + 2𝐶 (2)
For the variable 𝑠: 6 = 6𝐴 − 15𝐵 − 7𝐶 + 𝐷 (3)
For the constant term: −8 = 𝐴 − 4𝐵 − 4𝐶 − 4𝐷 (4)
(Get Equations (3) and (4) and eliminate D)

4(6 = 6𝐴 − 15𝐵 − 7𝐶 + 𝐷)
+ (−8 = 𝐴 − 4𝐵 − 4𝐶 − 4𝐷)
(24 = 24𝐴 − 60𝐵 − 28𝐶 + 4𝐷)

+ (−8 = 𝐴 − 4𝐵 − 4𝐶 − 4𝐷)
16 = 25𝐴 − 64𝐵 − 32𝐶 (5)
(Get Equations (2) and (5) and eliminate C)

16(3 = 12𝐴 − 12𝐵 + 2𝐶 )
+ (16 = 25𝐴 − 64𝐵 − 32𝐶 )
(48 = 192𝐴 − 192𝐵 + 32𝐶 )

+ (16 = 25𝐴 − 64𝐵 − 32𝐶 )
64 = 217𝐴 − 256𝐵 (6)
(Get Equations (1) and (6) and eliminate B)
64(1 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐵)
+ (64 = 217𝐴 − 256𝐵 )
(64 = 512𝐴 + 256𝐵)

+ (64 = 217𝐴 − 256𝐵 )
128 = 729𝐴
128
𝐴=
729
(Solve for B)
1 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐵
128
1 = 8 (729 ) + 4𝐵
1024
1= 729
+ 4𝐵
1024
1− = 4𝐵
729
295
− = 4𝐵
729
295
𝐵=−
2916
(Solve for C)
3 = 12𝐴 − 12𝐵 + 2𝐶
128 295
3 = 12 ( ) − 12 (− ) + 2𝐶
729 2916
512 295
3 = 243 + 243 + 2𝐶
512 295
3− − = 2𝐶
243 243
26
− 81 = 2𝐶
13
𝐶 = − 81
(Solve for D)
6 = 6𝐴 − 15𝐵 − 7𝐶 + 𝐷
128 295 13
6 = 6 ( ) − 15 (−
729
) − 7 (− ) + 𝐷
2916 81
256 1475 91
6 = 243 + 972
+ 81 + 𝐷
256 1475 91
6 − 243 − 972
− 81 = 𝐷
83
𝐷 = 36
𝑠 3 +3𝑠 2+6𝑠−8 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
(2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4)
= 𝑠−4 + 2𝑠+1 + (2𝑠+1)2 + (2𝑠+1)3
128 295 13 83
− −
729 2916 81 36
= + 2𝑠+1 + (2𝑠+1) 2 + (2𝑠+1) 3
𝑠−4
128 295 13 83
729 2916 81 36
= − − (2𝑠+1)2
+ (2𝑠+1)3
𝑠−4 2𝑠+1
128 1 295 1 13 1 83 1
= ( )− ( )− ( )+ ( )
729 𝑠−4 2916 2𝑠+1 81 (2𝑠+1)2 36 (2𝑠+1)3
𝑠 3+3𝑠 2 +6𝑠−8
𝐿−1 { (2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4) }
128 1 295 1 13 1 83 1
= 𝐿−1 {729 (𝑠−4) − 2916 (2𝑠+1) − 81 ((2𝑠+1)2 ) + 36 ((2𝑠+1)3 )}
128 1 295 1 13 1
= 729 (𝐿−1 {𝑠−4}) − 2916 (𝐿−1 {2𝑠+1}) − 81 (𝐿−1 {(2𝑠+1)2}) +
83 1
36
(𝐿−1 {(2𝑠+1)3 })
1
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠−4} = 𝑒 4𝑡
1 1
➢ 𝐿−1 {2𝑠+1} = 𝐿−1 { 1 }
2(𝑠+ )
2
1 1
= 2 (𝐿−1 { })
1
𝑠+
2
1
1
= 2 𝑒 −2𝑡
1 1
➢ 𝐿−1 {( } = 𝐿−1 { 2 }
2𝑠+1)2 [2(𝑠+ )]
1
2
1 1
= 4 (𝐿−1 { 1 2
})
(𝑠+ )
2
1 1 1
= 4
−1
(𝐿 { 2 })
𝑠 1 where 𝑎 = − 2 , 𝑛 = 2
𝑠→𝑠−
2
1
1 − 𝑡 𝑡 2−1
= 4𝑒 2 ((2−1)! )
1
1 − 𝑡 𝑡
= 4𝑒 2 (1! )
1
1
= 𝑡𝑒−2𝑡
4
1 1
➢ 𝐿−1 {(2𝑠+1)3} = 𝐿−1 { 1 3 }
[2(𝑠+ )]
2
1 1
= 8 (𝐿−1 { 1 3
})
(𝑠+ )
2
1 1 1
= (𝐿−1 { 3 }) 1 where 𝑎 = − 2 , 𝑛 = 3
8 𝑠 𝑠→𝑠−
2
1
1 − 𝑡 𝑡 3−1
= 8𝑒 2 ((3−1)! )
1
1 − 𝑡 𝑡2
= 8𝑒 2 ( 2! )
1 2 −1𝑡
=
16
𝑡 𝑒 2
𝑠 3+3𝑠 2 +6𝑠−8
𝐿−1 { (2𝑠+1)3 (𝑠−4) }
128 1 295 1 13 1
= (𝐿−1 { }) − (𝐿−1 { }) − (𝐿−1 {(2𝑠+1)2}) +
729 𝑠−4 2916 2𝑠+1 81
83 1
(𝐿−1 {(2𝑠+1)3 })
36
1 1 1
128 295 1 13 1 83 1
= 729 (𝑒4𝑡 ) − 2916 (2 𝑒 −2𝑡 ) − 81 (4 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 ) + 36 (16 𝑡 2 𝑒 −2𝑡 )
1 1 1
128 295 13 83
= 729 𝑒4𝑡 − 5832 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 324 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 + 576 𝑡 2 𝑒 −2𝑡
4𝑠 2 +3𝑠+5
4. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+9)}
Case 3 applies.
4𝑠 2+3𝑠+5 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷

(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+9)
= +
𝑠 2+4 𝑠 2+9
(𝐴𝑠+𝐵)(𝑠 2+9)+(𝐶𝑠+𝐷)(𝑠 2+4 )
= (𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+9)
(Get the LCD)
(Solving A, B, C and D by equating like powers of the variable)
4𝑠 2+3𝑠+5 (𝐴𝑠+𝐵)(𝑠 2+9)+(𝐶𝑠+𝐷)(𝑠 2+4 )

(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+9)
= (𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+9)
4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 5 = (𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵)(𝑠 2 + 9) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)(𝑠 2 + 4 )
(Get the numerator)
4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 5 = 𝐴𝑠 3 + 𝐵𝑠 2 + 9𝐴𝑠 + 9𝐵 + 𝐶𝑠 3 + 𝐷𝑠 2 + 4𝐶𝑠 + 4𝐷
For the variable 𝑠 3 : 0= 𝐴+𝐶 (1)
For the variable 𝑠 2 : 4= 𝐵+𝐷 (2)
For the variable 𝑠: 3 = 9𝐴 + 4𝐶 (3)
For the constant term: 5 = 9𝐵 + 4𝐷 (4)

4(0 = 𝐴 + 𝐶 )
+ (3 = 9𝐴 + 4𝐶 )
(0 = 4𝐴 + 4𝐶 )
− (3 = 9𝐴 + 4𝐶 )
−3 = −5𝐴
3
𝐴=5
(Solve for C)
0= 𝐴+𝐶
3
0=5+𝐶
3
𝐶 = −5

4(4 = 𝐵 + 𝐷)
+ (5 = 9𝐵 + 4𝐷)
(16 = 4𝐵 + 4𝐷)
− (5 = 9𝐵 + 4𝐷)
11 = −5𝐵
11
𝐵=− 5
(Solve for D)
4=𝐵+𝐷
11
4= − +𝐷
5
11
4+ 5
=𝐷
31
𝐷=
5
4𝑠 2+3𝑠+5 𝐴𝑠+𝐵 𝐵𝑠+𝐷

(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+9)
= +
𝑠 2+4 𝑠 2+9
3 11 3 31
𝑠− − 𝑠+
= 5𝑠 2+45 + 5 5
𝑠 2+9
3 11 3 31
−1 4𝑠 2+3𝑠+5 𝑠− − 𝑠+
𝐿 {(𝑠 2 }= 𝐿−1 {5𝑠 2 +45 + 5 5
}
+4)(𝑠 2+9) 𝑠 2+9
3 11 3 31
𝑠− − 𝑠+
= 𝐿−1 {5𝑠 2 +45 } +𝐿 −1
{ 5 5
}
𝑠 2+9
3 11 3
𝑠 − − 𝑠
−1 5 −1 5 −1 5
=𝐿 { }+𝐿 {𝑠 2+4} + 𝐿 { }+
𝑠 2 +4 𝑠 2+9
31
−1 5
𝐿 { }
𝑠 2+9
3 𝑠 11 1
= 5 (𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4}) − (𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4}) −
5
3 𝑠 31 1
(𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 +9}) + (𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+9})
5 5
𝑠 𝑠
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠2+4} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠2+(2)2 }
= cos 2𝑡
1 1 2
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠2+4} = 𝐿−1 {2 (𝑠2 +(2)2)}
1
= 2 sin 2𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
➢ 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 { } 3
𝑠2+9 𝑠2+(3)2
= cos 3𝑡
1 1 3
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠2+9} = 𝐿−1 {3 (𝑠2 +(3)2)}
1
= 3 sin 3𝑡
4𝑠 2+3𝑠+5
𝐿−1 {(𝑠2+4)(𝑠2+9)}
3 𝑠 11 1 3 𝑠 31 1
= (𝐿−1 { }) − (𝐿−1 { }) − (𝐿−1 { }) + (𝐿−1 { })
5 𝑠 2 +4 5 𝑠 2 +4 5 𝑠 2 +9 5 𝑠 2 +9
3 11 1 3 31 1
= 5 (cos 2𝑡) − 5
( sin 2𝑡) − (cos 3𝑡) +
2 5 5
( sin 3𝑡)
3
3 11 3 31
= 5 cos 2𝑡 − 10 sin 2𝑡 − 5 cos 3𝑡 + 15 sin 3𝑡
𝑠 2−6
5. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 3+4𝑠 2+3𝑠 }
Factor the denominator first.
𝑠 3 + 4𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3)
= 𝑠 (𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1)
𝑠 2−6 𝑠 2−6
= 𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)
𝑠 3 +4𝑠 2+3𝑠
Case 1 applies.
𝑠 2−6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑠 + 𝑠+3 + 𝑠+1
𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)
𝐴(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)+𝐵𝑠(𝑠+1)+𝐶𝑠(𝑠+3)
= (Get the LCD)
𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)
(Solving A, B and C by assigning values to the variable)
𝑠 2−6 𝐴(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)+𝐵𝑠(𝑠+1)+𝐶𝑠(𝑠+3)
=
𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1) 𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)
𝑠 2 − 6 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 + 3)
(Get the numerator)
If 𝑠 = 0: 𝑠 2 − 6 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 + 3)

(0)2 − 6 = 𝐴(0 + 3)(0 + 1) + 𝐵(0)(0 + 1) + 𝐶(0)(0 + 3)
−6 = 𝐴(3)(1)
−6 = 3𝐴
𝐴 = −2
If 𝑠 = −1: 𝑠 2 − 6 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 + 3)
(−1)2 − 6 = 𝐴(−1 + 3)(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1)(−1 + 1) +
𝐶(−1)(−1 + 3)
−5 = 𝐶 (−1)(2)
−5 = −2𝐶
5
𝐶=2
If 𝑠 = −3: 𝑠 2 − 6 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 3)(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 + 3)

(−3)2 − 6 = 𝐴(−3 + 3)(−3 + 1) + 𝐵(−3)(−3 + 1) +
𝐶(−3)(−3 + 3)
3 = 𝐵(−3)(−2)
3 = 6𝐵
1
𝐵=2
𝑠 2−6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑠 + 𝑠+3 + 𝑠+1
𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1)
1 5
−2 2 2
= + +
𝑠 𝑠+3 𝑠+1
1 5
−1 𝑠 2−6 −1 −2 2 2
𝐿 { }=𝐿 {𝑠 + + }
𝑠(𝑠+3)(𝑠+1) 𝑠+3 𝑠+1
1 5
−2
= 𝐿−1 { 𝑠 } +𝐿 −1 2
{ 𝑠+3 } + 𝐿 −1 2
{ 𝑠+1 }
1 1 1 5 1
= −2 (𝐿−1 { }) + (𝐿−1 { }) + (𝐿−1 { })
𝑠 2 𝑠+3 2 𝑠+1
1 5
= −2 + 2 𝑒 −3𝑡 + 2 𝑒 −𝑡
Further Properties of Inverse Laplace Transforms. Below are some properties that may be
helpful in evaluating the inverse Laplace transform.
Property 1: Let 𝐿 {𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠) and 𝑓(𝑠) has a term 𝑠 in the numerator.
Suppress 𝑠 in the numerator and get the inverse Laplace of the remaining term. After that,
differentiate the result with respect to 𝑡.
Property 2: Let 𝐿 {𝐹 (𝑡)} = 𝑓(𝑠) and 𝑓(𝑠) has a term 𝑠 in the denominator.
Suppress 𝑠 in the denominator and get the inverse Laplace of the remaining term. After that,
integrate the remaining term from 0 to 𝑡.
Example 5.4. Evaluate the inverse Laplace transform of the following.
𝑠
1. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 }
We can solve this using partial fraction (Case 2).

𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑠+1) 2
= 𝑠+1 + (𝑠+1)2
𝐴(𝑠+1)+𝐵
= (𝑠+1)2
(Get the LCD)
(Solving A and B by equating like powers of the variable)
𝑠 𝐴(𝑠+1)+𝐵
(𝑠+1)2
= (𝑠+1)2
𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴 + 𝐵 (Get the numerator)
For the variable 𝑠: 1=𝐴
For the constant term: 0= 𝐴+𝐵

0= 1+𝐵
𝐵 = −1
𝑠 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑠+1)2
= 𝑠+1 + (𝑠+1)2
1 −1
= + (𝑠+1)2
𝑠+1
𝑠 1 −1
𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 } = 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1 + (𝑠+1)2 }
1 1
= 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1} − 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 }
1
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1} = 𝑒 −𝑡
1 1
➢ 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 } = 𝐿−1 {𝑠2 } where 𝑎 = −1 , 𝑛 = 2
𝑠→𝑠−(−1)
𝑡 2−1
= 𝑒 −𝑡 ((2−1)! )
𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑡 (1! )
= 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡
𝑠 1 1
𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 } = 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1} − 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2}
= 𝑒−𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒−𝑡
𝑠
Another Solution. Using Property 1 since 𝑓 (𝑠) = (𝑠+1)2 has the term 𝑠 in
the numerator.
1
First, evaluate 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 }. (Suppress 𝑠)
1 1
𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2 } = 𝐿−1 {𝑠2 } where 𝑎 = −1 , 𝑛 = 2
𝑠→𝑠−(−1)
𝑡 2−1
= 𝑒 −𝑡 ((2−1)! )
𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑡 (1! )
= 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡
Then, differentiate the result.

𝑑
(𝑡𝑒−𝑡 ) = 𝑡[𝑒 −𝑡 ∙ (−1)] + 𝑒 −𝑡 (1) (Product rule)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑡(−𝑒 −𝑡 ) + 𝑒 −𝑡
= −𝑡𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑡𝑒 −𝑡
1
2. 𝐿−1 {𝑠(𝑠 2+1)}
We can solve this using partial fraction (Case 1 and 3).

1 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
= 𝑠 + 𝑠 2+1
𝑠(𝑠 2+1)
𝐴(𝑠 2+1)+(𝐵𝑠+𝐶)𝑠
= (𝑠+1)2
(Get the LCD)
(Solving A, B and C by equating like powers of the variable)
1 𝐴(𝑠 2+1)+(𝐵𝑠+𝐶)𝑠
=
𝑠(𝑠 2+1) (𝑠+1)2
1= 𝐴(𝑠2
+ 1) + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)𝑠 (Get the numerator)
1 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠2 + 𝐶𝑠
2
For the constant term: 1=𝐴
For the variable 𝑠: 0=𝐶
For the variable 𝑠 2 : 0= 𝐴+𝐵

0= 1+𝐵
𝐵 = −1
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
=𝑠+
𝑠(𝑠 2+1) 𝑠 2+1
1 −𝑠
= 𝑠 + 𝑠 2+1
1 1 −𝑠
𝐿−1 {𝑠(𝑠 2+1)} = 𝐿−1 { 𝑠 + 𝑠 2+1}
1 𝑠
= 𝐿−1 {𝑠 } − 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+1}
= 1 − cos 𝑡
1
Another Solution. Using Property 2 since 𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠 2+1) has the term 𝑠 in
the denominator.
1
First, evaluate 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+1}. (Suppress 𝑠)
1
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+1} = sin 𝑡
Then, integrate the result from 0 to 𝑡.

𝑡
∫0 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − cos 𝑡 |𝑡0
= − cos 𝑡 − (− cos 0)
= − cos 𝑡 − (−1)
= − cos 𝑡 + 1
= 1 − cos 𝑡
PROBLEM SET 5
THE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following.
2+𝑠+𝑠 2 −3𝑠 3
1. 𝐿−1 { }
𝑠9
3
2. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠−1)7}
𝑠+2
3. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)2+7}
3𝑠+5
4. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 }
+1)2
3𝑠+4
5. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+𝑠+1}
2𝑠−7
6. 𝐿−1 {4𝑠 2+8𝑠+13}
1
7. 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+6𝑠+34}
𝑒 −2𝑠
8. 𝐿−1 { }
𝑠3
𝑒 −𝑠
9. 𝐿−1 {𝑠(𝑠+1)}
2
(1+𝑒 −2𝑠 )
10. 𝐿−1 { }
𝑠+2
1
11. 𝐿−1 {𝑠(𝑠−7)}
𝑠
12. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)3}
2𝑠 2−𝑠−3
13. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+1)(𝑠−4)2 }
3𝑠 2+2𝑠+5
14. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+1)(𝑠−5)}
4𝑠 2+2𝑠−4
15. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+5𝑠+10)}
LESSON 6
SOLUTION OF ODEs USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Understand the concept of differentiation and
integration of transforms, and
2. Apply the concept of Laplace transforms in solving
ordinary differential equations.
Differentiation of Transforms. Recall from the derivatives of transforms that
𝑑𝑛
𝐿{𝑡 𝑛 𝐹 (𝑡)} = (−1)𝑛 [ (𝑓(𝑠))]
𝑑𝑠 𝑛
It follows that
𝑑
𝐿{𝑡𝐹(𝑡)} = − (𝑓(𝑠))
𝑑𝑠
And getting the inverse Laplace transform of both sides gives
𝑑
𝐿−1 {𝐿{𝑡𝐹(𝑡)}} = 𝐿−1 {− (𝑓(𝑠))}
𝑑𝑠
𝑑
𝑡𝐹 (𝑡) = −𝐿−1 { (𝑓(𝑠))}𝑑𝑠
𝑑
𝐿−1{ (𝑓(𝑠))}
𝐹 (𝑡 ) = − 𝑑𝑠
(Eqn. 6.1)
𝑡
In this way, differentiation of the transform of a function corresponds to the multiplication of the
function by −𝑡.
Integration of Transforms. Given that

∞
𝐹 (𝑡 )
𝐿{ } = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠
𝑡 𝑠
Evaluating the inverse Laplace of the above equation gives
∞
𝐹 (𝑡 )
𝐿−1 {𝐿 { }} = 𝐿−1 {∫ 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠}
𝑡 𝑠
𝐹(𝑡) ∞
= 𝐿−1 {∫𝑠 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠}
𝑡
∞
𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡(𝐿−1 {∫𝑠 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠}) (Eqn. 6.2)
In this way, integration of the transform of a function 𝐹 (𝑡) corresponds to the division of 𝐹(𝑡) by 𝑡.
Example 6.1. Evaluate the inverse Laplace transform.
1
1. 𝐿−1 { 𝑠 }
1
We already know that 𝐿−1 { 𝑠 } = 1.
However, for the sake of illustrating the concept of differentiation of

transforms, we have
1 1
𝐿−1 { s } : 𝑓(𝑠) = s
𝑑 𝑑 1
(𝑓(𝑠)) = () (Get the derivative of 𝑓(𝑠))
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 s
𝑠(0)−1(1)
= 𝑠2
1
= − 𝑠2
𝑑 1
𝐿−1 {𝑑𝑠 (𝑓(𝑠))} = 𝐿−1 {− 𝑠 2} (Get the inverse Laplace transform)
1
= −𝐿−1 {𝑠 2}
𝑡 2−1
= − ((2−1)!)
𝑡
= − (1!)
= −𝑡
𝑑
𝐿−1{ (𝑓(𝑠))}
𝑑𝑠
𝐹 (𝑡 ) = − (Use Eqn. 6.1)
𝑡
−𝑡
=− 𝑡
=1
1
𝐿−1 { s } = 1
𝑠+2
2. 𝐿−1 {ln (𝑠+1)}
Use differentiation of transforms.
𝑠+2 𝑠+2
𝐿−1 {ln (𝑠+1)} : 𝑓 (𝑠) = ln (𝑠+1)
𝑑 𝑑 𝑠+2
(𝑓(𝑠)) = (ln (𝑠+1)) (Get the derivative of 𝑓(𝑠))
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑
= (ln(𝑠 + 2) − ln(𝑠 + 1))
𝑑𝑠
1 1
= 𝑠+2 − 𝑠+1
𝑑 1 1
𝐿−1 {𝑑𝑠 (𝑓(𝑠))} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2 − 𝑠+1} (Get the inverse Laplace transform)
1 1
= 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2} − 𝐿−1 {𝑠+1}
= 𝑒 −2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡
𝑑
𝐿−1{ (𝑓(𝑠))}
𝑑𝑠
𝐹 (𝑡 ) = − (Use Eqn. 6.1)
𝑡
𝑒 −2𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑡
=− 𝑡
𝑒 −𝑡 −𝑒 −2𝑡
= 𝑡
𝑠+2 𝑒 −𝑡 −𝑒 −2𝑡
𝐿−1 {ln (𝑠+1)} = 𝑡
2𝑠
3. 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+1)2 }
Use integration of transforms.
2𝑠 2𝑠
𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 } : 𝑓 (𝑠 ) = 2
+1)2 (𝑠 +1)2
∞ ∞ 2𝑠
∫𝑠 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠 = ∫𝑠 (𝑠 2+1)2
𝑑𝑠 (Get the integral of 𝑓(𝑠))
Let 𝑢 = 𝑠2 + 1
𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑠 𝑑𝑠
∞ 𝑑𝑢
= ∫𝑠 𝑢2
1 ∞
= − 𝑢 |𝑠
1
= − (𝑠 2+1) |∞
𝑠
1 1
= − ((∞)2 +1 − 𝑠 2 +1)
1
= − (0 − 𝑠 2+1)
1
= 𝑠 2 +1
∞ 1
𝐿−1 {∫0 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+1} (Get the inverse Laplace transform)
= sin 𝑡
∞
𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝑡(𝐿−1 {∫0 𝑓 (𝑠)𝑑𝑠}) (Use Eqn. 6.2)
= 𝑡(sin 𝑡)
2𝑠
𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 } = 𝑡 sin 𝑡
+1) 2
Using Laplace Transforms to Solve ODEs. The following formulas are presented without proof.
𝐿{𝑦 ′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑦(0) (Eqn. 6.3)
𝐿{𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑠(𝑦(0)) − 𝑦 ′ (0) (Eqn. 6.4)
𝐿{𝑦 ′′′ (𝑡)} = 𝑠 3 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑠 2 (𝑦(0)) − 𝑠(𝑦 ′ (0)) − 𝑦 ′′ (0) (Eqn. 6.5)
Steps in Solving the ODE:
1. Get the Laplace transform of the ODE. The transformed DE becomes an algebraic
equation in 𝑌 (𝑠).
2. Solve the transformed equation for 𝑌(𝑠).
3. Apply inverse Laplace transform to solve for 𝑦(𝑡).
Example 6.2. Solve the ODE.
1. 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 , 𝑦(0) = 1
𝐿{𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡} (Get Laplace of the ODE)
𝐿{𝑦 ′ (𝑡)} + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡}

𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑦(0) + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡} (Apply Eqn. 6.3)
1
𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 1 + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑠 2
1
𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = +1
𝑠2
1+𝑠 2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 + 1) = (Isolate 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)})
𝑠2
1+𝑠2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠+1) 𝑠2
(𝑠+1)
= (𝑠+1)
1+𝑠 2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑠 2(𝑠+1) (Get inverse Laplace)
1+𝑠 2
𝐿−1 {𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠+1)}
1+𝑠 2
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠+1)}
1+𝑠 2
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 (𝑠+1)} (Use partial fraction)
1+𝑠 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑠 2(𝑠+1) 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠+1
1+𝑠 2 𝐴𝑠(𝑠+1)+𝐵(𝑠+1)+𝐶𝑠 2
=
𝑠 2(𝑠+1) 𝑠 2(𝑠+1)
1 + 𝑠 2 = 𝐴𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠 2
(Assign values to 𝑠)
For 𝑠 = 0:
1 + (0)2 = 𝐴(0)(0 + 1) + 𝐵(0 + 1) + 𝐶 (0)2
1 = 𝐵 (1)
𝐵=1
For 𝑠 = −1:
1 + (−1)2 = 𝐴(−1)(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1 + 1) + 𝐶 (−1)2
2 = 𝐶(−1)2
2 = 𝐶(1)
𝐶=2
For 𝑠 = 1:
1 + (1)2 = 𝐴(1)(1 + 1) + 𝐵(1 + 1) + 𝐶 (1)2
2 = 𝐴(1)(2) + 𝐵(2) + 𝐶(1)
2 = 𝐴(1)(2) + (1)(2) + (2)(1)
2 = 2𝐴 + 4
2 − 4 = 2𝐴
−2 = 2𝐴
𝐴 = −1
1+𝑠 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+1
𝑠 2 (𝑠+1)
−1 1 2
= + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+1
𝑠
1+𝑠 2 −1 1 2
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠+1)} = 𝐿−1 { 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+1}
1 1 1
= −𝐿−1 {𝑠 } + 𝐿−1 {𝑠2 } + 2𝐿−1 {𝑠+1}
= −1 + 𝑡 + 2𝑒 −𝑡
1+𝑠 2
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 (𝑠+1)}
= −1 + 𝑡 + 2𝑒 −𝑡
2. 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦(𝑡) + 4𝑦(𝑡) = sin 2𝑡 , 𝑦(0) = 0 , 𝑦 ′ (0) = 1
𝐿{𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦(𝑡) + 4𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{sin 2𝑡} (Get Laplace)
𝐿{𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)} + 4𝐿{𝑦 ′ (𝑡)} + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{sin 2𝑡}

[𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦 (𝑡)}) − 𝑠(𝑦(0)) − 𝑦 ′ (0)] + 4[𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑦(0)] +
4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{sin 2𝑡} (Apply Eqn. 6.3 & 6.4)
𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑠(𝑦(0)) − 𝑦 ′ (0) + 4𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 4(𝑦(0)) +

4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{sin 2𝑡}
𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑠(0) − 1 + 4𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 4(0) + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} =
2
𝑠 2+4
2
𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) + 4𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑠 2+4 + 1
2+1(𝑠 2+4)
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4) = 𝑠 2 +4
2+𝑠 2 +4
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4) = 𝑠 2+4
𝑠 2+6
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 4) = 𝑠 2+4 (Isolate 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)})
𝑠2 +6
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4) 𝑠2 +4
(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)
= (𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)
𝑠 2+6
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = (𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4) (Get inverse Laplace)
𝑠 2 +6
𝐿−1 {𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}} = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 }
+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)
𝑠 2 +6
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)}
𝑠 2+6
➢ 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)} (Use partial fraction)
𝑠 2 +6 𝑠 2+6
(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)
= (𝑠 2+4)(𝑠+2)2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
= 𝑠+2 + (𝑠+2)2 + 𝑠 2+4
𝑠 2+6 𝐴(𝑠+2)(𝑠 2+4)+𝐵(𝑠 2+4)+(𝐶𝑠+𝐷)(𝑠+2)2

(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠+2) 2
= (𝑠 2+4)(𝑠+2)2
𝑠 2 + 6 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 2 + 4) + 𝐵(𝑠 2 + 4) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)(𝑠 + 2)2
For 𝑠 = −2:
𝑠 2 + 6 = 𝐴(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 2 + 4) + 𝐵(𝑠 2 + 4) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)(𝑠 + 2)2
(−2)2 + 6 = 𝐴(−2 + 2)((−2)2 + 4) + 𝐵((−2)2 + 4) +
(𝐶 (−2) + 𝐷)(−2 + 2)2
10 = 𝐴(0)(8) + 𝐵(8) + (−2𝐶 + 𝐷)(0)2
10 = 𝐵(8)
10
𝐵= 8
5
𝐵=4
For 𝑠 = 0:
(0)2 + 6 = 𝐴(0 + 2)((0)2 + 4) + 𝐵((0)2 + 4) +
(𝐶 (0) + 𝐷)(0 + 2)2
6 = 𝐴(2)(4) + 𝐵(4) + 𝐷(2)2
5
6 = 8𝐴 + ( ) (4) + 4𝐷
4
6 = 8𝐴 + 5 + 4𝐷
6 − 5 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐷
1 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐷 (1)
For 𝑠 = 1:
(1)2 + 6 = 𝐴(1 + 2)((1)2 + 4) + 𝐵((1)2 + 4) +
(𝐶 (1) + 𝐷)(1 + 2)2
1 + 6 = 𝐴(3)(5) + 𝐵(5) + (𝐶 + 𝐷)(9)
7 = 15𝐴 + 5𝐵 + 9𝐶 + 9𝐷
5
7 = 15𝐴 + 5 (4) + 9𝐶 + 9𝐷
25
7 = 15𝐴 + 4
+ 9𝐶 + 9𝐷
25
7− = 15𝐴 + 9𝐶 + 9𝐷
4
3
4
= 15𝐴 + 9𝐶 + 9𝐷
1
4
= 5𝐴 + 3𝐶 + 3𝐷 (2)
For 𝑠 = 2:
(2)2 + 6 = 𝐴(2 + 2)((2)2 + 4) + 𝐵((2)2 + 4) +
(𝐶 (2) + 𝐷)(2 + 2)2
4 + 6 = 𝐴(4)(8) + 𝐵 (8) + (2𝐶 + 𝐷)(16)
10 = 32𝐴 + 8𝐵 + 32𝐶 + 16𝐷
5
10 = 32𝐴 + 8 (4) + 32𝐶 + 16𝐷
10 = 32𝐴 + 10 + 32𝐶 + 16𝐷
10 − 10 = 32𝐴 + 32𝐶 + 16𝐷
0 = 32𝐴 + 32𝐶 + 16𝐷
0 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐶 + 𝐷 (3)

1
2 (4 = 5𝐴 + 3𝐶 + 3𝐷)
− 3(0 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐶 + 𝐷)
1
( = 10𝐴 + 6𝐶 + 6𝐷)
2
− (0 = 6𝐴 + 6𝐶 + 3𝐷)
1
= 4𝐴 + 3𝐷 (4)
2
3( 1 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐷)
1
− 4 ( = 4𝐴 + 3𝐷)
2
(3 = 24𝐴 + 12𝐷)
− (2 = 16𝐴 + 12𝐷)
1 = 8𝐴
1
𝐴=8
(Solve for D)
1 = 8𝐴 + 4𝐷
1
1 = 8 (8) + 4𝐷
1 = 1 + 4𝐷
0 = 4𝐷
𝐷=0
(Solve for C)
0 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐶 + 𝐷
1
0 = 2 (8) + 2𝐶 + 0
1
0= + 2𝐶
4
1
− 4 = 2𝐶
1
𝐶 = −8
𝑠 2 +6 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)
= 𝑠+2 + (𝑠+2)2 + 𝑠 2+4
1 5 1
− 𝑠+0
8 4 8
= + (𝑠+2)2
+
𝑠+2 𝑠 2 +4
1 1 5 1 1 𝑠
= 8 (𝑠+2) + 4 ((𝑠+2)2 ) − 8 (𝑠 2+4)
𝑠 2 +6 1 1 5 1 1 𝑠
𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)} = 𝐿−1 {8 (𝑠+2) + 4 ((𝑠+2)2 ) − 8 (𝑠 2+4)}
1 1 5 1 1 𝑠
= 8 𝐿−1 {𝑠+2} + 4 𝐿−1 {(𝑠+2)2 } − 8 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4}
1 5 1
= 8 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 4 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 8 cos 2𝑡
𝑠 2+6
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)(𝑠 2+4𝑠+4)}
1 5 1
= 8 𝑒 −2𝑡 + 4 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 8 cos 2𝑡
3. 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦(𝑡) = (𝑡 + 2)𝑈{𝑡 − 1} , 𝑦(0) = 1 , 𝑦 ′ (0) = −3
𝐿{𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{(𝑡 + 2)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}} (Get Laplace)
𝐿{𝑦 ′′ (𝑡)} + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{(𝑡 + 2)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}}

[𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦 (𝑡)}) − 𝑠(𝑦(0)) − 𝑦 ′ (0)] + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} =
𝐿{(𝑡 + 2)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}} (Apply 6.4)
[𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑠(1) − (−3)] + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{(𝑡 + 2)𝑈{𝑡 − 1}}

1 3
𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑠 + 3 + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 𝑠 )
1 3
𝑠 2 (𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) + 4𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2 + 𝑠 ) + 𝑠 − 3
1+3𝑠
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 2 + 4) = 𝑒 −𝑠 ( )+𝑠−3 (Isolate 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)})
𝑠2
1+3𝑠
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 2+4) 𝑒 −𝑠( 2 )+(𝑠−3)
𝑠
(𝑠 2+4)
= (𝑠 2+4)
1+3𝑠 (𝑠−3)
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4)) + (𝑠 2+4) (Get inverse Laplace)
1+3𝑠 (𝑠−3)
𝐿−1 {𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}} = 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑠 ( ) + (𝑠 2 }
𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4) +4)
1+3𝑠 (𝑠−3)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2(𝑠2+4))} + 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)}
1+3𝑠 1+3𝑠
➢ 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4))} : 𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑠 2 (𝑠 2+4) , 𝑎 = 1
(Get the inverse Laplace transform of 𝑓(𝑠)) first)
1+3𝑠
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 (𝑠 2+4)} (Use partial fraction)
1+3𝑠 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
= 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 2+4
𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4)
1+3𝑠 𝐴(𝑠)(𝑠 2+4)+𝐵(𝑠 2+4)+(𝐶𝑠+𝐷)𝑠 2

=
𝑠 2 (𝑠 2+4) 𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4)
1 + 3𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑠)(𝑠 2 + 4) + 𝐵(𝑠 2 + 4) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷)𝑠 2

1 + 3𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑠 3 + 4𝑠) + 𝐵(𝑠 2 + 4) + (𝐶𝑠 + 𝐷 )𝑠 2
1 + 3𝑠 = 𝐴𝑠 3 + 4𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 2 + 4𝐵 + 𝐶𝑠 3 + 𝐷𝑠 2
(Equate like powers of the variable)

For constant term: 1 = 4𝐵
1
𝐵=4
For 𝑠: 3 = 4𝐴
3
𝐴=4
For 𝑠 2 : 0= 𝐵+𝐷
1
0=4+𝐷
1
𝐷 = −4
For 𝑠 3 : 0= 𝐴+𝐶
3
0=4+𝐶
3
𝐶=−
4
1+3𝑠 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶𝑠+𝐷
= 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 2 +4
𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4)
3 1 3 1
− 𝑠−
4 4 4 4
= + +
𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠 2+4
3 1 1 1 3 𝑠 1 1
= 4 ( 𝑠 ) + 4 (𝑠 2) − 4 (𝑠 2+4) − 4 (𝑠 2+4)
1+3𝑠 3 1 1 1 3 𝑠 1 1
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4)} = 𝐿−1 {4 ( 𝑠 ) + 4 (𝑠 2) − 4 (𝑠 2+4) − 4 (𝑠 2+4)}
3 1 1 1 3 𝑠
= 4 𝐿−1 {( 𝑠 )} + 4 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 } − 4 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2+4} −
1 −1 1
𝐿 {2 }
4 𝑠 +4
3 1 3 1
= 4 + 4 𝑡 − 4 cos 2𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
8
1+3𝑠 3 1 3 1
𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4))} : 𝐹 (𝑡) = 4 + 4 𝑡 − 4 cos 2𝑡 − 8 sin 2𝑡
: 𝐹 (𝑡 − 𝑎 ) = 𝐹 (𝑡 − 1 )
3 1 3 1
= 4 + 4 (𝑡 − 1) − 4 cos 2(𝑡 − 1) 8 sin 2(𝑡 − 1)
3 1 1 3 1
= 4 + 4 𝑡 − 4 − 4 cos(2𝑡 − 2) 8 sin(2𝑡 − 2)
1 1 3 1
= 2 + 4 𝑡 − 4 cos(2𝑡 − 2) − 8 sin(2𝑡 − 2)
1+3𝑠
𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4))}
1 1 3 1
= (2 + 4 𝑡 − 4 cos(2𝑡 − 2) − 8 sin(2𝑡 − 2)) 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1)
(𝑠−3) 𝑠 1
➢ 𝐿−1 { } = 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 } − 3𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2 }
(𝑠 2+4) +4) +4)
3
= cos 2𝑡 − 2 sin 2𝑡
1+3𝑠 (𝑠−3)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑒 −𝑠 (𝑠 2(𝑠 2+4))} + 𝐿−1 {(𝑠 2+4)}
1 1 3 1
= (2 + 4 𝑡 − 4 cos(2𝑡 − 2) − 8 sin(2𝑡 − 2)) 𝑈 (𝑡 − 1) +
3
cos 2𝑡 − 2 sin 2𝑡
4. 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑡 , 𝑦(2) = 1
Hint: Let 𝑦(0) = 𝑘
𝐿{𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡} (Get Laplace)
𝐿{𝑦 ′ (𝑡)} + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡}

𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑦(0) + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝐿{𝑡} (Apply Eqn. 6.3)
1
𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) − 𝑘 + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑠 2
1
𝑠(𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}) + 𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑠 2 + 𝑘
1+𝑘𝑠 2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠 + 1) = (Isolate
𝑠2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)})
1+𝑘𝑠2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}(𝑠+1) 𝑠2
(𝑠+1)
= (𝑠+1)
1+𝑘𝑠 2
𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)} = 𝑠 2(𝑠+1) (Get inverse Laplace)
1+𝑘𝑠 2
𝐿−1 {𝐿{𝑦(𝑡)}} = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠+1)}
1+𝑘𝑠 2
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠+1)}
1+𝑘𝑠 2
➢ 𝐿−1 { } (Use partial fraction)
𝑠 2 (𝑠+1)
1+𝑘𝑠 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 𝑠 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+1
𝑠 2(𝑠+1)
1+𝑘𝑠 2 𝐴𝑠(𝑠+1)+𝐵(𝑠+1)+𝐶𝑠 2
=
𝑠 2(𝑠+1) 𝑠 2(𝑠+1)
1 + 𝑘𝑠 2 = 𝐴𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠 2
For 𝑠 = 0:
1 + 𝑘(0)2 = 𝐴(0)(0 + 1) + 𝐵(0 + 1) + 𝐶 (0)2
1 = 𝐵 (1)
𝐵=1
For 𝑠 = −1:
1 + 𝑘(−1)2 = 𝐴(−1)(−1 + 1) + 𝐵(−1 + 1) + 𝐶 (−1)2
1 + 𝑘 = 𝐶(−1)2
1 + 𝑘 = 𝐶(1)
𝐶 =1+𝑘
For 𝑠 = 1:
1 + 𝑘(1)2 = 𝐴(1)(1 + 1) + 𝐵(1 + 1) + 𝐶 (1)2
1 + 𝑘 = 𝐴(1)(2) + 𝐵(2) + 𝐶(1)
1 + 𝑘 = 𝐴(1)(2) + (1)(2) + (1 + 𝑘)(1)
1 + 𝑘 = 2𝐴 + 2 + 1 + 𝑘
1 + 𝑘 − 2 − 1 − 𝑘 = 2𝐴
−2 = 2𝐴
𝐴 = −1
1+𝑘𝑠 2 −1 1 1+𝑘
= + +
𝑠 2 (𝑠+1) 𝑠 𝑠2 𝑠+1
1 1 1
= − ( 𝑠 ) + (𝑠2 ) + (1 + 𝑘) (𝑠+1)
1+𝑘𝑠 2 𝑘−3 1 1 1
𝐿−1 {𝑠 2(𝑠+1)} = 𝐿−1 { ( 𝑠 ) + (𝑠 2) + (1 + 𝑘) (𝑠+1)}
2
1 1 1
= −𝐿−1 { } + 𝐿−1 { 2 } + (1 + 𝑘)𝐿−1 { }
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠+1
−𝑡
= −1 + 𝑡 + (1 + 𝑘)𝑒
1+𝑘𝑠 2
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐿−1 {𝑠 2 (𝑠+1)}
= −1 + 𝑡 + (1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −𝑡 but 𝑦(2) = 1 (Solve for 𝑘)
𝑦(2) = −1 + 2 + (1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −2
1 = 1 + (1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −2
1 − 1 = (1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −2
0 = (1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −2
0 =1+𝑘
𝑘 = −1
𝑦(𝑡) = −1 + 𝑡 + (1 + 𝑘)𝑒 −𝑡 , 𝑘 = −1
𝑦(𝑡) = −1 + 𝑡 + (1 + (−1))𝑒 −𝑡
𝑦 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡 − 1
PROBLEM SET 6
SOLUTION OF ODEs USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Solve the following differential equations using Laplace transforms.
1. 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 2𝑦(𝑡) = 0 , 𝑦(0) = 1

2. 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡) = 1 + 𝑡𝑒 𝑡 , 𝑦(0) = 0
3. 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦 = 𝑡 3 , 𝑦(0) = 1 , 𝑦 ′ (0) = −1
4. 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) − 3𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 2𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒 −4𝑡 , 𝑦(0) = 1 , 𝑦 ′ (0) = 5
5. 𝑦 ′′′ (𝑡) + 2𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) − 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) − 2𝑦(𝑡) = sin 3𝑡
Initial conditions: 𝑦(0) = 0 , 𝑦 ′ (0) = 0 , 𝑦 ′′ (0) = 1
6. 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑓 (𝑡) , 𝑦(0) = 0
0, 0≤𝑡 <1
Where 𝑓(𝑡) = {
5, 𝑡≥1
7. 𝑦 ′′ (𝑡) + 4𝑦 ′ (𝑡) + 3𝑦(𝑡) = 1 − 𝑈(𝑡 − 2) − 𝑈(𝑡 − 4) + 𝑈(𝑡 − 6),
𝑦( 0 ) = 0 , 𝑦 ′ ( 0 ) = 0
LESSON 7
MATRIX ALGEBRA
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Define matrices and perform arithmetic on
matrices, and
2. Apply matrix algebra to solve systems of linear
algebraic equations.
Matrix. A matrix is any rectangular array of numbers or functions defined below.

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
[ ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
Elements of a Matrix: The numbers or functions, 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎22 , … , 𝑎𝑚𝑛 , in the
array are called elements of the matrix. The entry in the 𝑖th
row and 𝑗th column of a matrix is written as 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .
Size of a Matrix: The size of a matrix is the 𝑚 number of rows by the 𝑛

number of columns of the matrix written as 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛.
Special Matrices
1. Row Matrix. A matrix with only one row.
Example: 𝑨 = [2 −5 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑨: 1 𝑥 3)
2. Column Matrix. A matrix with only one column.
4
Example: 𝑩 = [−2] (Size of Matrix 𝑩: 4 𝑥 1)
5
8
3. Null Matrix. A null matrix has all elements zero.
0 0 0
Example: 𝑵 = [0 0 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑨: 3 𝑥 3)
0 0 0
4. Square Matrix. A matrix whose number of rows is the same as the number of columns.
The size of a square matrix is written as 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛. Moreover, a square matrix is also called
a matrix of order 𝒏.
1 2 15 6 −1 −2
3 14 7 8 −3 −4
0 5 0 −2 −2 5
Example: 𝑪= (Size of Matrix 𝑪: 6 𝑥 6)
8 −3 8 3 0 15
−7 0 13 −5 −6 8
[0 0 11 8 −5 21 ]
5. Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix which has zero elements everywhere except the
principal diagonal.
1 0 0 0
Example: 𝑫 = [0 2 0 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑫: 4 𝑥 4)
0 0 3 0
0 0 0 4
6. Scalar Matrix. When the entries 𝑎𝑖𝑖 of a diagonal matrix are all equal.
5 0]
Example: 𝑺=[ (Size of Matrix 𝑺: 2 𝑥 2)
0 5
Note: An 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 scalar matrix is simply a scalar multiple of a diagonal matrix in which the
main diagonal entries are all equal to 1.
5 0] 1 0
𝑺=[ = 5[ ]
0 5 0 1
7. Identity Matrix. A diagonal matrix whose elements of the principal diagonal are all 1.
1 0 0
Example: 𝑰 = [0 1 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑰: 3 𝑥 3)
0 0 1
8. Transpose of a Matrix. The transpose of a matrix is a result of interchanging the
columns and rows of a matrix. The transpose of matrix 𝑨 is denoted by 𝑨𝑻 as
illustrated below.
1 2
Example: 𝑨 = [3 4] (Size of Matrix 𝑨: 3 𝑥 2)
5 6
1 3 5]
𝑨𝑻 = [ (Size of Matrix 𝑨𝑻 : 2 𝑥 3)
2 4 6
9. Symmetrical Matrix. A square matrix whose elements are symmetrical about its main
diagonal. This means that 𝑨 = 𝑨𝑻 .
1 3 4
Example: 𝑴 = [3 8 7] (Size of Matrix 𝑴: 3 𝑥 3)
4 7 5
1 3 4
𝑻
𝑴 = [3 8 7] (Size of Matrix 𝑴𝑻 : 3 𝑥 3)
4 7 5
𝑴 = 𝑴𝑻
10. Skew Symmetrical Matrix. A square matrix whose elements are symmetrical about its
main diagonal but of negative sign. This means that 𝑨 = −𝑨𝑻 .
0 2 3
Example: 𝑯 = [−2 0 7] (Size of Matrix 𝑯: 3 𝑥 3)
−3 −7 0
0 −2 −3
𝑻
𝑯 = [2 0 −7] (Size of Matrix 𝑯𝑻 : 3 𝑥 3)
3 7 0
𝑯 = −𝑯𝑻
11. Triangular Matrix. A square matrix whose non-zero elements are confined in the upper
or lower triangle.
Upper Triangular Matrix
1 4 1 4
Example: 𝑩 = [0 1 4 1] (Size of Matrix 𝑩: 4 𝑥 4)
0 0 2 5
0 0 0 3
Lower Triangular Matrix
1 0 0
Example: 𝑪=[ 2 4 0] (Size of Matrix 𝑪: 3 𝑥 3)
−3 7 5
Arithmetic of Matrices
1. Equality of Matrices.
Two 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩 are equal if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑏𝑖𝑗 for each 𝑖 and 𝑗.
𝑎 𝑏] 𝑒 𝑓
Example: The matrices [ and [ ] are equal if and only if
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ
𝑎 = 𝑒, 𝑏 = 𝑓, 𝑐 = 𝑔, 𝑑 = ℎ.
2. Matrix Addition.
If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices, then their sum is
𝑨 + 𝑩 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚 𝑥 𝑛
1 2
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ ] and 𝑩 = [5 6]. Then,
3 4 7 8
1+5 2+6
𝑨+𝑩=[ ]
3+7 4+8
6 8
=[ ]
10 12
3. Scalar Multiple of a Matrix.

If 𝑘 is a real number, then the scalar multiple of a matrix 𝑨 is
𝑘𝑎11 𝑘𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎1𝑛

𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎2𝑛
𝑘𝑨 = [ 21 ] = (𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 )
⋮ ⋮ 𝑚𝑥𝑛
𝑘𝑎𝑚1 𝑘𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑘𝑎𝑚𝑛
1 2 1 2 3(1) 3(2)
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ ], 3𝑨 = 3 [ ]=[ ]
3 4 3 4 3(3) 3(4)
3 6
=[ ]
9 12
4. Matrix Multiplication. Let 𝑨 be a matrix having 𝑚 rows and 𝑝 columns, and let 𝑩
be a matrix having 𝑝 rows and 𝑛 columns. The product 𝑨𝑩 is the 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑝 𝑏11 𝑏12 ⋯ 𝑏1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑝 𝑏21 𝑏22 ⋯ 𝑏2𝑛
𝑨𝑩 = [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑝 [ 𝑏𝑝1 𝑏𝑝2 ⋯ 𝑏𝑝𝑛 ]
𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑝 𝑏𝑝1 ⋯ 𝑎11 𝑏1𝑛 + 𝑎12 𝑏2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑛
𝑎21 𝑏11 + 𝑎22 𝑏21 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑝 𝑏𝑝1 ⋯ 𝑎21 𝑏1𝑛 + 𝑎22 𝑏2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑛
=
⋮ ⋮
[𝑎𝑚1 𝑏11 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑏21 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑏𝑝1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚1 𝑏1𝑛 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑏2𝑛 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑛 ]
𝑝
= (∑𝑘=1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 )𝑚 𝑥 𝑛
Note: The product 𝑨𝑩 is defined only when the number of columns in matrix 𝑨 is the
same as the number of rows in matrix 𝑩. That is,
(𝑨𝑚 𝑥 𝑝 )(𝑩𝑝 𝑥 𝑛 ) = (𝑨𝑩)𝑚 𝑥 𝑛
2 3
3 6 1
Example: Let 𝑨 = [ 1 3] and 𝑩 = [ ], find the product 𝑨𝑩
6 −1 8
−1 2
The size of 𝑨 is 3 𝑥 2 and the size of 𝑩 is 2 𝑥 3. The product 𝑨𝑩 is

possible since the number of columns of 𝑨 (which is 2) is the same as the
number of rows of 𝑩 (which is 2). The size of 𝑨𝑩 is 3 𝑥 3.
2(3) + 3(6 ) 2(6) + 3(−1) 2(1) + 3(8 )

𝑨𝑩 = [ 1(3) + 3(6) 1(6) + 3(−1) 1(1) + 3(8 ) ]
−1 3 + 2 6 −1 6 + 2 −1 −1(1) + 2(8)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6 + 18 12 − 3 2 + 24
= [ 3 + 18 6−3 1 + 24 ]
−3 + 12 −6 − 2 −1 + 16
24 9 26
= [21 3 25]
9 −8 15
Important Properties
A. Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Suppose 𝑨, 𝑩, and 𝑪 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices and 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are scalars. Then
1. 𝑨+𝑩=𝑩+𝑨
2. 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪
3. (𝑘1 𝑘2 )𝑨 = 𝑘1 (𝑘2 𝑨)
4. 1𝑨 = 𝑨
5. 𝑘1 (𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝑘1 𝑨 + 𝑘2 𝑩
6. (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑨 = 𝑘1 𝑨 + 𝑘2 𝑨
B. Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Suppose 𝑨, 𝑩, and 𝑪 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices. Then
1. 𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨 (in general)
2. 𝑨(𝑩𝑪) = (𝑨𝑩) 𝑪
3. 𝑨(𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪
4. (𝑩 + 𝑪)𝑨 = 𝑩𝑨 + 𝑪𝑨
C. Properties of Transpose
Suppose 𝑨 and 𝑩 are 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrices and 𝑘 is a scalar. Then
1. (𝑨𝑇 )𝑇 = 𝑨
2. (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝑇 = 𝑨𝑇 + 𝑩𝑇
3. (𝑨𝑩)𝑇 = 𝑩𝑇 𝑨𝑇
4. (𝑘𝑨)𝑇 = 𝑘𝑨𝑇
Example 7.1. 𝑥+𝑦 𝑦 1 2

Find the values of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑤 and 𝑧 in [ ]=[ ].
𝑧 𝑤+𝑧 3 4
Use Equality of Matrices.
𝑥+𝑦 𝑦 1 2
[ ]=[ ]
𝑧 𝑤+𝑧 3 4
𝑥+𝑦 =1
𝑦=2
𝑧=3
𝑤+𝑧=4
To solve 𝑥: 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 , 𝑦 = 2
𝑥+2=1
𝑥 = −1
To solve 𝑤: 𝑤 + 𝑧 = 4 , 𝑧 = 3
𝑤+3 = 4
𝑤=1
Example 7.2. 𝑥 𝑦 2 1
] = [5 −1].
Find the values of the unknowns in [ ][
𝑧 𝑤 3 7 3 8
Use Matrix Multiplication first.

𝑥 𝑦 2 1 𝑥 (2) + 𝑦 (3) 𝑥 (1) + 𝑦 (7)
[ ][ ]=[ ]
𝑧 𝑤 3 7 𝑧 (2) + 𝑤 (3) 𝑧 (1) + 𝑤 (7)
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 𝑥 + 7𝑦
=[ ]
2𝑧 + 3𝑤 𝑧 + 7𝑤
Use Equality of Matrices.

𝑥 𝑦 2 1
[ ][ ] = [5 −1]
𝑧 𝑤 3 7 3 8
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 𝑥 + 7𝑦
[ ] = [5 −1]
2𝑧 + 3𝑤 𝑧 + 7𝑤 3 8
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5 (1)
𝑥 + 7𝑦 = −1 (2)
2𝑧 + 3𝑤 = 3 (3)
𝑧 + 7𝑤 = 8 (4)
(Get Equations (1) and (2) and eliminate 𝑥)

(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5)
− 2 𝑥 + 7𝑦 = −1)
(
(2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 5)
− 2𝑥 + 14𝑦 = −2)
(
−11𝑦 = 7
7
𝑦 = − 11
(Solve for 𝑥)
𝑥 + 7𝑦 = −1
7
𝑥 + 7 (− 11) = −1
49
𝑥 − 11 = −1
49
𝑥 = −1 + 11
38
𝑥 = 11
(Get Equations (3) and (4) and eliminate 𝑧)

(2𝑧 + 3𝑤 = 3)
− 2(𝑧 + 7𝑤 = 8)
(2𝑧 + 3𝑤 = 3)
− (2𝑧 + 14𝑤 = 16)
−11𝑤 = −13
13
𝑤=
11
(Solve for 𝑧)
𝑧 + 7𝑤 = 8
13
𝑧 + 7 (11) = 8
91
𝑧 + 11 = 8
91
𝑧 = 8 − 11
3
𝑧 = − 11
Example 7.3. Find elements 𝑐11 and 𝑐23 of the matrix 𝑪 = 3𝑨 − 2𝑩 given that
2 3 −1 4 0 6
𝑨=[ ] and 𝑩 = [ ].
1 6 0 −1 3 −5
𝑪 = 3𝑨 − 2𝑩
2 3 −1 4 0 6
= 3[ ] −2[ ]
1 6 0 −1 3 −5
6 9 −3 8 0 12
=[ ]−[ ]
3 18 0 −2 6 −10
6−8 9−0 −3 − 12
=[ ]
3 − (−2) 18 − 6 0 − (−10)
−2 9 −15]
=[
5 12 10
Element 𝑐11 = −2 and element 𝑐23 = 10
Example 7.4. If 𝑨 = [
1 2
] and 𝑩 = [
−2 3
] , find (a) −2𝑨 + 3𝑩𝑇 , (b) 𝑨𝑇 (𝑨 − 𝑩).
3 4 5 7
1 2 1 3
𝑨=[ ] 𝑨𝑇 = [ ]
3 4 2 4
−2 3 −2 5]
𝑩=[ ] 𝑩𝑇 = [
5 7 3 7
1 2 −2 5
(a) −2𝑨 + 3𝑩𝑇 = −2 [ ]+3[ ]
3 4 3 7
−2 −4
=[ ] + [−6 15]
−6 −8 9 21
−2 + (−6) −4 + 15]
=[
−6 + 9 −8 + 21
−8 11
=[ ]
3 13
(b) 𝑨𝑇 (𝑨 − 𝑩) = [1 3] ([1 2] − [−2 3])
2 4 3 4 5 7
1 − (−2) 2 − 3])
= [1 3] ([
2 4 3−5 4−7
= [1 3] [ 3 −1]
2 4 −2 −3
1(3) + 3(−2) 1(−1) + 3(−3)
=[ ]
2(3) + 4(−2) 2(−1) + 4(−3)
=[
3 − 6 −1 − 9 ]
6 − 8 −2 − 12
=[
−3 −10]
−2 −14
Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations. A system of 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛 variables, or

unknowns, has the general form
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
Where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 pertains to the coefficients of the variables in the 𝑖th row and 𝑗th column of the linear
system and the numbers 𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑚 are called the constants of the system.
Note that if all the constants are zero in the linear system, it is said to be homogeneous;
otherwise, it is nonhomogeneous.
Example: 3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0

−𝑥1 + 5𝑥3 = 0 is a homogeneous system, while
4𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 = 0
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −5
5𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 11 is a nonhomogeneous system.
𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 2
A solution of a linear system is a set of 𝑛 numbers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 that satisfies each equation in

the system.
1 7 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2
Example: 𝑥1 = − 3 and 𝑥2 = 3 is a solution of { .
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = −3
A linear system of equations is said to be consistent if it has at least one solution, and
inconsistent if it has no solution. Moreover, if a linear system is consistent, it has either (a) a
unique solution (exactly one solution), or (b) infinitely many solutions.
Augmented Matrix. The system of linear equations can be written in matrix form by entirely
dropping the variables forming what we call as an augmented matrix (see below).
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1 𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2 𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
⋮ [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚
(Augmented Matrix)
Example: 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2 1 1 2
[ ]
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = −3 2 −1 −3
3𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 0 3 −2 1 0
−𝑥1 + 5𝑥3 = 0 [−1 0 5 0]
4𝑥2 − 7𝑥3 = 0 0 4 −7 0
Solving Linear Systems Using Elementary Row Operations. We can solve systems of linear
equations using elementary row operations on a matrix; that is,
(1) Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.

(2) Interchange any two rows.
(3) Add a nonzero multiple of one row to any other row.
Two matrices are row equivalent if one can be obtained from the other through a sequence of
elementary row operations. The procedure of carrying out elementary row operations on a matrix
to obtain a row-equivalent matrix is called row reduction.
Elimination Methods. To solve an augmented matrix, we can use either Gaussian
elimination or Gauss-Jordan elimination method.
• Gaussian elimination involves row-reducing the augmented matrix until getting a

row-equivalent augmented matrix in row-echelon form:
(a) The first nonzero entry in a nonzero row is 1.

(b) In consecutive nonzero rows, the first entry 1 in the lower row appears to the right
of the 1 in the higher row.
(c) Rows consisting of all zeros are at the bottom of the matrix.
This is illustrated below.
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1 1 𝑐12 ⋯ 𝑐1𝑛 𝑑1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2 ⋯ 𝑐2𝑛 𝑑2
[ ] [ 0 1 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚 0 0 ⋯ 1 𝑑𝑚
(Row-echelon form)
• Gauss-Jordan elimination involves the steps in Gaussian elimination but continued

until obtaining an augmented matrix that is in reduced row-echelon form. A reduced
row-echelon form has the same three properties listed above, but in addition:
(d) A column containing a first entry 1 has zeros everywhere else.
This is illustrated below.
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1 1 0 ⋯ 0 𝑑1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2 0 1 ⋯ 0 𝑑2
[ ] [ ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ 0 ⋱ ⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚 0 0 ⋯ 1 𝑑𝑚
(Reduced row-echelon form)
The following notations are useful in performing elementary row operations.
✓ Interchange rows 𝑖 and 𝑗: 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗

✓ Multiply the 𝑖th row by a nonzero constant 𝑘: 𝑘𝑅𝑖
✓ Multiply the 𝑖th row by 𝑘 and add the 𝑗th row: 𝑘𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑗
Example 7.5. Solve the following systems of linear equations using (a) Gaussian elimination
and (b) Gauss-Jordan elimination.
1. 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2
2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = −3
(a) Gaussian elimination
1 1 2
The augmented matrix is [ ] and the goal is a matrix in
2 −1 −3
1 𝑐12 𝑑1
row-echelon form, [ ].
0 1 𝑑2
Use elementary row operations:

1. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .
1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[ ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −1 − 2(1) = −3
2 −1 −3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −3 − 2(2) = −7
1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [ ]
2 −1 −3 0 −3 −7
1
2. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = − 3 𝑅2
1
1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 3 (0) = 0
[ ] : 1
0 −3 −7 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 3 (−3) = 1
1 7
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 3 (−7) = 3
1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [0 1 3]
7
0 −3 −7
Do back substitution:
1 1 2 → 1(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 2 (1)
[0 1 7] 7
3
→ 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = (2)
3
7
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3
7
𝑥2 = 3
From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 2

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2
7
𝑥1 + 3 = 2
7
𝑥1 = 2 − 3
1
𝑥1 = − 3
(b) Gauss-Jordan elimination
1 1 2
The augmented matrix is [ ] and the goal is a matrix in
2 −1 −3
1 0 𝑑1
reduced row-echelon form, [ ].
0 1 𝑑2

1. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .
1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[ ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −1 − 2(1) = −3
2 −1 −3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −3 − 2(2) = −7
1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [ ]
2 −1 −3 0 −3 −7
1
2. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = − 3 𝑅2
1
1 1 2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 3 (0) = 0
[ ] : 1
0 −3 −7 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 3 (−3) = 1
1 7
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 3 (−7) = 3
1 1 2 1 1 2
[ ] → [0 1 3]
7
0 −3 −7
3. To make 𝑎12 = 0, do 𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
1 1 2 𝑎11 : 𝑐11 = 1 − 0 = 1
[0 1
7] : 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 1 − 1 = 0
3 7 1
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = 2 − 3 = − 3
1
1 1 2 1 0 −3
[0 7] → [ ]
1 3 0 1
7
3
Form the equations:

1 1
1 0 −3 → 1(𝑥1 ) + 0(𝑥2 ) = − 3 (1)
[ 7 ] 7
0 1 → 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3 (2)
3
7
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥1 ) + 1(𝑥2 ) = 3
7
𝑥2 =
3
1
From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥1 ) + 0(𝑥2 ) = − 3
1
𝑥1 = − 3
2. 2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −1
5𝑥 + 7𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 9

2 6 1 7
The augmented matrix is 1
[ 2 −1 −1] and the goal is a
5 7 −4 9
1 𝑐12 𝑐13 𝑑1
matrix in row-echelon form, [0 1 𝑐23 𝑑2 ].
0 0 1 𝑑3
1. To make element 𝑎11 = 1, do 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅2
2 6 1 7 1 2 −1 −1
[1 2 −1 −1] → [2 6 1 7 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9
2. To make element 𝑎21 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 6 1 7 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 6 − 2(2) = 2
5 7 −4 9 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 1 − 2(−1) = 3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 7 − 2(−1) = 9
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[2 6 1 7 ] → [ 0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9
3. To make 𝑎31 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 5 − 5(1) = 0

[0 2 3 9 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 7 − 5(2) = −3
5 7 −4 9 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −4 − 5(−1) = 1
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 9 − 5(−1) = 14
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 0 −3 1 14
1
4. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 2 𝑅2 .
1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = (0) = 0
2
[0 2 3 9 ] : 1
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 2 (2) = 1
0 −3 1 14 1 3
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 2 (3) = 2
1 9
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 2 (9) = 2
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 1 ]
2 2
0 −3 1 14 0 −3 1 14
5. To make 𝑎32 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

3 9
[0 1 2 2
] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −3 + 3(1) = 0
3 11
0 −3 1 14 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 1 + 3 (2) = 2
9 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 14 + 3 (2) = 2
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
] → [0 1
3 9
[0 1 2 2 ]
2 2
11 55
0 −3 1 14 0 0 2 2
2
6. To make 𝑎33 = 1, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 11 𝑅3
2
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 11 (0) = 0
3 9 2
[0 1 2 2 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 11 (0) = 0
11 55 2 11
0 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = ( )=1
2 2 11 2
2 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 11 ( 2 ) = 5
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
[0 1 2 3 9
2 ] → [0 1 ]
2 2
11 55
0 0 2 2
0 0 1 5
1 2 −1 −1 → 1(𝑥 ) + 2(𝑦) − 1(𝑧) = −1 (1)
3 9
[0 1 2 2
] → 0(𝑥 ) + 1(𝑦 ) + 2 (𝑧 ) = 2
3 9
(2)
0 0 1 5 → 0(𝑥 ) + 0(𝑦 ) + 1(𝑧 ) = 5 (3)
From Eqn. (3): 0(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1(𝑧) = 5

𝑧=5
3 9
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + 2 (𝑧) = 2
3 9
𝑦 +2𝑧 = 2
3 9
𝑦 + 2 (5) = 2
15 9
𝑦+ =2
2
9 15
𝑦 =2− 2
𝑦 = −3
From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥) + 2(𝑦) − 1(𝑧) = −1
𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −1
𝑥 + 2(−3) − 5 = −1
𝑥 − 11 = −1
𝑥 = −1 + 11
𝑥 = 10
2 6 1 7
The augmented matrix is [1 2 −1 −1] and the goal is a
5 7 −4 9
1 0 0 𝑑1
matrix in reduced row-echelon form, [0 1 0 𝑑2 ].
0 0 1 𝑑3
2 6 1 7 1 2 −1 −1
[1 ]
2 −1 −1 → 2[ 6 1 7 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 6 1 7 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 6 − 2(2) = 2
5 7 −4 9 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 1 − 2(−1) = 3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 7 − 2(−1) = 9
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[2 6 1 7 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 5 7 −4 9
3. To make 𝑎31 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 5 − 5(1) = 0

[0 2 3 9 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 7 − 5(2) = −3
5 7 −4 9 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −4 − 5(−1) = 1
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 9 − 5(−1) = 14
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 2 3 9 ]
5 7 −4 9 0 −3 1 14
1
4. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 2 𝑅2 .
1
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 (0) = 0
[0 2 3 9 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 1 (2) = 1
2
0 −3 1 14 1 3
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 2 (3) = 2
1 9
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 2 (9) = 2
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
[0 2 3 9 ] → [0 1 ]
2 2
0 −3 1 14 0 −3 1 14
5. To make 𝑎32 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

3 9 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −3 + 3(1) = 0
[0 1 2 2
] : 3 11
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 1 + 3 (2) = 2
0 −3 1 14
9 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 14 + 3 (2) = 2
1 2 −1 −1 1 2 −1 −1
3 9
] → [0 1
3 9
[0 1 2 2 ]
2 2
11 55
0 −3 1 14 0 0 2 2
6. To make 𝑎12 = 0, do 𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2
1 2 −1 −1 𝑎11 : 𝑐12 = 1 − 2(0) = 1

3 9 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
[0 1 2 2 ] : 3
𝑎13 : 𝑐13 = −1 − 2 (2) = −4
11 55
0 0 2 9
2 𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = −1 − 2 (2) = −10
1 2 −1 −1 1 0 −4 −10
3 9 3 9
[0 1 2 2 ] → [
0 1 2 2 ]
11 55 11 55
0 0 2 2
0 0 2 2
2
7. To make 𝑎33 = 1, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3
11
2
1 0 −4 −10 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 11 (0) = 0
3 9 2
[0 1 2 2 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 11 (0) = 0
11 55 2 11
0 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = ( )=1
2 2 11 2
2 55
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = ( )=5
11 2
1 0 −4 −10 1 0 −4 −10
3 9
[0 1 3 9
2 2 ] → [0 1 ]
2 2
11 55
0 0 2 2
0 0 1 5
3
8. To make 𝑎23 = 0, do 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2 𝑅3 .
1 0 3
−4 −10 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 0 − 2 (0) = 0
3 9
[0 1 2 2
] : 3
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 1 − (0) = 1
2
0 0 1 5 3 3
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 2 − 2 (1) = 0
9 3
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 2 − 2 (5) = −3
1 0 −4 −10 1 0 −4 −10
3 9
[0 1 2 2
] → [0 1 0 −3 ]
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5
9. To make 𝑎13 = 0, do 𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 + 4𝑅3 .
1 0 −4 −10 𝑎11 : 𝑐11 = 1 + 4(0) = 1

[0 1 0 −3 ] : 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 0 + 4(0) =
0 0 1 5 𝑎13 : 𝑐23 = −4 + 4(1) = 0
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = −10 + 4(5) = 10
1 0 −4 −10 1 0 0 10
[0 1 0 −3 ] → [ 0 1 0 −3]
0 0 1 5 0 0 1 5
Form the equations:

1 0 0 10 → 1(𝑥 ) + 0(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = 10 (1)
[0 1 0 −3] → 0(𝑥 ) + 1(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = −3 (2)
0 0 1 5 → 0(𝑥 ) + 0(𝑦 ) + 1(𝑧 ) = 5 (3)
From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = 10

𝑥 = 10
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑥) + 1(𝑦) + 0(𝑧) = −3

𝑦 = −3
From Eqn. (3): 0(𝑥) + 0(𝑦) + 1(𝑧) = 5

𝑧=5
3. 4𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 − 5𝑑 = −4
3𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 7𝑐 + 𝑑 = −18
𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 + 5𝑑 = 14
5𝑎 − 6𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 8𝑑 = 31

4 3 2 −5 −4
The augmented matrix is [3 −2 −7 1 −18] and the goal
1 1 −3 5 14
5 −6 2 8 31
1 𝑐12 𝑐13 𝑐14 𝑑1
0 1 𝑐23 𝑐24 𝑑2
is a matrix in row-echelon form, [ ].
0 0 1 𝑐34 𝑑3
0 0 2 1 𝑑4

4 3 2 −5 −4 1 1 −3 5 14
[3 −2 −7 1 −18 ] → [3 −2 −7 1 −18 ]
1 1 −3 5 14 4 3 2 −5 −4
5 −6 2 8 31 5 −6 2 8 31
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 3 − 3(1) = 0

[3 −2 −7 1 −18 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −2 − 3(1) = −5
4 3 2 −5 −4 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = −7 − 3(−3) = 2
5 −6 2 8 31 𝑎24 : 𝑐24 = 1 − 3(5) = −14
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −18 − 3(14) = −60
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[3 −2 −7 1 −18 ]
→ [04 −5 2 −14 −60 ]
4 3 2 −5 −4 3 2 −5 −4
5 −6 2 8 31 5 −6 2 8 31
3. To make 𝑎31 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 4 − 4(1) = 0

[0 −5 2 −14 −60 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 3 − 4(1) = −1
4 3 2 −5 −4 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 2 − 4(−3) = 14
5 −6 2 8 31 𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = −5 − 4(5) = −25
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −4 − 4(14) = −60
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0 −5 2 −14 −60 ] → [0 −5 2 −14 −60 ]
4 3 2 −5 −4 0 −1 14 −25 −60
5 −6 2 8 31 5 −6 2 8 31
4. To make 𝑎41 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 5 − 5(1) = 0

[0 −5 2 −14 −60 ]
: 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = −6 − 5(1) = −11
0 −1 14 −25 −60 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = 2 − 5(−3) = 17
5 −6 2 8 31 𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = 8 − 5(5) = −17
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 31 − 5(14) = −39
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0 −5 2 −14 −60 ]
→ [ 00 −5 2 −14 −60 ]
0 −1 14 −25 −60 −1 14 −25 −60
5 −6 2 8 31 0 −11 17 −17 −39
5. 𝑅2 ↔ 𝑅3
1 1 −3 5 14
[ 0 −5 2 −14 −60 ]
0 −1 14 −25 −60
→
0 −11 17 −17 −39
1 1 −3 5 14
[ 0 −1 14 −25 −60]
0 −5 2 −14 −60
0 −11 17 −17 −39
6. To make 𝑎22 = 1, do 𝑅2 ∗ = −𝑅2 .
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[ 0 −1 14 −25 −60] → [ 0 1 −14 25 60 ]
0 −5 2 −14 −60 0 −5 2 −14 −60
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 −11 17 −17 −39
7. To make 𝑎32 = 0, do 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 5𝑅2
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 5(0) = 0

60 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −5 + 5(1) = 0
[0 1 −14 25
0 −5 2 −14 −60 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 2 + 5(−14) = −68
0 −11 17 −17 −39 𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = −14 + 5(25) = 111
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −60 + 5(60) = 240
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0 1 −14 25 60 ] → [ 0 1 −14 25 60 ]
0 −5 2 −14 −60 0 0 −68 111 240
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 −11 17 −17 −39
8. To make 𝑎42 = 0, do 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 11𝑅2
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 0 + 0 = 0
[0 1 −14 25 60 ] : 𝑎42 : 𝑐:42 = −11 + 11(1) = 0
0 0 −68 111 240 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = 17 + 11(−14) = −137
0 −11 17 −17 −39 𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = −17 + 11(25) = 258
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = −39 + 11(60) = 621
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0 1 −14 25 60 ] → [0 1 −14 25 60 ]
0 0 −68 111 240 0 0 −68 111 240
0 −11 17 −17 −39 0 0 −137 258 621
1
9. To make 𝑎33 = 1, do 𝑅3 ∗ = − 68 𝑅3
1
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = − 68 (0) = 0
[0 1 −14 25 60 ] :
𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = − 68 (0) = 0
1
0 0 −68 111 240
1
0 0 −137 258 621 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = − (−68) = 1
68
1 −111
𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = − 68 (111) = 68
1 60
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = − 68 (240 ) = − 17
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
[0 1 −14 25 60 ] → [0 1 −14 25
111
60
60 ]
0 0 −68 111 240 0 0 1 − −
68 17
0 0 −137 258 621 0 0 −137 258 621
10. To make 𝑎43 = 0, do 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 137𝑅3 .
1 1 −3 5 14 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 0 + 137(0) = 0

0 1 −14 25 60 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 0 + 137(0) = 0
[ 111 60] : 𝑎 : 𝑐
0 0 1 − − 43 43 = −137 + 137(1) = 0
68 17 −111 2337
0 0 𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = 258 + 137 ( 68 ) = 68
−137 258 621
60 2337
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 621 + 137 (− 17) = 17
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 0 1 −14 25 60
−14 25 60 111 60
[ 111 60 ] → 1 − −
0 0 1 − − 0 0 68 17
68 17
0 0 0 0 2337 2337
−137 258 621 [ 0 ]
68 17
68
11. To make 𝑎44 = 1, do 𝑅4 ∗ = 2337 𝑅4 .
1 1 −3 5 14 68
𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = (0) = 0
2337
0 1 −14 25 60 68
0 0 1 −
111
−
60
: 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 2337 (0) = 0
68 17 68
0 0 2337 2337 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = 2337 (0) = 0
[ 0
68 17 ] 68 2337
𝑎44 : 𝑐44 = ( )=1
2337 68
68 2337
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 2337 ( 17
) =4
1 1 −3 5 14 1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 −14 25 60
111 60 0 1 −14 25 60
1 − − → [ 111 60 ]
0 0 68 17 0 0 1 − −
2337 2337 68 17
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4
[ 68 17 ]
→ 1(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 3(𝑐) + 5(𝑑) = 14 (1)
→ 0(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 14(𝑐) + 25(𝑑) = 60 (2)
111 60
→ 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 1(𝑐) − (𝑑 ) = − (3)
68 17
→ 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 0(𝑐) + 1(𝑑) = 4 (4)
1 1 −3 5 14
0 1 −14 25 60
[ 111 60 ]
0 0 1 − −
68 17
0 0 0 1 4
From Eqn. (4): 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 0(𝑐 ) + 1(𝑑 ) = 4
𝑑=4
111 60
From Eqn. (3): 0(𝑎) + 0(𝑏) + 1(𝑐 ) − (𝑑 ) = −
68 17
111 60
𝑐− 𝑑=−
68 17
111 60
𝑐− (4) = −
68 17
111 60
𝑐− = − 17
17
60 111
𝑐 = − 17 + 17
𝑐=3
From Eqn. (2): 0(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 14(𝑐 ) + 25(𝑑 ) = 60

𝑏 − 14𝑐 + 25𝑑 = 60
𝑏 − 14(3) + 25(4) = 60
𝑏 + 58 = 60
𝑏 = 60 − 58
𝑏=2
From Eqn. (1): 1(𝑎) + 1(𝑏) − 3(𝑐 ) + 5(𝑑 ) = 14

𝑎 + 𝑏 − 3𝑐 + 5𝑑 = 14
𝑎 + 2 − 3(3) + 5(4) = 14
𝑎 + 13 = 14
𝑎 = 14 − 13
𝑎=1
The solution is left as an exercise.
Rank of a Matrix. In a general 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrix,
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑨=[ ⋮ ]
⋮
the rows
𝒖1 = [𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 ], 𝒖2 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 ], …, 𝒖𝑚 = [𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ]

and columns
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎2𝑛
𝒗1 = [ ⋮ ], 𝒗2 = [ ⋮ ], …, 𝒗𝑛 = [ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 𝑎𝑚𝑛
are called the row vectors and the column vectors of matrix 𝑨, respectively. As vectors, the
set 𝒖1 , 𝒖2 , … , 𝒖𝑚 is either linearly independent or linearly dependent.
The rank of an 𝑚 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨, denoted by 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨), is the maximum number of

linearly independent row vectors in 𝑨.
By definition, a set of vectors < 𝒙1 , 𝒙2 , … , 𝒙𝑛 > is said to be linearly independent if the

only constants satisfying the equation
𝑘1 𝒙1 + 𝑘2 𝒙2 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑛 𝒙𝑛 = 𝟎
are 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = ⋯ = 𝑘𝑛 = 0. If the set of vectors is not linearly independent, then it is said

to be linearly dependent.
Rank of a Matrix by Row Reduction.

If a matrix 𝑨 is row-equivalent to a row-echelon form 𝑩, then
(a) The row space of 𝑨 = the row space of 𝑩,

(b) The nonzero rows of 𝑩 form a basis for the row space of 𝑨, and
(c) 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = the number of nonzero rows in 𝑩
The concept of rank is related to the solvability of linear systems of algebraic equations. Suppose
𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 is a linear system and that [𝑨|𝑩] denotes the augmented matrix of the system.
Consistency of 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩. A linear system of equations 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 is consistent if and only if

the rank of the coefficient matrix 𝑨 is the same as the rank of the augmented matrix of the
system [𝑨|𝑩].
Number of Parameters in a Solution. Suppose a linear system 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 with 𝑚 equations

and 𝑛 variables is consistent. If the coefficient matrix 𝑨 has rank 𝑟, then the solution of the
system contains 𝑛 − 𝑟 parameters.
The figure below summarizes the type of solution for 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛 variables
𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩.
Case 1: If 𝑩 = 𝟎. Let 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟.
Unique Solution: 𝑿 = 𝟎
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛
Always
𝑨𝑿 = 𝟎
consistent
Infinite Solutions:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑟
arbitrary parameters in
solution
Case 2: If 𝑩 ≠ 𝟎. Let 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟.
Unique Solution:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛
Consistent:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 ([𝑨|𝑩])
Infinite Solutions:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑛, 𝑛 − 𝑟
𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 arbitrary parameters in
solution
Inconsistent:
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) < 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 ([𝑨|𝑩])
Example 7.6. Find the rank of the following matrices.
1 1 −1 3
1. 𝑨 = [2 −2 6 8]
3 5 −7 8
Get the row-equivalent matrix 𝑩 in row-echelon form using

elementary transformations.
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .

𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −2 − 2(1) = −4
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 6 − 2(−1) = 8
𝑎24 : 𝑐24 = 8 − 2(3) = 2
1 1 −1 3
[2 −2 6 8] :
3 5 −7 8
1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
[2 −2 6 8 ] → [0 −4 8 2]
3 5 −7 8 3 5 −7 8
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 .
1 1 −1 3 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 3 − 3(1) = 0

[0 −4 8 2 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 5 − 3(1) = 2
3 5 −7 8 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −7 − 3(−1) = −4
𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = 8 − 3(3) = −1
1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
[0 −4 8 2 ] → [0 −4 8 2]
3 5 −7 8 0 2 −4 −1
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 4 𝑅2 .
1
1 1 −1 3 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 4 (0) = 0
[0 −4 8 2] : 1
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 4 (−4) = 1
0 2 −4 −1 1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = − 4 (8) = −2
1 1
𝑎24 : 𝑐24 = − 4 (2) = − 2
1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
1
[0 −4 8 2 ] → [0 1 −2 − 2]
0 2 −4 −1 0 2 −4 −1
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅2 .

𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 2(0) = 0
1 1 −1 3
1 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
[0 1 −2 − 2] : 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −4 − 2(−2) = 0
1
0 2 −4 −1 𝑎34 : 𝑐34 = −1 − 2 (− 2) = 0
1 1 −1 3 1 1 −1 3
1 1
[0 1 −2 − 2] → [0 1 −2 − 2]
0 2 −4 −1 0 0 0 0
∴ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 2 since there are two nonzero rows in the row-
equivalent matrix 𝑩.
1 −2
2. 𝑨 = [ 3 −6 ]
7 −1
4 5
Get the row-equivalent matrix 𝑩 in row-echelon form using

elementary transformations.
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 .
1 −2
[3 −6 ] : 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 3 − 3(1) = 0
7 −1 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −6 − 3(−2) = 0
4 5
1 −2 1 −2
[3 −6 ] → [ 0 0]
7 −1 7 −1
4 5 4 5
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 7𝑅1 .
1 −2
[0 0 ] : 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 7 − 7(1) = 0
7 −1 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −1 − 7(−2) = 13
4 5
1 −2 1 −2
[0 0 ] → [0 0]
7 −1 0 13
4 5 4 5
To make 𝑎41 = 0, 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 4𝑅1 .
1 −2
[0 0 ] : 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 4 − 4(1) = 0
0 13 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 5 − 4(−2) = 13
4 5
1 −2 1 −2
[0 0 ] → [0 0]
7 −1 0 13
4 5 0 13
𝑅4 ↔ 𝑅2
1 −2 1 −2
[0 0 ] → [0 13]
0 13 0 13
0 13 0 0
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = 13 𝑅2 .
1 −2 1
𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 13 (0) = 0
[0 13] :
1
0 13 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 13 (13) = 1
0 0
1 −2 1 −2
[0 13] → [0 1]
0 13 0 13
0 0 0 0
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 13𝑅2 .
1 −2
𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 13(0) = 0
[0 1] :
𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 13 − 13(1) = 0
0 13
0 0
1 −2 1 −2
[0 1 ] → [0 1]
0 13 0 0
0 0 0 0
∴ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 2 since there are two nonzero rows in the row-
equivalent matrix 𝑩.
Example 7.7. Determine the rank of the following systems of equations and identify the type of
solution. If there is a solution, solve.
1. 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 4
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = −9
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
We have 𝑚 = 3 linear equations in 𝑛=2 variables. The

3 2 4
augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is [2 −1 −9].
1 3 13
Getting the row-equivalent matrix:
𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3
3 2 4 1 3 13
[2 −1 −9] → [2 −1 −9]
1 3 13 3 2 4
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .
1 3 13 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 −1 −9] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −1 − 2(3) = −7
3 2 4 𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −9 − 2(13) = −35
1 3 13 1 3 13
[2 −1 −9] → [0 −7 −35]
3 2 4 3 2 4
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 .
1 3 13 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 3 − 3(1) = 0

[0 −7 −35] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 − 3(3) = −7
3 2 4 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 4 − 3(13) = −35
1 3 13 1 3 13
[0 −7 −35] → [0 −7 −35]
3 2 4 0 −7 −35
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 7 𝑅2 .
1
1 3 13 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − (0) = 0
7
[0 −7 −35] : 𝑎 : 𝑐 = − 1 (−7) = 1
22 22
0 −7 −35 1
7
𝑏3 : 𝑑2 = − 7 (−35 ) = 5
1 3 13 1 3 13
[0 −7 −35] → [0 1 5 ]
0 −7 −35 0 −7 −35
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 7𝑅2 .
1 3 13 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 7(0) = 0

[0 1 5 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −7 + 7(1) = 0
0 −7 −35 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −35 + 7(5) = 0
1 3 13 1 3 13
[0 1 5 ] → [0 1 5]
0 −7 −35 0 0 0
1 3 13 1 3
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = [0 1 5 ] where 𝑨 = [0 1].
0 0 0 0 0
This example falls under Case 2 where 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 2 and
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]) = 2.
Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]), the system is consistent.

Moreover, since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛 variables, the system has a unique
solution.
Solving for the unique solution,
1 3 13 𝑅1 : 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
[0 1 5] : 𝑅2 : 𝑦=5
0 0 0
Solving for 𝑥: 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 13
𝑥 + 3(5) = 13
𝑥 + 15 = 13
𝑥 = −2
2. 2𝑎 + 3𝑏 − 𝑐 = 1
3𝑎 − 4𝑏 + 3𝑐 = −1
2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = −3
3𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑐 = 4
We have 𝑚 = 4 linear equations in 𝑛 = 3 variables. The

2 3 −1 1
augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is [3 −4 3 −1 ].
2 −1 1 −3
3 1 −2 4

1
To make 𝑎11 = 1, 𝑅1 ∗ = 2 𝑅1 .
1
2 3 −1 1 𝑎11 : 𝑐11 = 2 (2) = 1
1 3
[ 3 −4 3 −1 ] : 𝑎12 : 𝑐12 = 2 (3) = 2
2 −1 1 −3 1 1
𝑎13 : 𝑐13 = (−1) = −
3 1 −2 4 2 2
1 1
𝑏1 : 𝑑1 = 2 (1) = 2
3 1 1
2 3 −1 1 1 −2
2 2
[3 −4 3 −1 ] → 3 −4 3 −1
2 −1 1 −3 2 −1 1 −3
3 1 −2 4 [3 1 −2 4]
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 .

𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 3 − 3(1) = 0
3 17
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −4 − 3 (2) = − 2
1 9
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 3 − 3 (− 2) = 2
1 5
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = −1 − 3 ( ) = −
2 2
3 1 1
1 −2
2 2
3 −4 3 −1 :
2 −1 1 −3
[3 1 −2 4]
3 1 1
1
3 1
−2
1 1 −2
2 2
2 2 17 9 5
3 −4 3 −1 → 0 − 2 2
−2
2 −1 1 −3 2 −1 1 −3
[3 1 −2 4] [3 1 −2 4]
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 .

3 1 1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
1 −2 3
2 2 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −1 − 2 (2) = −4
17 9 5
0 −2 −2 : 1
2 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 1 − 2 (− ) = 2
2
2 −1 1 −3 1
[3 1 −2 4] ( )
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −3 − 2 2 = −4
3 1 1 3 1 1
1 −2 1 −2
2 2 2 2
17 9 5 17 9 5
0 −2 −2 → 0 − 2 −2
2 2
2 −1 1 −3 0 −4 2 −4
[3 1 −2 4] [3 1 −2 4]
To make 𝑎41 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1 .

3 1 1 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 3 − 3(1) = 0
1 −2 3 7
2 2 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 1 − 3 ( ) = −
17 9 5 2 2
0 −2 −2 : 1 1
2 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = −2 − 3 (− 2) = − 2
0 −4 2 −4 1 5
[3 1 −2 4] 𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 4 − 3 (2) = 2
3 1 1
1
3
−2
1 1 1 −2
2 2
2 2
17 9 5 17 9 5
0 −2 −2 → 0 −2 2
−2
2
0 −4 2 −4 0 −4 2 −4
7 1 5
[3 1 −2 4] [0 −2 −2 ]
2
2
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 17 𝑅2 .
3 1 1 2
1 −2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − (0) = 0
2 2 17
2 17
17 9 5 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 17 (− 2 ) = 1
0 − −2
2 2 : 2 9 9
0 −4 2 −4 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = − 17 (2 ) = − 17
7 1 5 2 5 5
[0 −2 −2 𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 17 (− 2 ) = 17
2]
3 1 1 1 1
1 −2 1
3 −2
2 2 2
2
17 9 59 5
0 −2 −2 1 − 17 17
2 → 0
0 −4 2 −4 0 −4 2 −4
7 1 5 7 1 5
[0 − 2 − 2 2 ] [ 0 − 2
− 2 2 ]
∗
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 + 4𝑅2 .
1 1 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 4(0) = 0
1
3 −2
2
2 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −4 + 4(1) = 0
9 5 9 2
0 1 − 17 17
: 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 2 + 4 (− 17) = − 17
0 −4 2 −4 5 48
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = −4 + 4 (17) = − 17
7 1 5
[0 − 2 −2 2 ]
1 1
3 −
1 1
1
3 −2 2
1 2 2 2 9 5
2
9 5 0 1 − 17
0 1 − 17 17 → 17
2 48
0 −4 2 −4 0 0 − 17 − 17
7 1 5 7
[0 − 2 − 2 2 ] [
0 −2 −2
1 5
]
2
7
To make 𝑎42 = 0, 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 2 𝑅2 .
1 1 7
3 −2 𝑎41 : 𝑐41 = 0 + (0) = 0
1 2
7
2
7
2
− 17
9 5 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = − 2 + 2 (1) = 0
0 1 17
2 48 : 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = − 1 + 7 (− 9 ) = − 40
0 0 − 17 − 17 2 2
5
17
7
17
5 60
7 𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = + ( ) =
0 −2 −2
1 5 2 2 17 17
[ 2 ]
1 1 1 1
1
3 −2 1 2
3 −2
2 2
2 9 5 9 5
0 1 − 0 1 −
17 17 17 17
2 48 → 2 48
0 0 − 17 − 17 0 0 − 17 − 17
7
0 − −2
1 5 0 0 − 40 60
[ 2
2 ] [ 17 17]
17
To make 𝑎33 = 1, 𝑅3 ∗ = − 𝑅3 .
2
1 1 17
3 −2 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = − (0) = 0
1 2 2
2 17
9 5 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = − 2 (0) = 0
0 1 − 17 17
2 48 : 17 2
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = − 2 (− 17) = 1
0 0 − 17 − 17
17 48
40 60 𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = − (− ) = 24
0 0 − 17 2 17
[ 17]
1 1
1
3 −2 3 −2
1 1
2
2
9 5
1 2
2
0 1 − 17 − 17
9 5
17
→ 0 1 17
2 48
0 0 − 17 − 17 0 0 1 24
40 60
0 0 40 60
[0 0 − 17
[ − 17 17 ]
17]
40
To make 𝑎43 = 0, 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 17 𝑅3 .
1 1 40
3 −2 𝑎41 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 17 (0) = 0
1 2
2 9 5 40
0 1 − 17 𝑎42 : 𝑐42 = 0 + 17 (0) = 0
17 : 40 40
1 24 𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = − 17 + 17 (1) = 0
0 0 40 60 60 40
[0 0 − 17 𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = 17 + 17 (24) = 60
17 ]
1 1 1 1
1
3 −2 3 −2
2 1 2
2 9 5 2
0 1 − 17 9 5
17 → 0 1 − 17 17
0 0 1 24 0 0 1 24
40 60
[0 0 − 17 ] [0 0 0 60]
17
1 1
1 2
3 −2 2
9 5
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = 0 1 − 17 where 𝑨 =
17
0 0 1 24
[0 0 0 60]
3 1
1 2 −2
9
0 1 − 17 .
0 0 1
[0 0 0]
This example falls under Case 2 where 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 3 and

𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘([𝑨|𝑩]) = 4.
Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 ([𝑨|𝑩]), the system is inconsistent. This

means that the system has no solution.
3. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
−𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0

1 2 3 0
augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is [ −1 3 2 0 ].
2 1 −1 0
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 .
1 2 3 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = −1 + 1 = 0
[ −1 3 2 0] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 3 + 2 = 5
2 1 −1 0 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 2 + 3 = 5
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 0 + 0 = 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[ −1 3 2 0] → [ 0 5 5 0]
2 1 −1 0 2 1 −1 0
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 .
1 2 3 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[0 5 5 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 1 − 2(2) = −3
2 1 −1 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −1 − 2(3) = −7
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 − 2(0) = 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 5 5 0] → [ 0 5 5 0]
2 1 −1 0 0 −3 −7 0
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = 5 𝑅2 .
1
1 2 3 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 5 (0) = 0
[0 5 5 0] : 1
𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 5 (5) = 1
0 −3 −7 0 1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 5 (5) = 1
1
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = (0) = 0
5
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 5 5 0 ] → [ 0 1 1 0]
0 −3 −7 0 0 −3 −7 0
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2 .
1 2 3 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 + 3(0) = 0

[0 1 1 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = −3 + 3(1) = 0
0 −3 −7 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = −7 + 3(1) = −4
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 + 3(0) = 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 1 1 0] → [ 0 1 1 0]
0 −3 −7 0 0 0 −4 0
1
To make 𝑎33 = 1, 𝑅3 ∗ = − 4 𝑅3 .
1
1 2 3 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = − (0) = 0
4
[0 1 1 0 ] : 𝑎 : 𝑐 = − 1 (0) = 0
42 42 4
0 0 −4 0 1
𝑎43 : 𝑐43 = − 4 (−4) = 1
1
𝑏4 : 𝑑4 = − 4 (0) = 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0
[0 1 1 0 ] → [ 0 1 1 0]
0 0 −4 0 0 0 1 0
1 2 3 0
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = [ 0 1 1 0] where
0 0 1 0
1 2 3
𝑨 = [0 1 1].
0 0 1
This example falls under Case 1 where 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 3..
Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) = 𝑛 variables, the system is consistent and has a

unique solution.
Solving for the unique solution,
1 2 3 0 𝑅1 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
[0 1 1 0] : 𝑅2 : 𝑦+𝑧 =0
0 0 1 0 𝑅3 : 𝑧=0
Solving for 𝑦: 𝑦+𝑧=0

𝑦+0 =0
𝑦=0
Solving for 𝑥: 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
𝑥 + 2(0) + 3( 0) = 0
𝑥+0+0= 0
𝑥=0
4. 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
2𝑎 − 3𝑏 − 9𝑐 = 0
−𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 5𝑐 = 0

1 4 1 0
augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is [2 −3 −9 0].
−1 2 5 0
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 .
1 4 1 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 2 − 2(1) = 0

[2 −3 −9 0] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = −3 − 2(4) = −11
−1 2 5 0 𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = −9 − 2(1) = −11
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 0 − 2(0) = 0
1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[2 −3 −9 0] → [ 0 −11 −11 0]
−1 2 5 0 −1 2 5 0
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 .
1 4 1 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = −1 + 1 = 0
[ 0 −11 −11 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 + 4 = 6
−1 2 5 0 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 5 + 1 = 6
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 + 0 = 0
1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[ 0 −11 −11 0] → [0 −11 −11 0]
−1 2 5 0 0 6 6 0
1
To make 𝑎22 = 1, 𝑅2 ∗ = − 11 𝑅2 .
1
1 4 1 0 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = − 11 (0) = 0
[0 −11 −11 0] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = − 1 (−11) = 1
11
0 6 6 0 1
( )
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = − 11 −11 = 1
1
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = − 11 (0) = 0
1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[0 −11 −11 0 ] → [ 0 1 1 0]
0 6 6 0 0 6 6 0
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 6𝑅2 .
1 4 1 0 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 6(0) = 0

[0 1 1 0] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 6 − 6(1) = 0
𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 6 − 6(1) = 0
0 6 6 0
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 0 − 6(0) = 0
1 4 1 0 1 4 1 0
[0 1 1 0 ] → [0 1 1 0]
0 6 6 0 0 0 0 0
1 4 1 0
The row-equivalent matrix [𝑨|𝑩] = [0 1 1 0] where
0 0 0 0
1 4 1
𝑨 = [0 1 1].
0 0 0
This example falls under Case 1 where 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝑨) = 2..
Since 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝑨) < 𝑛 variables, the system is consistent and has

infinite solutions.
Solving for the infinite solutions,
1 4 1 0 𝑅1 : 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
[0 1 1 0] : 𝑅2 : 𝑏+𝑐 = 0
0 0 0 0
Solving for 𝑦: 𝑏+𝑐 = 0

𝑏 = −𝑐
Solving for 𝑥: 𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 + 4(−𝑐 ) + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 − 4𝑐 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎 − 3𝑐 = 0
𝑎 = 3𝑐
Let 𝑐 = 𝑘 (where 𝑘 is any constant)

𝑏 = −𝑐 = −𝑘
𝑎 = 3𝑐 = 3𝑘
The solution to the system is [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ] = [3𝑘 −𝑘 𝑘]

= 𝑘[3 −1 1]
If 𝑘 = 1, one solution of the system is
(1)[3 −1 1] = [3 −1 1].
If 𝑘 = 2, another solution of the system is

(2)[3 −1 1] = [6 −2 2].
Example 7.8. Find all values of 𝑎 for which the resulting linear system has (a) a unique
solution, (b) an infinite solution, and (c) no solution.
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = −2
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + (𝑎2 − 5)𝑧 = 𝑎

1 1 −1 −2
augmented matrix, [𝑨|𝑩], is [1 2 1 3 ].
2
1 2 𝑎 −5 𝑎
To make 𝑎21 = 0, 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 .
1 1 −1 −2 𝑎21 : 𝑐21 = 1 − 1 = 0
[1 2 1 3 ] : 𝑎22 : 𝑐22 = 2 − 1 = 1
𝑎23 : 𝑐23 = 1 − (−1) = 2
1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎 ( )
𝑏2 : 𝑑2 = 3 − −2 = 5
1 1 −1 −2 1 1 −1 −2
[1 2 1 3 ] → [0 1 2 5]
1 2 2 1 2 2
𝑎 −5 𝑎 𝑎 −5 𝑎
To make 𝑎31 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 .
1 1 −1 −2 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 1 − 1 = 0
[0 1 2 5] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 2 − 1 = 1
1 2 2
𝑎 −5 𝑎 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 𝑎2 − 5 − (−1) = 𝑎2 − 4
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 𝑎 − (−2) = 𝑎 + 2
1 1 −1 −2 1 1 −1 −2
[0 1 2 5 ] → [0 1 2 5 ]
1 2 𝑎2 − 5 𝑎 0 1 𝑎2 − 4 𝑎+2
To make 𝑎32 = 0, 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 .
1 1 −1 −2 𝑎31 : 𝑐31 = 0 − 0 = 0
[0 1 2 5 ] : 𝑎32 : 𝑐32 = 1 2− 1 = 0 2
0 1 𝑎 − 4 𝑎 + 2 𝑎33 : 𝑐33 = 𝑎 − 4 − 2 = 𝑎 − 6
2
𝑏3 : 𝑑3 = 𝑎 + 2 − 5 = 𝑎 − 3
1 1 −1 −2 1 1 −1 −2
[0 1 2 5 ] → [0 1 2 5 ]
0 1 2 0 2
0 𝑎 −6
𝑎 −4 𝑎+2 𝑎−3
1 1 −1 −2
The row-equivalent matrix is [𝑨|𝑩] = [0 1 2 5 ].
0 0 2
𝑎 −6 𝑎−3
(a) For the system to have a unique solution,
𝑎2 − 6 ≠ 0
𝑎2 ≠ 6
𝑎 ≠ ±√6
The value of 𝑎 that will give the linear system a unique solution
is (−∞ , −√6) ∪ (−√6 , √6) ∪ (√6 , +∞).
(b) For the system to have infinite solution,
𝑎2 − 6 = 0 and 𝑎−3 =0
𝑎2 = 6 𝑎=3
𝑎 = ±√6
This should give us a row-equivalent matrix that is equal to

1 1 −1 −2
[0 1 2 5 ].
0 0 0 0
This means that both 𝑎2 − 6 and 𝑎 − 3 should be equal to

zero at the same time. This requires a value of 𝑎 that is the
intersection of the solution set of 𝑎2 − 6 = 0 and 𝑎 − 3 = 0.
But there is no common value of 𝑎 in both of the solution sets.
Therefore, there is no value of 𝑎 that will give the linear system
infinite solutions.
(c) For the system to have no solution,
𝑎2 − 6 = 0
𝑎2 = 6
𝑎 = ±√6
This should give us a row-equivalent matrix that is equal to

1 1 −1 −2
[0 1 2 5 ].
0 0 0 𝑏∗
The value of 𝑎 that will give the linear system no solution is

𝑎 = −√6 and 𝑎 = √6.
PROBLEM SET 7
MATRIX ALGEBRA
Evaluate the following.
3 1 3 −1
Let 𝑨 = [ ] and 𝑩 = [ ].
2 1 5 2
1. 3𝑨
2. 2𝑨 + 3𝑩
3. 𝑨𝑩
4. 𝑩𝑨
5. 𝑩𝑇 𝑨𝑇
Solve for all the unknowns in the following.
𝑎 𝑏 + 2𝑎] [1 3
6. [ = ]
𝑐 𝑑 − 2𝑐 1 5
𝑎 𝑏] 2 1 3 7
7. 2 [ +3[ ] = 4[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 3 −1 1 2
𝑎 𝑏 ] [2 1 3 2
8. [ ]=[ ]
𝑐 𝑑 4 5 −1 8
2 1 𝑎 𝑏 ] [ 3 2]
9. [ ][ =
4 5 𝑐 𝑑 −1 8
10. Find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 so that 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑪 given that
1+𝑖 3−𝑖 𝑎 𝑏] 2 + 2𝑖 7 − 2𝑖
𝑨=[ ] 𝑩=[ 𝑪=[ ]
4+𝑖 6 − 3𝑖 𝑐 𝑑 6 + 7𝑖 1 + 2𝑖
11. Solve the following system of linear equations using Gaussian
elimination.
3𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 𝑐 + 4𝑑 = 20
2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 2𝑐 − 3𝑑 = −6
𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3𝑐 + 4𝑑 = 30
𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑑 = −2
12. Solve using Gauss-Jordan elimination.
4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −9
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 8
13. Solve:
𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 0
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =0
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑐 = 0
𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 3𝑐 = 0
14. Solve:
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 0
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 − 𝑤 = 0
𝑥 + 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 𝑤 = 0
15. Find all values of 𝑎 for which the resulting linear system has
(a) No solution
(b) Unique solution
(c) Infinite solution
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =2
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 5
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + (𝑎2 − 1)𝑧 = 𝑎 + 1
LESSON 8
DETERMINANTS
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Understand the concept of the determinant of a
matrix and its properties, and
2. Apply the concept of the determinant to solve
systems of linear algebraic equations.
The determinant of a matrix exists only for an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix or a square matrix. Symbolically, we
write the determinant of matrix 𝑨 by using verical bars as illustrated below.
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑨=[ ⋮ ] and
⋮
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
det 𝑨 = | ⋮ |
⋮
Determinant of a 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐 matrix.
𝑎11 𝑎12
The determinant of 𝑨 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ] is given by
21
𝑎11 𝑎12
det 𝑨 = |𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21
(multiply) (multiply)
𝑎11 𝑎12
This is illusrated as: |𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21
(subtract the products)
Determinant of a 𝟑 𝒙 𝟑 matrix.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

The determinant of 𝑨 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] is given by
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
det 𝑨 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
= (𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 ) −
(𝑎13 𝑎22 𝑎31 + 𝑎11 𝑎23 𝑎32 + 𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑎33 )
(copy the first

2 columns)
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
This is illusrated as: |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32
= (𝑎11 𝑎22 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 𝑎23 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 𝑎21 𝑎32 ) −

(𝑎13 𝑎22 𝑎31 + 𝑎11 𝑎23 𝑎32 + 𝑎12 𝑎21 𝑎33 )
The above technique is sometimes called the basketweave method for determinants, which is applicable
only for 2 𝑥 2 and 3 𝑥 3 matrices.
Determinant of an 𝒏 𝒙 𝒏 matrix using Laplace expansion.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

Consider a 3 𝑥 3 matrix 𝑨 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]. Getting the determinant of 𝑨 by expansion on
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
the first row gives
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
det 𝑨 = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
= 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 | 𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 | 𝑎31 𝑎32 |
32
= 𝑎11 𝐶11 − 𝑎12 𝐶12 + 𝑎13 𝐶13

where 𝐶11 is the cofactor of 𝑎11 , 𝐶12 is the cofactor of 𝑎12 and 𝐶13 is the cofactor of 𝑎13 .
In general, the cofactor of 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the determinant
𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗
where 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is the determinant of the submatrix obtained by deleting the 𝑖th row and the 𝑗th column of 𝑨.
The determinant 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is called the minor determinant.
Note that a cofactor is a signed minor determinant. Given an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix, the sign factor pattern for the
cofator is given below. This means that the first entry 𝐶11 is always positive while taking an alternate
sign pattern across the row and down a column.
+ − + − + …
− + − + − …
+ − + − + …
− + − + − …
+ − + − + …
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
Laplace expansion is also known as the cofactor expansion. You can expand on any row or any column
to evaluate the determinant.
Example 8.1. Find the determinant.
2 3
1. 𝑨 = [ ]
4 1
2 3
det 𝑨 = | | (Use basketweave method)
4 1
= 2(1) − 3(4)
= 2 − 12
= −10
2 1 2
2. 𝑨 = [3 4 7]
8 1 −5
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = |3 4 7| (Copy the first 2 columns)
8 1 −5
2 1 2 2 1
= |3 4 7 3 4| (Use basketweave method)
8 1 −5 8 1
= [2(4)(−5) + 1(7)(8) + 2(3)(1)] −
[2(4)(8) + 2(7)(1) + 1(3)(−5)]
= (−40 + 56 + 6) − (64 + 14 − 15)
= 22 − 63
= −41
3. Solve Example 2 using Laplace expansion expanding on (a) Row 1 and

(b) Column 2.
2 1 2
𝑨 = [3 4 7]
8 1 −5
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = |3 4 7|
8 1 −5
(a) Expanding on Row 1 and taking in consideration the sign factor

pattern:
+ − +
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
4 7 3 7 3 4
= (+)2 | | + (−)1 | | + (+)2 | |
1 −5 8 −5 8 1
= 2[4(−5) − 7(1)] − 1[3(−5) − 7(8)] + 2[3(1) − 4(8)]
= 2(−20 − 7) − (−15 − 56) + 2(3 − 32)
= 2(−27) − (−71) + 2(−29)
= −54 + 71 − 58
= −41
(b) Expanding on Column 2 and taking in consideration the sign factor

pattern:
−
+
−
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
3 7 2 2 2 2
= (−)1 | | + (+)4 | | + (−)1 | |
8 −5 8 −5 3 7
= −1[3(−5) − 7(8)] + 4[2(−5) − 2(8)] − 1[2(7) − 2(3)]
= −1(−15 − 56) + 4(−10 − 16) − 1(14 − 6)
= −(−71) + 4(−26) − (8)
= 71 − 104 − 8
= −41
2 4 −1 1
4. 𝑨 = [3 1 6 1]
8 2 1 4
9 2 3 −1
Use Laplace expansion. We can expand at any row or column.
Say, we expand on Row 4.
2 4 −1 1
det 𝑨 = [ 3 1 6 1 ]
8 2 1 4
9 2 3 −1
− + − +
4 −1 1 2 −1 1
= (−)9 |1 6 1| + (+)2 |3 6 1| +
2 1 4 8 1 4
2 4 1 2 4 −1
(−)3 |3 1 1| + (+)(−1) |3 1 6 |
8 2 4 8 2 1
4 −1 1 2 −1 1 2 4 1
= −9 |1 6 1| + 2 |3 6 1| − 3 |3 1 1| −
2 1 4 8 1 4 8 2 4
2 4 −1
|3 1 6 |
8 2 1
Use Laplace expansion again on every 3 𝑥 3 submatrices,

expanding on the first row.
6 1 1 1 1 6
= −9 (4 | | − (−1) | |+1| |) +
1 4 2 4 2 1
6 1 3 1 3 6
2 (2 | | − (−1) | | +1| |) −
1 4 8 4 8 1
1 1 3 1 3 1
3 (2 | | −4| | +1| |) −
2 4 8 4 8 2
1 6 3 6 3 1
(2 | | −4| | + (−1) | |)
2 1 8 1 8 2
= −9{4[6(4) − 1(1)] − (−1)[1(4) − 1(2)] + 1[1(1) − 6(2)]} +
2{2[6(4) − 1(1)] − (−1)[3(4) − 1(8)] + 1[3(1) − 6(8)]} −
3{2[1(4) − 1(2)] − 4[3(4) − 1(8)] + 1[3(2) − 1(8)]} −
{2[1(1) − 6(2)] − 4[3(1) − 6(8)] + (−1)[3(2) − 1(8)]}
= −9{4(24 − 1) + 1(4 − 2) + 1(1 − 12)} +

2{2(24 − 1) + 1(12 − 8) + 1(3 − 48)} −
3{2(4 − 2) − 4(12 − 8) + 1(6 − 8)} −
{2(1 − 12) − 4(3 − 48) − 1(6 − 8)}
= −9{4(23) + 1(2) + 1(−11)} + 2{2(23) + 1(4) + 1(−45)} −
3{2(2) − 4(4) + 1(−2)} − {2(−11) − 4(−45) − 1(−2)}
= −9{92 + 2 − 11} + 2{46 + 4 − 45} − 3{4 − 16 − 2} −
{−22 + 180 + 2}
= −9{83} + 2{5} − 3{−14} − {160}
= −747 + 10 + 42 − 160
= −855
Example 8.2. Find the minor of element 7 and 2 and the cofactor of element 7 and 2 in
the matrix below.
−2 1 3 5
𝑨=[ 2 7 8 1]
3 −5 5 1
8 1 9 −4
(a) Minor of element 7
Element 7 is element 𝑎22 of matrix 𝑨.
−2 1 3 5
𝑨=[ 2 7 8 1]
3 −5 5 1
8 1 9 −4
−2 3 5
𝑀22 = | 3 5 1|
8 9 −4
(Evaluate the determinant by expanding in Row 1.)
5 1| 3 1
= −2 | −3| | + 5 |3 5|
9 −4 8 −4 8 9
= −2[5(−4) − 1(9)] − 3[3(−4) − 1(8)] +
5[3(9) − 5(8)]
= −2[−20 − 9] − 3[−12 − 8] + 5[27 − 40]
= −2(−29) − 3(−20) + 5(−13)
= 58 + 60 − 65
= 53
Cofactor of element 7

𝐶22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22
= (−1)4 (53)
= 53
(b) Minor of element 2
Element 2 is element 𝑎21 of matrix 𝑨.
−2 1 3 5
𝑨=[ 2 7 8 1]
3 −5 5 1
8 1 9 −4
1 3 5
𝑀21 = |−5 5 1|
1 9 −4
(Evaluate the determinant by expanding in Row 1.)
5 1| −5 1 | −5 5|
= 1| − 3| + 5|
9 −4 1 −4 1 9
= 1[5(−4) − 1(9)] − 3[−5(−4) − 1(1)] +
5[−5(9) − 5(1)]
= 1[−20 − 9] − 3[20 − 1] + 5[−45 − 5]
= 1(−29) − 3(19) + 5(−50)
= −29 − 57 − 250
= −336
Cofactor of element 2

𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀22
= (−1)3 (−336)
= 336
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
1. Determinant of a Transpose.
If 𝑨𝑇 is the transpose of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨, then det 𝑨𝑇 = det 𝑨.
2. Two Identical Rows (Columns).

If any two rows (columns) of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 are the same, then det 𝑨 = 0.
3. Zero Row (Column).

If all entries in a row (column) of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 are zero, then det 𝑨 = 0.
4. Interchanging Rows (Columns).

If 𝑩 is the matrix obtained by interchanging any two rows (columns) of an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨,
then det 𝑩 = − det 𝑨.
5. Constant Multiple of a Row (Column).
If 𝑩 is the matrix obtained from an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 by multiplying a row (column) by a
nonzero real number 𝑘, then det 𝑩 = 𝑘(det 𝑨).
6. Determinant of a Matrix Product.

If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are both 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrices, then det 𝑨𝑩 = det 𝑨 ∙ det 𝑩.
7. Determinant is Unchanged.
Suppose 𝑩 is the matrix obtained from an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 by multiplying the enties in a
row (column) by a nonzero real number 𝑘 and adding the result to the corresponding entries
in another row (column). Then det 𝑩 = det 𝑨.
8. Determinant of a Triangular Matrix.

Suppose 𝑨 is an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix (upper or lower). Then, det 𝑨 = 𝑎11 𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 , where
𝑎11 𝑎22 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 are the entries on the main diagonal of 𝑨.
Example 8.3. Determine the determinant by applying the properties of determinant.
2 3 1 5
1. 𝑨 = [ 7 1 −1 2]
1 3 2 1
−5 2 3 4
Apply elementary matrix operations first to obtain an equivalent matrix

and see if we can use any of the properties discussed above.
2 3 1 5
[ 7 1 −1 2]
1 3 2 1
−5 2 3 4
𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 (Apply property No. 4: det 𝑩 = − det 𝑨)

2 3 1 5 1 3 2 1
[ 7 1 −1 2] → [ 7 1 −1 2]
1 3 2 1 2 3 1 5
−5 2 3 4 −5 2 3 4
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 7𝑅1 (Apply property No. 7)

𝑎21 = 7 − 7(1) = 0
1 3 2 1
𝑎22 = 1 − 7(3) = −20
[ 7 1 −1 2 ] ∶ 𝑎23 = −1 − 7(2) = −15
2 3 1 5
𝑎24 = 2 − 7(1) = −5
−5 2 3 4
1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1
[ 7 1 −1 2 ] → [ 0 −20 −15 −5]
2 3 1 5 2 3 1 5
−5 2 3 4 −5 2 3 4
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 2𝑅1 (Apply property No. 7)
1 3 2 1 𝑎31 = 2 − 2(1) = 0
[ 0 −20 −15 −5] ∶ 𝑎32 = 3 − 2(3) = −3
2 3 1 5 𝑎23 = 1 − 2(2) = −3
−5 2 3 4 𝑎24 = 5 − 2(1) = 3
1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1
[ 0 −20 −15 −5] → [ 0 −20 −15 −5]
2 3 1 5 0 −3 −3 3
−5 2 3 4 −5 2 3 4
𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 5𝑅1 (Apply property No. 7)

1 3 2 1 𝑎41 = −5 + 5(1) = 0
[ 0 −20 −15 −5] ∶ 𝑎32 = 2 + 5(3) = 17
0 −3 −3 3 𝑎23 = 3 + 5(2) = 13
−5 2 3 4 𝑎24 = 4 + 5(1) = 9
1 3 2 1 1 3 2 1
[ 0 −20 −15 −5] → [ 0 −20 −15 −5]
0 −3 −3 3 0 −3 −3 3
−5 2 3 4 0 17 13 9
Use Laplace expansion, expanding on Column 1 and applying the sign

factor pattern.
1 3 2 1
0 −20 −15 −5] (Note that we used
𝑨=[
0 −3 −3 3 Property No. 4 above.)
0 17 13 9
The negative sign here is

because of using Property No. 4.
−20 −15 −5 3 2 1
det 𝑨 = − {1 | −3 −3 3 | − 0 | −3 −3 3| +
17 13 9 17 13 9
3 2 1 3 2 1
0 |−20 −15 −5| − 0 |−20 −15 −5|}
17 13 9 17 13 9
−20 −15 −5
= − {1 | −3 −3 3 | − 0 + 0 − 0}
17 13 9
−20 −15 −5
= − | −3 −3 3| (Apply property No. 5)
17 13 9
−5(4) −5(3) −5(1)
(Factor out the common
= − |3(−1) 3(−1) 3(1) | multiple in Row 1 and Row 2)
17 13 9
4 3 1
= −(−5)(3) |−1 −1 1|
17 13 9
Apply Laplace expansion, expanding on Row 3 and using the sign

factor pattern.
3 1 4 1 4 3
= −(−5)(3) {17 | | − 13 | | +9| |}
−1 1 −1 1 −1 −1
= −(−5)(3){17[3(1) − 1(−1)] − 13[4(1) − 1(−1)] +
9[4(−1) − 3(−1)]}
= −(−5)(3){17(3 + 1) − 13(4 + 1) + 9(−4 + 3)}
= −(−5)(3){17(4) − 13(5) + 9(−1)}
= −(−5)(3)(68 − 65 − 9)
= −(−5)(3)(−6)
= −90
6 2 7
2. 𝑨 = [−4 −3 2]
2 4 8
We will demonstrate property No. 8.
6 2 7
det 𝑨 = |−4 −3 2|
2 4 8
6 2 7
= | −4 −3 2 | (Property No. 5)
2(1) 2 2 2 4)
( ) (
6 2 7
= 2 |−4 −3 2| (𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅3 : Property No. 4)
1 2 4
1 2 4
= −2 |−4 −3 2| (𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 + 4𝑅1 : Property No. 7)
6 2 7
1 2 4 𝑎21 = −4 + 4(1) = 0
= −2 |0 5 18| 𝑎22 = −3 + 4(2) = 5
6 2 7 𝑎23 = 2 + 4(4) = 18
1 2 4
= −2 |0 5 18| (𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 6𝑅1 : Property No. 7)
6 2 7
1 2 4 𝑎31 = 6 − 6(1) = 0
= −2 |0 5 18 | 𝑎22 = 2 − 6(2) = −10
0 −10 −17 𝑎23 = 7 − 6(4) = −17
1 2 4
= −2 |0 5 18 | (𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 : Property No. 7)
0 −10 −17
1 2 4 𝑎31 = 0 + 2(0) = 0
= −2 |0 5 18| 𝑎32 = −10 + 2(5) = 0
𝑎33 = −17 + 2(18) = 19
0 0 19
We now have an upper triangular matrix. Using property No. 8,
1 2 4
det 𝑨 = −2 |0 5 18|
0 0 19
= −2(1)(5)(19)
= −190
Example 8.4. Without expanding, show that
𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐
1. |−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐 | = 0
𝑎𝑐 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐2
Solving the determinant of a given matrix without expanding means

that we are not allowed to use Laplace expansion. We can only use
the properties of determinants.
|−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐 | = 0
𝑎2 −𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐 𝑎 (𝑎 ) 𝑎(−𝑏) 𝑎 (𝑐 )
|−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐 | = |𝑏(−𝑎) 𝑏 (𝑏 ) 𝑏(−𝑐 )|
𝑎𝑐 −𝑏𝑐 𝑐2 𝑐 (𝑎 ) 𝑐 (−𝑏) 𝑐 (𝑐 )
(Use property No. 5)
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
= 𝑎(𝑏)(𝑐 ) |−𝑎 𝑏 −𝑐 |
𝑎 −𝑏 𝑐
Since Row 1 and Row 2 are identical rows, by property No. 2,

|−𝑎𝑏 𝑏2 −𝑏𝑐 | = 0.
1 𝑎 𝑎3
2. |1 𝑏 𝑏3 | = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐 )(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
1 𝑐 𝑐3
1 𝑎 𝑎3
|1 𝑏 𝑏3 | = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐 )(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
1 𝑐 𝑐3
(Use property No. 7.)
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 and 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1
1 𝑎 𝑎3 1 𝑎 𝑎3
|1 𝑏 𝑏3 | = |0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑎3 |
3
1 𝑐 𝑐3 0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
𝑏−𝑎
𝑅2 ∗ = (𝑏−𝑎 ) 𝑅2
1 𝑎 𝑎3
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
= |(𝑏−𝑎 ) 0 (𝑏−𝑎 ) 𝑏 − 𝑎 (𝑏−𝑎 ) 𝑏3 − 𝑎3 |
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
1 𝑎 𝑎3
0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏3−𝑎 3
= |(𝑏 − 𝑎) (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) |
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
1 𝑎 𝑎3
0 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏3 −𝑎 3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) | |
3 3
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 −𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑎3
0 𝑏−𝑎 (𝑏−𝑎)(𝑏2 +𝑎𝑏+𝑎 2 )
= (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) | |
3 3
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 −𝑎
1 𝑎 𝑎3
( )
= 𝑏 − 𝑎 |0 1 𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 |
0 𝑐−𝑎 𝑐 3 − 𝑎3
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑅2
1 𝑎 𝑎3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎 ) |0 1 𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎 ) − (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 )
3 3
1 𝑎 𝑎3
(𝑏
= − 𝑎) |0 1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2
2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑐 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2 ) − (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 )
2
1 𝑎 𝑎3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) |0 1 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2
2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 + 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑎2 ) − (𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 )]
2
1 𝑎 𝑎3
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) |0 1 𝑏2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎2 |
0 0 (𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑐 2 + 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑏)
Since we already have an upper triangular matrix, we can use property

No. 8.
= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(1)(1)(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑐 2 + 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑏)

= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 2 − 𝑏2 ) + (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑎𝑏)]
= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 − 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑏) + 𝑎(𝑐 − 𝑏)]
= (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑐 − 𝑎)[(𝑐 − 𝑏)(𝑐 + 𝑏 + 𝑎)]
= (−(𝑎 − 𝑏))(𝑐 − 𝑎)(−(𝑏 − 𝑐 ))(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
= (−1)(𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑐 − 𝑎)(−1)(𝑏 − 𝑐 )(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
= (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑏 − 𝑐 )(𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 )
Using Determinants to Solve Systems of Equations: The Cramer’s Rule
For a system of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 variables given below
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
we can define a matrix of the form

𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑘−1 𝑏1 𝑎1𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑘−1 𝑏2 𝑎2𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
𝑨𝑘 = [ ⋮ ]
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑘−1 𝑏𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑘+1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑘th column
This means that matrix 𝑨𝑘 is the same as matrix 𝑨 except that the 𝑘th column of 𝑨 has been
replaced by the entries of the column matrix
𝑏1
𝑏
𝑩 = [ 2]
⋮
𝑏𝑛
In general, Cramer’s Rule states that given the coefficient matrix of an 𝑛 equations with
𝑛 unknowns system of linear equations, and that det 𝑨 ≠ 0, the solution of the systems of
equations is
det 𝑨1 det 𝑨2 det 𝑨𝑛

𝑥1 = , 𝑥2 = ,… , 𝑥𝑛 =
det 𝑨 det 𝑨 det 𝑨
where 𝑨𝑘 , 𝑘 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛 is the matrix defined above.
Example 8.5. Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following systems of linear equations.
1. 3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 5𝑐 − 𝑑 = 10
2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 5𝑐 − 4𝑑 = 3
3𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 6
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 9𝑑 = 42
The augmented matrix [𝑨|𝑩] is given below.
3 −2 5 −1 10
[ 2 1 5 −4 3 ]
3 1 −1 1 6
1 1 1 9 42
Get the determinant of 𝑨.
3 −2 5 −1
det 𝑨 = |2 1 5 −4|
3 1 −1 1
1 1 1 9
Property No. 4: 𝑅1 ↔ 𝑅4
1 1 1 9
= −| 2 1 5 −4 |
3 1 −1 1
3 −2 5 −1
Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 2𝑅1 , 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 3𝑅1 , and

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 2𝑅1
1 1 1 9
= − |0 −1 3 −22 |
0 −2 −4 −26
0 −5 2 −28
Property No. 5: Factor out (−1) from Row 2.

1 1 1 9
= −(−1) | 0 1 −3 22 |
0 −2 −4 −26
0 −5 2 −28
1 1 1 9
= |0 1 −3 22 |
0 −2 −4 −26
0 −5 2 −28
Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 2𝑅2 and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 5𝑅2

1 1 1 9
= |0 1 −3 22 |
0 0 −10 18
0 0 −13 82

1 1 1 9
0 1 −3 22
= −10 | 18|
0 0 1 − 10
0 0 −13 82
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 13𝑅3

1 1 1 9
0 1 −3 22
|
= −10 | 18 |
0 0 1 − 10 |
0 0 293
0 5
Property No. 8.
293
= −10(1)(1)(1) ( )
5
= −586
To solve for 𝑎, get the matrix 𝑨1 where Column 1 is replaced by 𝑩.

Then solve the determinant of 𝑨1 .
10 −2 5 −1
𝑨1 = [ 3 1 5 −4]
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9
Get the determinant of 𝑨1 .
10 −2 5 −1
det 𝑨1 = | 3 1 5 −4|
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9
Property No. 5: Factor out (10) from Row 1.
2 5 1
1 − 10 − 10
10
= 10 | 3 1 5 −4 |
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9
1 1 1
1 −5 − 10
2
= 10 | 3 1 5 −4 |
6 1 −1 1
42 1 1 9

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 42𝑅1
1 1 1
1 −5 − 10
2
|0 8 7 37
− 10 |
5 2
= 10 11 8
|0 5
−4 5|
47 66
0 −20
5 5
8
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
8 1 − 16|
16
= 10 (5) 11 8
|0 5
−4 5 |
47 66
0 −20
5 5
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16|
16
= 16 11 8
|0 5
−4 5 |
47 66
0 −20
5 5
11 47
Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 𝑅2 and 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 𝑅2
5 5
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16|
16
= 16 141 107
|0 −
0 16 16 |
0 0 649 559
− 16 16
141
Property No. 5: Factor out (− ) from Row 3.
16
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
141 1 − 16 |
16
= 16 (− ) 107
16
|0 0 1 − 141 |
0 0 649 559
− 16 16
1 1
1 −5
1 − 10
2
|0 35 37
1 − 16 |
16
= −141 107
|0 0 1 − 141|
0 0 649 559
− 16 16
649
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 𝑅3
16
1 1
1 −
1 − 10
2
5
|0 35 37
1 − 16 |
16
= −141 107
|0 0 1 − 141 |
0 0 586
0 141
Property No. 8.
586
= −141(1)(1)(1) (141)
= −586
Solve for 𝑎:
det 𝑨1 −586
𝑎= = −586
det 𝑨
𝑎=1
To solve for 𝑏, get the matrix 𝑨2 where Column 2 is replaced by 𝑩.

3 10 5 −1
𝑨2 = [2 3 5 −4]
3 6 −1 1
1 42 1 9
3 10 5 −1
det 𝑨2 = |2 3 5 −4|
3 6 −1 1
1 42 1 9
1 42 1 9
= − |2 3 5 −4 |
3 6 −1 1
3 10 5 −1

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
1 42 1 9
= −| 0 −81 3 −22 |
0 −120 −4 −26
0 −116 2 −28

1 42 1 9
3 22
= −(−81) |0 1 − 81 81|
0 −120 −4 −26
0 −116 2 −28
1 42 1 9
1 22
= 81 |0 1 − 27 81|
0 −120 −4 −26
0 −116 2 −28

1 42 1 9
1 22
− 27
|0 1 81|
= 81 −
76 178
|0 0 9 27 |
0 0 62 284
− 27 81
76
Property No. 5: Factor out (− 9 ) from Row 3.
1 42 1 9
1 22
− 27
76 |0 1 81 |
= 81 (− 9 ) 1
89
− 114|
|0 0
0 0 62 284
− 27 81
1 42 1 9
1 22
− 27
|0 1 81 |
= −684 1
89
− 114|
|0 0
0 0 62 284
− 27 81
62
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 27 𝑅3
1 42 1 9
1 22
|0 1 − 27 81|
= −684 1
89
− 114 |
|0 0
0 0 293
0 171
Property No. 8.
293
= −684(1)(1)(1) (171)
= −1172
Solve for 𝑏:
det 𝑨2 −1172
𝑏= =
det 𝑨 −586
𝑏=2
To solve for 𝑐, get the matrix 𝑨3 where Column 3 is replaced by 𝑩.
3 −2 10 −1
𝑨3 = [2 1 3 −4]
3 1 6 1
1 1 42 9
3 −2 10 −1
det 𝑨3 = |2 1 3 −4|
3 1 6 1
1 1 42 9
1 1 42 9
= − |2 1 3 −4|
3 1 6 1
3 −2 10 −1

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
1 1 42 9
= − |0 −1 −81 −22|
0 −2 −120 −26
0 −5 −116 −28

1 1 42 9
= −(−1) | 0 1 81 22 |
0 −2 −120 −26
0 −5 −116 −28
1 1 42 9
=| 0 1 81 22|
0 −2 −120 −26
0 −5 −116 −28

1 1 42 9
= |0 1 81 22 |
0 0 42 18
0 0 289 82

1 1 42 9
0 1 81 22
= 42 | 18 |
0 0 1
42
0 0 289 82
1 1 42 9
0 1 81 22
= 42 | 3 |
0 0 1
7
0 0 289 82
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 289𝑅3

1 1 42 9
0 1 81 22
= 42 || 3 |
0 0 1 7 |
0 0 0 − 293
7
Property No. 8.
293
= 42(1)(1)(1) (− )
7
= −1758
Solve for 𝑐:
det 𝑨3 −1758
𝑐= =
det 𝑨 −586
𝑐=3
To solve for 𝑑, get the matrix 𝑨4 where Column 4 is replaced by

𝑩. Then solve the determinant of 𝑨4 .
3 −2 5 10
𝑨4 = [2 1 5 3]
3 1 −1 6
1 1 1 42
3 −2 5 10
det 𝑨4 = |2 1 5 3|
3 1 −1 6
1 1 1 42
1 1 1 42
= − |2 1 5 3|
3 1 −1 6
3 −2 5 10

𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 − 3𝑅1
1 1 1 42
= − |0 −1 3 −81 |
0 −2 −4 −120
0 −5 2 −116

1 1 1 42
= −(−1) | 0 1 −3 81 |
0 −2 −4 −120
0 −5 2 −116
1 1 1 42
= |0 1 −3 81 |
0 −2 −4 −120
0 −5 2 −116

1 1 1 42
= |0 1 −3 81 |
0 0 −10 42
0 0 −13 289

1 1 1 42
0 1 −3 81
= −10 | 42|
0 0 1 − 10
0 0 −13 289
1 1 1 42
0 1 −3 81
= −10 | 21|
0 0 1 −5
0 0 −13 289
Property No. 7: 𝑅4 ∗ = 𝑅4 + 13𝑅3

1 1 1 42
0 1 −3 81
= −10 | | 21 |
0 0 1 −5|
0 0 1172
0 5
Property No. 8.
1172
= −10(1)(1)(1) ( )
5
= −2344
Solve for 𝑑:
det 𝑨4 −2344
𝑑= =
det 𝑨 −586
𝑑=4
2. Find the value of 𝑧.

4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −9
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7𝑧 = 8
The augmented matrix [𝑨|𝑩] is given below.
4 −5 2 3
[3 −1 5 −9 ]
4 3 −7 8
Get the determinant of 𝑨.
4 −5 2
det 𝑨 = |3 −1 5|
4 3 −7

5 2
1 −4 4
= 4 |3 −1 5|
4 3 −7
5 1
1 −4 2
= 4 |3 −1 5|
4 3 −7
Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 .

5 1
1 −4 2
= 4 |0 11 7 |
4 2
0 8 −9
11
Property No. 5: Factor out ( 4 ) from Row 2.
5 1
1 −4 2
11
= 4 ( 4 ) |0 1
14 |
11
0 8 −9
5 1
1 −4 2
= 11 |0 1
14 |
11
0 8 −9
Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 8𝑅2 .

5 1
1 −4 2
14
= 11 ||0 1 11 |
|
211
0 0 − 11
Property No. 8.
211
= 11(1)(1) (− )
11
= −211
To solve for 𝑧, get the matrix 𝑨3 where Column 3 is replaced by 𝑩.

4 −5 3
[
𝑨3 = 3 −1 −9]
4 3 8

4 −5 3
det 𝑨3 = |3 −1 −9|
4 3 8

5 3
1 −4 4
= 4 |3 −1 −9|
4 3 8
Property No. 7: 𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1 , and 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 4𝑅1 .

5 3
1 −4 4
= 4 |0 11
−
45|
4 4
0 8 5
11
Property No. 5: Factor out ( 4 ) from Row 2.
5 3
1 −4 4
11
= 4 ( 4 ) |0 1
45|
− 11
0 8 5
5 3
1 −4 4
= 11 |0 1 − 11
45|
0 8 5
Property No. 7: 𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 8𝑅2 .

5 3
1 −4 4
45|
= 11 ||0 1 − 11|
415
0 0 11
Property No. 8.
415
= 11(1)(1) ( 11 )
= 415
Solve for 𝑧:
det 𝑨3 415
𝑧= = −211
det 𝑨
415
𝑧 = − 211
PROBLEM SET 8
DETERMINANTS
1. Find the values of the given determinants using the properties. Also, indicate the property
number applied to solve the determinant.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
Let |𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 | = 9 and |𝑚 𝑛 𝑜| = 10.
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
2𝑎 2𝑏 2𝑐
a. | 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓|=
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
Property No.
2𝑎 2𝑏 2𝑐
b. |−3𝑑 −3𝑒 −3𝑓 | =
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
Property No.
𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
c. | 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙| =
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
Property No.
𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
d. |𝑏 𝑒 ℎ| =
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖
Property No.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
e. | 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖 |=
2𝑑 2𝑒 2𝑓
Property No.
𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 −𝑎 −𝑏 −𝑐
f. |2𝑚 2𝑛 2𝑜| + |𝑑 + 𝑔 𝑒+ℎ 𝑓 + 𝑖| =
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟 𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
Property No.
0 0 0
g. | 𝑚 𝑛 𝑜| =
𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
Property No.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
h. |2𝑎 2𝑏 2𝑐 | =
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
Property No.
2. Find the determinant using Laplace expansion.
2 1 4
a. | 7 1 2| : Expand on Column 2
−8 1 3
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
b. | 3 5 1| : Exapand on Row 1
−1 3 2
2 3 −1 4
c. | 6 1 2 −1|
3 4 1 2
−1 3 1 7
Continuous expansion on Row 3 of the matrix and submatrices.
3. Without expanding, evaluate
𝑥+𝑧 𝑦+𝑧 𝑥+𝑦
| 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 |
1 1 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
4. Prove: |𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑏| = (𝑎 − 𝑏)3 (𝑎 + 3𝑏)
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑎
1+𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
5. Prove: | 𝑎 1+𝑏 𝑐 | = 1+𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑎 𝑏 1+𝑐
Solve using Cramer’s Rule.
6. 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 7
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 1
7. 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 = −3
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 7
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = −11
8. 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 7𝑧 + 8𝑤 = −42
3𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 7𝑤 = 34
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 2𝑤 = −22
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 6𝑤 = 40
9. Solve for the value of 𝑧.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 2
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =0
𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 = 0
10. Find the value of 𝑑.
𝑎 − 𝑏 − 𝑐 − 2𝑑 − 𝑒 = 5
6𝑎 + 9𝑏 − 6𝑐 + 17𝑑 − 𝑒 = 40
2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑐 + 5𝑑 − 𝑒 = 12
𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 𝑐 + 3𝑑 = 7
𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 + 3𝑑 = 1
LESSON 9
INVERSE OF A MATRIX
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Solve the inverse of a matrix using two methods,
and
2. Apply the concept of inverse of a matrix to solve
systems of linear algebraic equations.
Recall the concept of a multiplicative inverse in the real number system. For any nonzero number
𝑎, there exists a number 𝑏 such that 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 = 1. The number 𝑏 is called the
multiplicative inverse of the number 𝑎, and is oftentimes denoted by 𝑎−1 .
Extending this concept to matrices, for any square matrix 𝑨, there exists a matrix 𝑩 of the
same order as 𝑨 such that 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 = 𝑰, where 𝑰 is the identity matrix. If this is the case,
we say that the matrix 𝑨 is nonsingular or invertible. Also, the matrix 𝑩 is said to be the
the inverse of 𝑨.
Properties of the Inverse of a Matrix
Let 𝑨 and 𝑩 be nonsingular matrices; then
1. (𝑨−1 )−1 = 𝑨
2. (𝑨𝑩)−1 = 𝑩−1 𝑨−1
3. (𝑨𝑇 )−1 = (𝑨−1 )𝑇
Solving the Inverse of a Matrix
1. Adjoint Method. Let 𝑨 be an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix. If det 𝑨 ≠ 0, then
1
𝑨−1 = ( ) (adj 𝑨)
det 𝑨
where adj 𝑨 is the adjoint of matrix 𝑨.
Adjoint Matrix. Let 𝑨 be an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix. The ajoint of 𝑨 is the matrix that is the
transpose of the matrix of cofactors corresponding to the entries of 𝑨.
𝐶11 𝐶12 ⋯ 𝐶1𝑛 𝑇 𝐶11 𝐶21 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛1

𝐶21 𝐶22 ⋯ 𝐶2𝑛 𝐶 𝐶22 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛2
adj 𝑨 = [ ] = [ 12 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝐶𝑛1 𝐶𝑛2 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝐶1𝑛 𝐶2𝑛 ⋯ 𝐶𝑛𝑛
2. Row Operations Method. If an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 can be transformed into the 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛

identity matrix 𝑰 by a sequence of elementary row operations, then 𝑨 is said to be
nonsingular. In solving for the inverse using this method, the augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰]
should be transformed into the augmented matrix [𝑰 | 𝑨−1 ] via row operations.
Example 9.1. Solve the inverse of the following matrices using the two methods discussed
above.
1 2
1. 𝑨 = [ ]
3 4
(a) Adjoint Method
Get the determinant of 𝑨 first.

1 2
det 𝑨 = | |
3 4
= 1(4) − 2(3)
=4−6
= −2
Get the cofactor matrix.

1 2
𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 | |
3 4
= (−1)2 (4)
=4
1 2
𝐶12 = (−1)1+2 | |
3 4
= (−1)3 (3)
= −3
1 2
𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 | |
3 4
= (−1)3 (2)
= −2
1 2
𝐶22 = (−1)2+2 | |
3 4
= (−1)4 (1)
=1
𝐶11 𝐶12
Cofactor 𝑨 = [ ]
𝐶21 𝐶22
4 −3
=[ ]
−2 1
Get the adjoint of 𝑨.

adj 𝑨 = [Cofactor 𝑨]𝑇
4 −2
=[ ]
−3 1
Solve for the inverse of matrix 𝑨.
1
𝑨−1 = (det 𝑨) (adj 𝑨)
1 4 −2
= (−2) [ ]
−3 1
1 4 −2
= −2[ ]
−3 1
−2 1
=[ 3 −2 ]
1
2
(b) Row Operations Method.
Start with the augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰].

1 2 1 0
[ ]
3 4 0 1
Transform the augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰] into [𝑰 | 𝑨−1 ] using

row operations.
1 2 1 0
[ ]
3 4 0 1
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1
1 2 1 0
[ ]
0 −2 −3 1
1
𝑅2 ∗ = − 2 𝑅2
1 2 13 0
[ − 2]
1
0 1 2
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2
1 0 −2 1
[ 3 1]
0 1 −2
2
We already have the augmented matrix [𝑰 | 𝑨−1 ]. Therefore,

−2 1
𝑨−1 = [ 3 − 2 ].
1
2
2 1 2
2. 𝑨 = [3 4 7]
8 1 −5
(a) Adjoint Method
Get the determinant of 𝑨 first.
2 1 2
det 𝑨 = |3 4 7|
8 1 −5
2 1 2 2 1
= |3 4 7 3 4| (Use basketweave
8 1 −5 8 1
method)
= [2(4)(−5) + 1(7)(8) + 2(3)(1)] −
[2(4)(8) + 2(7)(1) + 1(3)(−5)]
= (−40 + 56 + 6) − (64 + 14 − 15)
= 22 − 63
= −41
Get the cofactor matrix.

2 1 2
𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
4 7
= (−1)2 | |
1 −5
= (4(−5) − 7(1))
= −20 − 7
= −27
2 1 2
𝐶12 = (−1)1+2 | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
3 7
= (−1)3 | |
8 −5
= −(3(−5) − 7(8))
= −(−15 − 56)
= 71
2 1 2
𝐶13 = (−1)1+3 | 3 4 7|
8 1 −5
3 4
= (−1)4 | |
8 1
= (3(1) − 4(8))
= 3 − 32
= −29
2 1 2
𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
1 2
= (−1)3 | |
1 −5
= −(1(−5) − 2(1))
= −(−5 − 2)
=7
2 1 2
( ) 2+2 |
𝐶22 = −1 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
2 2
= (−1)4 | |
8 −5
= (2(−5) − 2(8))
= −10 − 16
= −26
2 1 2
𝐶23 = (−1)2+3 | 3 4 7|
8 1 −5
2 1
= (−1)5 | |
8 1
= −(2(1) − 1(8))
= − (2 − 8)
=6
2 1 2
𝐶31 = (−1)3+1 | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
1 2
= (−1)4 | |
4 7
= (1(7) − 2(4))
= (7 − 8)
= −1
2 1 2
𝐶32 = (−1)3+2 | 3 4 7 |
8 1 −5
2 2
= (−1)5 | |
3 7
= −(2(7) − 2(3))
= −(14 − 6)
= −8
2 1 2
𝐶33 = (−1)3+3 | 3 4 7|
8 1 −5
2 1
= (−1)6 | |
3 4
= (2(4) − 1(3))
= (8 − 3)
=5
𝐶11 𝐶12 𝐶13

Cofactor 𝑨 = [𝐶21 𝐶22 𝐶23 ]
𝐶31 𝐶32 𝐶33
−27 71 −29
=[ 7 −26 6 ]
−1 −8 5
Get the adjoint of 𝑨.

adj 𝑨 = [Cofactor 𝑨]𝑇
−27 7 −1
= [ 71 −26 −8]
−29 6 5
Solve for the inverse of matrix 𝑨.
1
𝑨−1 = (det 𝑨) (adj 𝑨)
−27 7 −1
1
= (−41 ) [ 71 −26 −8]
−29 6 5
−27 7 −1
1
= − 41 [ 71 −26 −8]
−29 6 5
27 7 1
− 41
41 41
71 26 8
= − 41 41 41
29 6 5
[ − − ]
41 41 41
(b) Row Operations Method.

Start with the augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰].
2 1 2 1 0 0
[3 4 7 0 1 0]
8 1 −5 0 0 1
Transform the augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰] into [𝑰 | 𝑨−1 ] using

row operations.
2 1 2 1 0 0
[3 4 7 0 1 0]
8 1 −5 0 0 1
1
𝑅1 ∗ = 2 𝑅1
1 1
1 2 1 2 0 0
[3 4 7 0 1 0]
8 1 −5 0 0 1
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 3𝑅1
1 1
1 1 0 0
2 2
[0 5
4 −2 1
3
0]
2
8 1 −5 0 0 1
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 8𝑅1
1 1
1 1 0 0
2 2
[0 5
4 −2 1
3
0]
2
0 −3 −13 −4 0 1
2
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2
5
1 1
1 1 0 0
2 2
[0 1 −5 5
8 3 2
0]
5
0 −3 −13 −4 0 1
1
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 𝑅2
2
1 4 1
1 0 −5 0
5 5
[0 1 −5
8 3 2
0]
5 5
0 −3 −13 −4 0 1
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2
1 4 1
1 0 −5 0
5 5
8 3 2
0 1 −5 0
5 5
41 29 6
[0 0 − 5
− 5 5
1]
5
𝑅3 ∗ = − 𝑅
41 3
4 1
1 0
1 −5 0
5
5
3 2
1 5 −5 0
8
0 5
29 6 5
[0 0 1 41 − 41 − 41]
1
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 𝑅3
5
27 7 1
1 0 0 41 − 41 41
8 3 2
0 1 5 −5 5
0
0 0 1 29 − 6 − 41]
5
[ 41 41
8
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
5
27 7 1
− 41
1 0 0 41 41
71 26 8
0 1 0 − 41 41 41
0 0 1 29 6 5
[ − 41 − 41]
41
We already have the augmented matrix [𝑰 | 𝑨−1 ]. Therefore,

27 7 1
− 41
41 41
71 26 8
𝑨−1 = − 41 41 41
29 6 5
[ − 41 − 41 ]
41
Using Inverse of a Matrix to Solve Systems of Equations

A system of 𝑚 linear equations in 𝑛 variables
𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
can be written as a matrix equation 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 where
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥2 𝑏
𝑩 = [ 2]
⋮ , 𝑿= ⋮ ,
𝑨=[ ⋮ ] [ ]
⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑚
For a nonsingular 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨, the equation 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 can be multiplied with 𝑨−1 to

solve for the unknown matrix 𝑩. This is illustrated below.
𝑨−1 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩
(𝑨−1 𝑨)𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩
𝑰𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩 where 𝑰 is the identity matrix
𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩
It is useful at this point to understand some properties of the Identity Matrix, 𝑰.
1. An identity matrix is always a square matrix.

2. Multiplying any matrix by the identity matrix gives the matrix itself.
𝑨𝑰 = 𝑰𝑨 = 𝑨
3. Multiplying a matrix by its inverse results in an identity matrix.
𝑨𝑨−1 = 𝑨−1 𝑨 = 𝑰
Example 9.2. Solve the following systems of equations using the concept of inverse of a
matrix.
1. 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 7
2𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 1
The matrix equation 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 is given below.
4 3 𝑥 7
[ ][ ] = [ ]
2 −5 𝑦 1
4 3 𝑥 7
where 𝑨 = [ ] , 𝑿 = [𝑦] , and 𝑩 = [ ].
2 −5 1
To compute for the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦, we have 𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩.
Solve for 𝑨−1 . Using adjoint method,
4 3
det 𝑨 = | |
2 −5
= 4(−5) − 3(2)
= −20 − 6
= −26
For the cofactor matrix,

4 3
𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 | |
2 −5
2
= (−1) (−5)
= −5
4 3
𝐶12 = (−1)1+2 | |
2 −5
= (−1)3 (2)
= −2
4 3
𝐶21 = (−1)2+1 | |
2 −5
= (−1)3 (3)
= −3
4 3
𝐶22 = (−1)2+2 | |
2 −5
= (−1)4 (4)
=4
−5 −2
Cofactor 𝑨 = [ ]
−3 4
−5 −3
adj 𝑨 = [ ]
−2 4
1 −5 −3
𝑨−1 = −26 [ ]
−2 4
5 3
= [26
1
26
2
]
13
− 13
Solve for 𝑿.
𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩
5 3
26 7
= [26
1 2
][ ]
− 1
13 13
5 3
(7) + (1)
= [26
1
26
2 ]
(7) − (1)
13 13
19
= [13
5]
13
19
𝑥
𝑿 = [𝑦 ] = [13
5]
13
19 5
Therefore, 𝑥 = and 𝑦 = .
13 13
2. 𝑎 + 𝑐 = −4
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 =0
5𝑎 − 𝑏 = 6
The matrix equation 𝑨𝑿 = 𝑩 is given below.
1 0 1 𝑎 −4
[1 1 1 ] [ 𝑏 ] = [ 0]
5 −1 0 𝑐 6
1 0 1 𝑎 −4
where 𝑨 = [1 1 1] , 𝑿 = [𝑏 ] , and 𝑩 = [ 0 ].
5 −1 0 𝑐 6
To compute for the values of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐, we have 𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩.
Solve for 𝑨−1 . Using row operations method,
The augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰] is

1 0 1 1 0 0
[1 1 1 0 1 0]
5 −1 0 0 0 1
Transform the augmented matrix [𝑨 | 𝑰] into [𝑰 | 𝑨−1 ].
1 0 1 1 0 0
[1 1 1 0 1 0]
5 −1 0 0 0 1
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
1 0 1 1 0 0
[0 1 0 −1 1 0]
5 −1 0 0 0 1
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 − 5𝑅1
1 0 1 1 0 0
[0 1 0 −1 1 0]
0 −1 −5 −5 0 1
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅2
1 0 1 1 0 0
[0 1 0 −1 1 0]
0 0 −5 −6 1 1
1
𝑅3 ∗ = − 𝑅3
5
1 0 1 1 0 0
[0 1 0 −1 1 0]
6 1 1
0 0 1 −5 −5
5
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 𝑅3
1 1 1
1 0 0 −5 5 5
[0 1 0 −1 1 0]
6 1 1
0 0 1 −5 −5
5
1 1 1
−5 5 5
−1
𝑨 = [−1 1 0]
6 1 1
5
−5 −5
Solve for 𝑿.
𝑿 = 𝑨−1 𝑩
1 1 1
−5 5 5 −4
= [−1 1 0] [ 0]
6 1 1
−5 −5 6
5
1 1 1
− 5 (−4) + 5 (0) + 5 (6)
= [ −1(−4) + 1(0) + 0(6) ]
6 1 1
(−4) − (0) − (6)
5 5 5
2
= [ 4]
−6
𝑎 2
𝑿 = [𝑏 ] = [ 4 ]
𝑐 −6
Therefore, 𝑎 = 2 , 𝑏 = 4 and 𝑐 = −6.
Example 9.3. Solve for [𝑨]. Given [𝑨] [

3 3
] + [𝑨] = [
2 3
].
4 5 5 1
[𝑨] [3 3
] + [𝑨] = [
2 3
]
4 5 5 1
Rewrite the given. Use Property No. 2 of Identity matrix.
[𝑨] [3 3
] + [𝑨] [
1 0
]=[
2 3
]
4 5 0 1 5 1
[𝑨] ([3 3
]+[
1 0
]) = [
2 3
]
4 5 0 1 5 1
[𝑨] [4 3
]=[
2 3
]
4 6 5 1
Use Property No. 3 of Identity matrix.
[𝑨] [4 3] [4 3 −1 2 3 4 3 −1
] =[ ][ ]
4 6 4 6 5 1 4 6
[𝑨] [1 0] = [2 3] [4 3 −1
]
0 1 5 1 4 6
[𝑨] = [2 3 4 3 −1
][ ]
5 1 4 6
4 3 −1
Evaluate the inverse matrix [ ] first.
4 6
4 3 1 0
[ ]
4 6 0 1
1
𝑅1 ∗ = 4 𝑅1
3 1
[1 4 4 0]
4 6 0 1
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 4𝑅1
3 1
[1 4 0]
4
0 3 −1 1
1
𝑅2 ∗ = 3 𝑅2
1
3
1 4 0
4
[ 1 1]
0 1 −3 3
3
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 4 𝑅2
1 1
1 0 −4
2
[ 1]
0 1 −1
3 3
1 1
4 3 −1 −4
Therefore, [ ] = [ 21 1]
4 6 −3 3
Solving for [𝑨],
[𝑨] = [2 3 4 3 −1
][ ]
5 1 4 6
1 1
−
[𝑨] = [2 3
] [ 21 4
1]
5 1 −
3 3
1 1 1 1
2 ( ) + 3 (− 3) 2 (− 4) + 3 (3)
[𝑨] = [ 21 1 1 1
]
5 (2) + 1 (− 3) 5 (− 4) + 1 (3)
1
0 2
[𝑨] = [13 11]
− 12
6
PROBLEM SET 9
INVERSE OF A MATRIX
1. Find the inverse of the given matrix using row operations.
2 3 4
[1 −1 8]
3 2 1
2. Find the inverse of the given matrix using adjoint method.
2 1 3 −5
[ 7 2 8 1]
9 −3 1 4
1 6 7 2
3. Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦 in
1 3𝑇 𝑥 2
[ ] [𝑦] = [ ]
4 5 −8
4. Solve for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑.
𝑏 ] [2 1
[𝑎 ] = [ 3 5]
𝑐 𝑑 3 −2 2 6
5. Solve for 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧.
2 1 −1 𝑥 2
[2 3 6 ] [𝑦 ] = [−5]
7 2 1 𝑧 4
2 3 3 1
6. Let 𝑨 = [ ] and 𝑩 = [ ]. Solve for matrix 𝑿 given
1 4 −4 5
(𝑨 + 3𝑩)𝑇 𝑿 = 2𝑨 − 𝟑𝐵.
For Numbers 7 – 9, solve the systems of equations using the concept of the inverse of a matrix.
7. 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 2
2𝑎 + 4𝑏 = −5
8. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 1
𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −3
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 7
9. 𝑎 − 𝑐 = 2
𝑏+𝑐 =1
𝑐−𝑑=3
−𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = −5
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
10. Find the inverse of 𝑨 = [ ]
− cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
LESSON 10
EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Learning Outcomes

1 2 3 4
1. Understand the concept of eigenvalues and
eigenvectors, and
2. Solve eigenvalue problems.
.
In matrix analysis, eigenvalues are a set of scalars associated with a linear system of equations
used to tell whether a system of linear equations has a unique solution or not. Eigenvalue is a
term adapted from the German word eigenwert, which literally means proper value. Moreover,
the eigenvalues of a matrix equation are known as characteristic roots or characteristic values.
By illustration, consider an 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 matrix 𝑨 and an 𝑛 𝑥 1 matrix 𝑲. If the product
𝑨𝑲 = 𝜆𝑲, which is an 𝑛 𝑥 1 matrix and a constant multiple 𝜆 of 𝑲 itself, then the number
𝜆 is said to be an eigenvalue of 𝑨. The solution vector 𝑲 is said to be an eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue 𝜆.
Using the properties of matrix algebra, we can rewrite 𝑨𝑲 = 𝜆𝑲 as
(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰)𝑲 = 𝟎
which we can call as the characteristic equation of 𝑨. Thus, the eigenvalues of 𝑨 are the
roots of the characteristic equation. To solve for these roots, just equate the determinant of 𝑨 −
𝜆𝑰 to zero, det(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰) = 0. Moreover, to find an eigenvector corresponding to an eigenvalue
𝜆, we will solve the system of equations (𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰)𝑲 = 𝟎 by applying Gauss-Jordan elimination
to the augmented matrix [𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎].
Example 10.1. 1 0 −1 −3
Verify that 𝑲 = [−1] is an eigenvector of 𝑨 = [ 2 3 3]
1 −2 1 1
Perform the matrix multiplication 𝑨𝑲 and see if the result is 𝜆𝑲.
0 −1 −3 1 0(1) − 1(−1) − 3(1)

[ 2 3 3 ] [−1] = [ 2(1) + 3(−1) + 3(1) ]
−2 1 1 1 −2(1) + 1(−1) + 1(1)
−2
=[ 2 ]
−2
1
= −2 [−1]
1
= −2𝑲
1
Since 𝑨𝑲 = 𝜆𝑲, [−1] is an eigenvector of 𝑨 and the
1
eigenvalue is 𝜆 = −2.
Example 10.2. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrices.
1 1
1. 𝑨 = [ ]
−2 4
To solve for the eigenvalues, we let det(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰) = 0.
det(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰) = 0
1 1 1 0
det ([ ]−𝜆[ ]) = 0
−2 4 0 1
1 1
det ([ ] − [𝜆 0]) = 0
−2 4 0 𝜆
1−𝜆 1 ])
det ([ =0
−2 4 − 𝜆
|1 − 𝜆 1 |
=0
−2 4 − 𝜆
(1 − 𝜆)(4 − 𝜆) − 1(−2) = 0
(4 − 𝜆 − 4𝜆 + 𝜆2 ) + 2 = 0
𝜆2 − 5𝜆 + 6 = 0
(𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 − 2) = 0
𝜆 = 3, 2
The eigenvalues of 𝑨 are 𝜆1 = 3 and 𝜆2 = 2.
For the corresponding eigenvectors, we use Gauss-Jordan

elimination to solve the augmented matrix [𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎].
1 1 1 0
𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 = [ ]−𝜆[ ]
−2 4 0 1
1 1
] − [𝜆 0]
=[
−2 4 0 𝜆
1−𝜆 1 ]
=[
−2 4 − 𝜆
For 𝜆1 = 3:
[𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎] = [ 1 − 𝜆 1 0
]
−2 4 − 𝜆 0
1−3 1 0
=[ ]
−2 4 − 3 0
−2 1 0
=[ ]
−2 1 0
Solve using Gauss-Jordan elimination :
−2 1 0
[ ]
−2 1 0
1
𝑅1 ∗ = − 2 𝑅1
1
0
[ 1 −2 ]
−2 1 0
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 + 2𝑅1
1
0
[ 1 −2 ]
0 0 0
1
From the 1st row of the matrix above, the equation 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 = 0
2
1
can be obtained. We can see that 𝑘1 = 2 𝑘2 or 𝑘2 = 2𝑘1. The
𝑘 𝑘
corresponding eigenvector 𝑲 = [ 1 ] = [ 1 ]. The eigenvector
𝑘2 2𝑘1
1
can be simplified as 𝑘1 [ ].
2
For 𝜆2 = 2:
[𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎] = [ 1 − 𝜆 1 0
]
−2 4 − 𝜆 0
1−2 1 0
=[ ]
−2 4 − 2 0
−1 1 0
=[ ]
−2 2 0

−1 1 0
[ ]
−2 2 0
𝑅1 ∗ = −𝑅1
1 −1 0
[ ]
−2 2 0
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 + 2𝑅1
1 −1 0
[ ]
0 0 0
From the 1st row of the matrix above, the equation 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 = 0 can
be obtained. We can see that 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 . The corresponding
𝑘 𝑘
eigenvector 𝑲 = [ 1 ] = [ 1 ]. The eigenvector can be simplified
𝑘2 𝑘1
1
as 𝑘1 [ ].
1
1 2 1
2. 𝑨 = [ 6 −1 0]
−1 −2 −1
To solve for the eigenvalues, we let det(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰) = 0.
det(𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰) = 0
1 2 1 1 0 0
det ([ 6 −1 0 ] − 𝜆 [0 1 0]) = 0
−1 −2 −1 0 0 1
1 2 1 𝜆 0 0
det ([ 6 −1 0 ] − [0 𝜆 0]) = 0
−1 −2 −1 0 0 𝜆
1−𝜆 2 1
det ([ 6 −1 − 𝜆 0 ]) = 0
−1 −2 −1 − 𝜆
1−𝜆 2 1
| 6 −1 − 𝜆 0 |=0
−1 −2 −1 − 𝜆
(Expansion on Column 3)
6 −1 − 𝜆 1−𝜆 2
1| | − 0| |+
−1 −2 −1 −2
(−1 − 𝜆) |1 − 𝜆 2 |
=0
6 −1 − 𝜆
1[ 6(−2) − (−1 − 𝜆)(−1)] +
(−1 − 𝜆)[(1 − 𝜆)(−1 − 𝜆) − 2(6)] = 0
(−12 − 1 − 𝜆) + (−1 − 𝜆)(−1 − 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 𝜆2 − 12) = 0
(−13 − 𝜆) + (−1 − 𝜆)(−13 + 𝜆2 ) = 0
(−13 − 𝜆) + (13 − 𝜆2 + 13𝜆 − 𝜆3 ) = 0
−𝜆3 − 𝜆2 + 12𝜆 = 0
𝜆3 + 𝜆2 − 12𝜆 = 0
𝜆(𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 + 4) = 0
𝜆 = 0, 3, −4
The eigenvalues of 𝑨 are 𝜆1 = 0, 𝜆2 = 3 and 𝜆3 = −4.
For the corresponding eigenvectors, we use Gauss-Jordan

elimination to solve the augmented matrix [𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎].
1 2 1 1 0 0
[
𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 = 6 −1 0 − 𝜆 0 1 0]
] [
−1 −2 −1 0 0 1
1 2 1 𝜆 0 0
= [ 6 −1 0 ] − [0 𝜆 0 ]
−1 −2 −1 0 0 𝜆
1−𝜆 2 1
=[ 6 −1 − 𝜆 0 ]
−1 −2 −1 − 𝜆
For 𝜆1 = 0:
1−𝜆 2 1 0
[𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎] = [ 6 −1 − 𝜆 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 − 𝜆 0
1−0 2 1 0
=[ 6 −1 − 0 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 − 0 0
1 2 1 0
= [ 6 −1 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 0
1 2 1 0
[ 6 −1 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 0
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 6𝑅1
1 2 1 0
[ 0 −13 −6 0]
−1 −2 −1 0
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
1 2 1 0
[0 −13 −6 0]
0 0 0 0
1
𝑅2 ∗ = − 13 𝑅2
1 2 1 0
6
[0 1 13
0]
0 0 0 0
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 2𝑅2
1
1 0 0
13
[0 1
6 0]
13 0
0 0 0
From the 1st row of the matrix above, the equation

1 1
𝑘1 + 0𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 0 or 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 = 0 can be obtained. We
13 13
1
can see that 𝑘1 = − 13 𝑘3 .
Moreover, from the 2nd row of the matrix above, the equation
6 6
0𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 13 𝑘3 = 0 or 𝑘2 + 13 𝑘3 = 0 can be obtained. We
6
can see that 𝑘2 = − 𝑘3 .
13
1
𝑘1 − 13 𝑘3
The corresponding eigenvector 𝑲 = [𝑘2 ] = [− 6 𝑘3 ].
13
𝑘3
𝑘3
1
− 13
The eigenvector can be simplified as 𝑘3 [− 6 ].
13
1
For 𝜆2 = 3:
1−𝜆 2 1 0
[𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎] = [ 6 −1 − 𝜆 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 − 𝜆 0
1−3 2 1 0
=[ 6 −1 − 3 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 − 3 0
−2 2 1 0
= [ 6 −4 0 0]
−1 −2 −4 0

−2 2 1 0
[ 6 −4 0 0]
−1 −2 −4 0
1
𝑅1 ∗ = − 2 𝑅1
1
1 −1 −2 0
[ 6 −4 0 0]
−1 −2 −4 0
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 6𝑅1
1
1 −1 − 0
2
[ 0 2 3 0]
−1 −2 −4 0
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
1
1 −1 − 2 0
[0 2 3 0]
9
0 −3 − 2 0
1
𝑅2 ∗ = 2 𝑅2
1
1 −1 −2
0
3
0 1 0
2
9 0
[0 −3 −2 ]
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1 0 1
3 0
[0 1 2 0]
9
0 −3 − 2 0
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 3𝑅2
1 0 1 0
3
[0 1 2 0]
0 0 0 0

𝑘1 + 0𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 0 or 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 = 0 can be obtained. We can
see that 𝑘1 = −𝑘3 .
3 3
0𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 2 𝑘3 = 0 or 𝑘2 + 2 𝑘3 = 0 can be obtained. We
3
can see that 𝑘2 = − 2 𝑘3 .
𝑘1 −𝑘3
3
The corresponding eigenvector 𝑲 = [𝑘2 ] = [− 2 𝑘3 ].
𝑘3 𝑘 3
−1
3
The eigenvector can be simplified as 𝑘3 [ − 2 ].
1
For 𝜆3 = −4:
1−𝜆 2 1 0
[𝑨 − 𝜆𝑰 | 𝟎] = [ 6 −1 − 𝜆 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 − 𝜆 0
1 − (−4) 2 1 0
=[ 6 −1 − (−4) 0 0]
−1 −2 −1 − (−4) 0
5 2 1 0
=[ 6 3 0 0]
−1 −2 3 0

5 2 1 0
[ 6 3 0 0]
−1 −2 3 0
1
𝑅1 ∗ = 5 𝑅1
2 1
1 0
5 5
[ 6 3 0 0]
−1 −2 3 0
𝑅2 ∗ = 𝑅2 − 6𝑅1
2 1
1 0
5 5
[ 0 3
−5
6 0]
5 0
−1 −2 3
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 𝑅1
2 1
1 5 5 0
3 6
0 −5 0
5
8 16 0
[0 −5 5 ]
5
𝑅2 ∗ = 3 𝑅2
2 1
1 0
5 5
[0 1 −2 0]
8 16
0 −5 0
5
2
𝑅1 ∗ = 𝑅1 − 5 𝑅2
1 0 1 0
[0 1
8
−2
16
0]
0 −5 0
5
8
𝑅3 ∗ = 𝑅3 + 5 𝑅2
1 0 1 0
[0 1 −2 0]
0 0 0 0

𝑘1 + 0𝑘2 + 𝑘3 = 0 or 𝑘1 + 𝑘3 = 0 can be obtained. We can
see that 𝑘1 = −𝑘3 .
0𝑘1 + 𝑘2 − 2𝑘3 = 0 or 𝑘2 − 2𝑘3 = 0 can be obtained. We
can see that 𝑘2 = 2𝑘3.
𝑘1 −𝑘3
The corresponding eigenvector 𝑲 = 2 = 2𝑘3 ].
[ 𝑘 ] [
𝑘3 𝑘3
−1
The eigenvector can be simplified as 𝑘3 [ 2 ].
1
PROBLEM SET 10
EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS
Determine which of the indicated column vectors are eigenvectors of the given matrix 𝑨. Also,
give the corresponding eigenvalue.
6 3 3 1
1. 𝑨 = [ ] ; 𝑲1 = [ ] , 𝑲2 = [ ] , 𝑲3 = [−5]
2 1 −2 0 10
−1 1 0 −1 1 3
2. 𝑨 = [ 1 2 1 ] ; 𝑲1 = [ 4 ] , 𝑲2 = [4] , 𝑲3 = [1]
0 3 −1 3 3 4
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrices.
4 −5]
3. 𝑨 = [
1 −2
3 7
4. 𝑨 = [ ]
1 −4
5 −1 0
5. 𝑨 = [0 −5 9]
5 −1 0

Ad Math Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ad Math Module

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ad Math Module

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLOs)

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

Course Learning Outcomes

Equality. Two complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 are equal, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 , if

3. 𝑖(2 − 𝑖 ) + 𝑖3(1 + 𝑖2)

Geometric Interpretation. A complex number 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be plotted as a point (𝑥, 𝑦) in the

Argument or Phase. The argument of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, denoted by arg 𝑧 or 𝜃, is

Quadrant I: 𝐴𝑟𝑔 𝑧 = 𝜃𝑟𝑒𝑓

Course Le rning Outcomes

Moreover, |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |

arg(𝑧1 𝑧2 ) = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2

Example 2.1. Write the given complex number in polar form.

𝑟1 = √(3)2 + (0)2 𝑟2 = √(1)2 + (−1)2

DeMoivre’s Formula. When 𝑧 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃, it follows that 𝑟 = 1 and

(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)𝑛 = cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃

DeMoivre’s formula is useful in deriving certain trigonometric identities.

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

Example 2.3 Compute all the roots.

Example 2.4. Find all solutions of the given equation.

3. 𝑖 7 (√3 − 𝑖10)(2 − 𝑖5)

Course Learning Outcomes

2. Evaluate exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric,

In complex analysis, 𝑆 is a set of complex numbers. And a function 𝑓 defined on 𝑆 is a rule

𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 (cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦)

• Note that the so-called Euler formula is given by 𝑒 𝑖𝑦 = cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦.

Logarithmic Function. For 𝑧 ≠ 0, and 𝜃 = arg 𝑧,

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖(𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

• The principal value of ln 𝑧 is the complex logarithm corresponding to 𝑛 = 0 and 𝜃 =

For the principal value: 5

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 (𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

For the principal value: 5

ln 𝑧 = ln 𝑟 + 𝑖 (𝜃 + 2𝑛𝜋), 𝑛 = 0, ±1, ±2, …

Example 3.4. Find all values of the given quantity.

𝐿𝑛 ((𝑒 𝑧−1 )) = 𝐿𝑛 (−𝑖𝑒 2 )

Convert first −𝑖 to exponential form.

log 𝑧 = log(√29𝑒 −𝑖2.7611 )

4. log 2+𝑖 (3 − 𝑖5)

Let 𝑥 = log 2+𝑖 (3 − 𝑖5)

For 𝑧1 = 3 − 𝑖5 , 𝑟1 = √34 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧1 ) = −1.0304

Convert 3 + 𝑖4 in exponential form.

𝑧 = 3 + 𝑖4 , 𝑟 = 5 , 𝐴𝑟𝑔 (𝑧) = 0.9273

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 and

Let 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑦 and from (1),

Also, let 𝑥 = 𝑖𝑦 and from (2),

Evaluating cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) and sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) respectively gives

cos(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦

sin(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑖𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑖𝑦

Hyperbolic Functions. For any complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Evaluating cosh 𝑧 and sinh 𝑧 respectively gives

cosh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sinh 𝑥 sin 𝑦

sinh(𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 cosh 𝑥 sin 𝑦

Example 3.6. Evaluate the following.

= sin 3 cosh 4 + 𝑖 cos 3 sinh 4

= sinh 2 cos 3 + 𝑖 cosh 2 sin 3

Let 𝑥 = sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2)

sin 𝑥 = sin(sin−1 (1 + 𝑖2))

−[−(−4 + 𝑖2)] ± √[−(−4 + 𝑖2)]2 − 4(1)(−1)