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Seismic Retrofit of Existing Reinforced
Concrete Buildings

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Seismic Retrofit of Existing Reinforced
Concrete Buildings

Stelios Antoniou
Seismosoft ltd.
Pavia
Italy

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This edition first published 2023
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To Eleni, Lydia and Miley

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 vii

Contents

Foreword by Rui Pinho  xvii

Acknowledgments xix

1 Introduction  1
1.1 ­General  1
1.2 Why Do Old RC Buildings Need Strengthening?  3
1.3 Main Differences Between Assessment and Design
Methodologies  4
1.4 Whom Is this Book For?  7
1.5 Main Standards for the Seismic Evaluation of Existing Structures  8
References  12

2 Know Your Building: The Importance of Accurate Knowledge of the Structural

Configuration  15
2.1 Introduction  15
2.2 What Old RC Buildings Are Like  16
2.2.1 Lack of Stirrups  17
2.2.2 Unconventional Reinforcement in the Members  18
2.2.3 Large, Lightly Reinforced Shear Walls or Lack of Shear Walls  19
2.2.4 Lap Splices  22
2.2.5 Corrosion  22
2.2.6 Geometry: Location of Structural Members  25
2.2.7 Geometry: Bad Alignment of the Columns  25
2.2.8 Geometry: Arbitrary Alterations During Construction or During the Building’s
Lifetime  26
2.2.9 Bad Practices with Respect to the Mechanical and Electrical Installations  26
2.2.10 Soft Ground Stories  28
2.2.11 Short Columns  28
2.2.12 Different Construction Methods  30
2.2.13 Foundation Conditions  30
2.2.14 Discussion  32
2.2.15 One Final Example  34

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2.3 How Come Our Predecessors Were So Irresponsible?  34

2.4 What the Codes Say – Knowledge Level and the Knowledge Factor  36
2.5 Final Remarks  39
References  39

3 Measurement of Existing Buildings, Destructive and Nondestructive

Testing  41
3.1 Introduction  41
3.2 Information Needed for the Measured Drawings  41
3.3 Geometry  44
3.4 Details – Reinforcement  46
3.5 Material Strengths  52
3.6 Concrete Tests – Destructive Methods  54
3.7 Concrete Tests – Nondestructive Methods, NDT  55
3.7.1 Rebound Hammer Test  56
3.7.2 Penetration Resistance Test  56
3.7.3 Pull-­Off Test  57
3.7.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test, UPV  57
3.8 Steel Tests  58
3.9 Infill Panel Tests  58
3.10 What Is the Typical Procedure for Monitoring an Existing Building?  59
3.11 Final Remarks  61
References  62

4 Methods for Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Buildings  63

4.1 Introduction  63
4.2 Literature Review  64
4.3 Reinforced Concrete Jackets  67
4.3.1 Application  67
4.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages  74
4.3.3 Design Issues: Modeling, Analysis, and Checks  76
4.4 Shotcrete  77
4.4.1 Introduction  77
4.4.2 Dry Mix vs. Wet Mix Shotcrete  79
4.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Shotcrete  80
4.4.4 What Is It Actually Called – Shotcrete or Gunite?  81
4.4.5 Materials, Proportioning, and Properties  81
4.4.5.1 Cement  81
4.4.5.2 Pozzolans  82
4.4.5.3 Silica Fume  82
4.4.5.4 Aggregates  82
4.4.5.5 Water  83
4.4.5.6 Fiber Reinforcement  83
4.4.5.7 Chemical Admixtures and Accelerators  85
4.4.5.8 Reinforcing Steel  85

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4.4.6 Mix Proportions for the Dry-­Mix Process  85

4.4.7 Equipment and Crew  86
4.4.7.1 Dry-­Mix Process  86
4.4.7.2 Wet-­Mix Process  87
4.4.8 Curing and Protection  87
4.4.9 Testing and Evaluation  88
4.5 New Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls  89
4.5.1 Application  89
4.5.2 Foundation Systems of New Shear Walls  97
4.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages  98
4.5.4 Design Issues: Modeling and Analysis  98
4.6 RC Infilling  99
4.6.1 Application  99
4.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages  100
4.7 Steel Bracing  101
4.7.1 Application  101
4.7.2 Advantages and Disadvantages  105
4.7.3 Design Issues: Modeling, Analysis, and Checks  106
4.8 ­Fiber-­Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)  106
4.8.1 FRP Composite Materials  106
4.8.2 FRP Composites in Civil Engineering and Retrofit  107
4.8.3 FRP Composite Materials  109
4.8.4 FRP Wrapping  110
4.8.5 FRP Laminates  115
4.8.6 Near Surface Mounted FRP Reinforcement  119
4.8.7 FRP Strings  120
4.8.8 Sprayed FRP  122
4.8.9 Anchoring Issues  123
4.8.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of FRP Systems  123
4.8.11 Design Issues  125
4.9 Steel Plates and Steel Jackets  127
4.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages  130
4.9.2 Design Issues  131
4.10 Damping Devices  131
4.11 Seismic Isolation  133
4.11.1 Type of Base Isolation Systems  136
4.11.2 Advantages and Disadvantages  138
4.11.3 Design Issues  138
4.12 Selective Strengthening and Weakening Through Infills  139
4.13 Strengthening of Infills  141
4.13.1 Glass or Carbon FRPs  142
4.13.2 Textile Reinforced Mortars TRM  143
4.13.3 Shotcrete  145
4.14 Connecting New and Existing Members  145
4.14.1 Design Issues  147

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4.15 Strengthening of Individual Members  148

4.15.1 Strengthening of RC Columns or Walls  148
4.15.2 Strengthening of RC Beams  149
4.15.3 Strengthening of RC Slabs  153
4.15.4 Strengthening of RC Ground Slabs  154
4.16 Crack Repair – Epoxy Injections  157
4.17 ­Protection Against Corrosion, Repair Mortars, and Cathodic Protection  158
4.18 Foundation Strengthening  160
4.19 ­Concluding Remarks Regarding Strengthening Techniques  163
4.20 Evaluation of Different Seismic Retrofitting Solutions: A Case Study  164
4.20.1 Building Configuration  164
4.20.2 Effects of the Infills on the Structural Behavior  170
4.20.3 Strengthening with Jacketing  175
4.20.4 Strengthening with New RC Walls (Entire Building Height)  177
4.20.5 Strengthening with New RC Walls (Ground Level Only)  182
4.20.6 Strengthening with Braces  189
4.20.7 Strengthening with FRP Wrapping  192
4.20.8 Strengthening with Seismic Isolation  195
4.20.9 Comparison of the Methods  198
References  200

5 Criteria for Selecting Strengthening Methods – Case Studies  221

5.1 Things Are Rarely Simple  221
5.2 Criteria for Selecting Strengthening Method  222
5.3 Basic Principles of Conceptual Design  224
5.4 Some Rules of Thumb  226
5.5 Case Studies  231
5.5.1 Case Study 1: Seismic Upgrade of a Five-­Story Hotel  232
5.5.2 Case Study 2: Seismic Upgrade of a Four-­Story Hotel  236
5.5.3 Case Study 3: Seismic Upgrade of a Four-­Story Hotel  237
5.5.4 Case Study 4: Seismic Upgrade of a Three-­Story Residential Building  241
5.5.5 Case Study 5: Seismic Upgrade of a Three-­Story Residential Building for the
Addition of Two New Floors  241
5.5.6 Case Study 6: Seismic Strengthening of an 11-­Story Building  244
5.5.7 Case Study 7: Seismic Strengthening of a Five-­Story Building  247
5.5.8 Case Study 8: Seismic Strengthening of a Three-­Story Building  247
5.5.9 Case Study 9: Strengthening a Building Damaged by a Severe Earthquake  248
5.5.10 Case Study 10: Strengthening of an 11-­Story Building  251
5.5.11 Case Study 11: Strengthening of a Two-­Story Building with Basement  253
5.5.12 Case Study 12: Strengthening of a Weak Ground Story with FRP Wraps  255
5.5.13 Case Study 13 (Several Examples): Strengthening of RC Slabs  257
5.5.14 Case Study 14: Strengthening of a Ground Slab  260
5.5.15 Case Study 15: Strengthening of Beam That Has Failed in Shear  260
5.5.16 Case Study 16: Demolition and Reconstruction of a RC Beam  260
5.5.17 Bonus Case Study 1: Strengthening of an Industrial Building  261

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5.5.18 Bonus Case Study 2: Strengthening of an Industrial Building  262

5.5.19 Bonus Case Study 3: Strengthening of a Residential Building  263
References  268

6 Performance Levels and Performance Objectives  269

6.1 ­Introduction  269
6.1.1 Selection of Performance Objectives in the Design of New Buildings  269
6.1.2 Selection of Performance Objectives in the Assessment of Existing
Buildings  270
6.2 Seismic Assessment and Retrofit Procedures  270
6.2.1 Seismic Assessment Procedures  270
6.2.2 Seismic Retrofit Procedures  271
6.3 Understanding Performance Objectives  272
6.3.1 Target-­Building Performance Levels  272
6.3.1.1 Structural Performance Levels  273
6.3.1.2 Nonstructural Performance Levels  276
6.3.1.3 Target Building Performance Levels  279
6.3.2 Seismic Hazard Levels  280
6.3.3 Performance Objectives  282
6.3.4 Eurocode 8, Part 3, and Other Standards  284
6.3.5 The Rationale for Accepting a Lower Performance Level for Existing
Buildings  286
6.4 ­Choosing the Correct Performance Objective  287
References  289

7 Linear and Nonlinear Methods of Analysis  291

7.1 ­Introduction  291
7.2 ­General Requirements  294
7.2.1 Loading Combinations  294
7.2.2 Multidirectional Seismic Effects  295
7.2.3 Accidental Torsional Effects  295
7.3 ­Linear Static Procedure  296
7.4 ­Linear Dynamic Procedure  296
7.5 ­Nonlinear Structural Analysis  298
7.5.1 Nonlinear Structural Analysis in Engineering Practice  298
7.5.2 Challenges Associated with Nonlinear Analysis  300
7.5.3 Some Theoretical Background  301
7.5.3.1 Introduction  301
7.5.3.2 Sources of Nonlinearity  301
7.5.3.3 Solving Nonlinear Problems in Structural Analysis  302
7.5.3.4 Convergence Criteria  305
7.5.3.5 Numerical Instability, Divergence, and Iteration Prediction  306
7.5.4 Implications from the Basic Assumptions of Nonlinear Analysis  307
7.5.5 How Reliable Are Numerical Predictions from Nonlinear Analysis
Methods?  309

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7.5.6 Final Remarks on Nonlinear Analysis  310

7.6 ­Nonlinear Static Procedure  311
7.6.1 Pushover Analysis  311
7.6.2 Information Obtained with Pushover Analysis  312
7.6.3 Theoretical Background on Pushover Analysis  313
7.6.4 Target Displacement  314
7.6.5 Applying Forces vs. Applying Displacements  316
7.6.6 Controlling the Forces or the Displacements  317
7.6.6.1 Load Control  317
7.6.6.2 Response Control  318
7.6.7 Control Node  318
7.6.8 Lateral Load Patterns  319
7.6.9 Pushover Analysis Limitations  319
7.7 ­Nonlinear Dynamic Procedure  320
7.7.1 Information Obtained with Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis  322
7.7.2 Selecting and Scaling Accelerograms  322
7.7.2.1 Natural Scaled and Matched Accelerograms  324
7.7.2.2 Artificial and Synthetic Accelerograms  326
7.7.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nonlinear Dynamic Analysis  327
7.8 ­Comparative Assessment of Analytical Methods  328
7.8.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Analytical Methods  328
7.8.2 Selection of the Best Analysis Procedure for Structural Assessment  329
References  330

8 Structural Modeling in Linear and Nonlinear Analysis  333

8.1 ­Introduction  333
8.2 ­Mathematical Modeling  333
8.3 ­Modeling of Beams and Columns  334
8.3.1 Material Inelasticity  334
8.3.2 Geometric Nonlinearities  336
8.3.3 ­Modeling of Structural Frame Elements  337
8.3.3.1 Concentrated Plasticity Elements  338
8.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrated Plasticity Models  339
8.3.3.3 Distributed Plasticity Elements – Fiber Modeling  339
8.3.3.4 Types of Distributed Plasticity Elements  340
8.3.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Distributed Plasticity Models  341
8.3.3.6 Considerations Regarding the Best Frame Model for Structural Members  342
8.4 ­Modeling of Shear Walls  344
8.5 Modeling of Slabs  345
8.6 Modeling of Stairs  347
8.7 Modeling of Infills  348
8.7.1 A Simple Example: Infilled Frame vs. Bare Frame  349
8.7.2 Another Example: Partially Infilled Frame (Soft Story) vs. Bare Frame  351
8.7.3 Problems in the Modeling of Infills  354
8.8 Modeling of Beam-­Column Joints  356
8.9 ­Modeling of Bar Slippage  358
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8.10 ­ hear Deformations  359

S
8.11 ­Foundation Modeling  359
8.12 ­How Significant Are Our Modeling Decisions?  359
References  360

9 Checks and Acceptance Criteria  363

9.1 ­Introduction  363
9.2 ­Primary and Secondary Members  364
9.3 ­Deformation-­Controlled & Force-­Controlled Actions  365
9.4 ­Expected Vs. Lower-­Bound Material Strengths  366
9.5 ­Knowledge Level and Knowledge Factor  368
9.6 ­Capacity Checks  369
9.6.1 Capacity Checks for Linear Methods – ASCE 41  369
9.6.1.1 Component Demands  369
9.6.1.2 Component Capacities  370
9.6.2 Capacity Checks for Nonlinear Methods – ASCE 41  372
9.6.2.1 Component Demands  372
9.6.2.2 Component Capacities  372
9.6.3 Capacity Checks for Linear Methods – Eurocode 8, Part 3  372
9.6.3.1 Component Demands  372
9.6.3.2 Component Capacities  372
9.6.4 Capacity Checks for Nonlinear Methods – Eurocode 8, Part 3  374
9.6.4.1 Component Demands  374
9.6.4.2 Component Capacities  374
9.7 ­Main Checks to Be Carried Out in an Assessment Procedure  374
9.7.1 Bending Checks  375
9.7.1.1 Eurocode Framework (EC8: Part 1 and EC8: Part 3) – Nonlinear Methods  375
9.7.1.2 US Framework (ASCE 41 and ACI 318) – Nonlinear Methods  376
9.7.2 Shear Checks  376
9.7.2.1 Eurocodes Framework (EC8, Part 1, and EC8, Part 3)  376
9.7.2.2 US Framework (ASCE 41 and ACI 318)  378
9.7.3 Beam-­Column Joints  378
References  378

10 Practical Example: Assessment and Strengthening of a Six-­Story RC

Building  381
10.1 ­Introduction  381
10.2 Building Description  381
10.3 Knowledge of the Building and Confidence Factor  383
10.3.1 Geometry  383
10.3.2 Reinforcement  383
10.3.3 Material Strengths  384
10.4 Seismic Action and Load Combinations  386
10.5 Structural Modeling  387
10.6 Eigenvalue Analysis  391
10.7 Nonlinear Static Procedure  393
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10.7.1 Lateral Load Patterns  393

10.7.2 Selection of the Control Node  394
10.7.3 Capacity Curve and Target Displacement Calculation  394
10.7.4 Safety Verifications  398
10.7.5 Chord Rotation Checks  398
10.7.6 Example of the Calculation of Chord Rotation Capacity  399
10.7.7 Shear Checks  400
10.7.8 Example of the Calculation of Shear Capacity  401
10.7.9 Beam-­Column Joint Checks  403
10.7.10 Example of the Checks for Beam-­Column Joints  403
10.8 Strengthening of the Building  406
10.8.1 Strengthening with Jackets  406
10.8.2 Designing the Interventions  407
10.8.3 Deliverables  415
10.8.4 Strengthening with Shear Walls  415
References  421

Appendix A  Standards and Guidelines  423

A.1 Eurocodes  423
A.1.1 Performance Requirements  423
A.1.1.1 Limit State of Near Collapse (NC)  423
A.1.1.2 Limit State of Significant Damage (SD)  423
A.1.1.3 Limit State of Damage Limitation (DL)  423
A.1.2 Information for Structural Assessment  424
A.1.2.1 KL1: Limited Knowledge  424
A.1.2.2 KL2: Normal Knowledge  424
A.1.2.3 KL3: Full Knowledge  425
A.1.2.4 Confidence Factors  425
A.1.3 Safety Factors  425
A.1.4 Capacity Models for Assessment and Checks  425
A.1.4.1 Deformation Capacity  425
A.1.4.2 Shear Capacity  428
A.1.4.3 FRP Wrapping  429
A.1.5 Target Displacement Calculation in Pushover Analysis  429
A.1.5.1 Transformation to an Equivalent Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF)
System  430
A.1.5.2 Determination of the Idealized Elasto-­Perfectly Plastic Force-­Displacement
Relationship  430
A.1.5.3 Determination of the Period of the Idealized Equivalent SDOF System  431
A.1.5.4 Determination of the Target Displacement for the Equivalent SDOF
System  431
A.1.5.5 Determination of the Target Displacement for the MDOF System  432
A.2. ASCE 41-­17  432
A.2.1 Performance Requirements  432
A.2.1.1 Performance Level of Operational Level (1-­A)  433
A.2.1.2 Performance Level of Immediate Occupancy (1-­B)  433
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A.2.1.3 Performance Level of Life Safety (3-­C)  433

A.2.1.4 Performance Level of Collapse Prevention (5-­D)  433
A.2.2 Information for Structural Assessment  433
A.2.2.1 Minimum Knowledge  434
A.2.2.2 Usual Knowledge  434
A.2.2.3 Comprehensive Knowledge  434
A.2.3 Safety Factors  434
A.2.4 Capacity Models for Assessment and Checks  434
A.2.4.1 Deformation Capacity  435
A.2.4.2 Shear Capacity  435
A.2.4.3 FRP Wrapping  441
A.2.5 Target Displacement Calculation in the Nonlinear Static Procedure  441
A.2.5.1 Determination of the Idealized Elasto-­Perfectly Plastic Force-­Displacement
Relationship  443
A.2.5.2 Determination of the Fundamental Period  444
References  444

Appendix B  Poor Construction and Design Practices in Older Buildings  445

B.1 Stirrup Spacing  445
B.2 Lap Splices  445
B.3 ­Member Alignment  445
B.4 ­Pipes inside RC Members  445
B.5 Bad Casting of Concrete  449
B.6 Footings  449

Appendix C  Methods of Strengthening  455

C.1 ­Reinforced Concrete Jackets  455
C.2 New Shear Walls  465
C.3 Fiber-­Reinforced Polymers  468
C.3.1 FRP Wrapping of Columns  468
C.3.2 FRP Fabrics in Slabs  473
C.3.3 FRP Wraps for Shear Strengthening  473
C.3.4 FRP Laminates  476
C.3.5 FRP Strings  482
C.4 ­Steel Braces  485
C.5 Steel Jackets  487
C.6 ­Steel Plates  488
C.7 Infills  491
C.8 Foundations  493
C.9 ­Dowels and Anchorages  500
C.10 ­Demolition with Concrete Cutting  502
C.11 Reinforcement Couplers  506
C.12 ­Epoxy Injections  507

Index  509

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Foreword by Rui Pinho

It is undeniable that seismic assessment and retrofitting of the existing building stock in
many parts of the world has become the primary focus of structural engineers. The reasons
behind this pressing need are multiple and multifaceted, as clearly explained and discussed
in this book. However, the vast majority of currently active structural engineering practi-
tioners did not receive any formal training on this particular topic, which only in recent
years has started to find its way into the syllabus of civil engineering degrees. There is
therefore a great need for seismic retrofitting guidance within the practicing community –
guidance that should be not only of a conceptual and theoretical nature but also, or per-
haps mainly, practice oriented.
This textbook addresses perfectly such undeniable need, as a result of the rather unique
and special technical background of its author. Indeed, Dr. Stelios Antoniou combines an
impeccable academic training in structural earthquake engineering, obtained from the
National Technical University of Athens and from Imperial College London, with a two
decades of hands-­on experience in the seismic assessment and retrofitting of existing struc-
tures (he is partner and technical director of a construction company specializing in this
field, Alfakat) and with an equally long, accomplished career of developing earthquake
engineering software tools that are employed by thousands of users around the globe (he is
co-­founder and chief developer of Seismosoft).
It is therefore easy and immediate to appreciate how the present textbook will inevitably
read very differently from other publications on the same topic, some of which I am co-­
author of, which tend to feature a more academic and formal writing-­up and discussion, as
opposed to the very practical and colloquial style adopted by Dr. Antoniou. The latter ren-
ders this volume not only extremely rich and informative in terms of contents and actual
application, but also rather easy and pleasant to follow.
The book is logically organized in two main parts. The first of these introduces the cur-
rent status quo on the common weaknesses found in existing reinforced concrete struc-
tures (Chapter 2), the methods available to gain knowledge on a building’s properties and
characteristics (Chapter 3), and the typical techniques at the disposal of practitioners to
retrofit this type of structures (Chapter 4). Unlike other books, however, such overview is
given and described with the assistance of several tens of photographs from actual build-
ings and retrofitting applications undertaken by Dr. Antoniou, which renders it truly
unique and clear. This first part of the book is then closed by a precious section where the

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xviii Foreword by Rui Pinho

author provides his experienced insight on the type of criteria one should have in mind
when selecting one retrofitting strategy over another (Chapter 5).
The second part of the book is instead fully focused on the procedure that practitioners
need to follow in order to assess the seismic response of an existing reinforced concrete
building and then define an appropriate and code-­compliant seismic retrofitting interven-
tion. It thus naturally covers not only the selection of appropriate seismic performance
targets (Chapter  6) and structural analysis techniques (Chapter  7), but also discusses
advanced structural modeling issues (Chapter 8) and the necessary structural performance
code-­compliance checks (Chapter 9). The manner in which these four steps can and should
be brought together in the process of seismic assessment and retrofitting is illustrated by a
start-­to-­finish application to an actual case-­study (Chapter 10), which perfectly leverages
the very practical software tools developed by Dr. Antoniou.
In short, this is a volume that I believe all structural engineering practitioners, as well as
students and academics, should have on their bookshelves, given not only the invaluable
and unique insight that it provides on the type of challenges one is faced with when dealing
with the seismic performance of existing reinforced concrete buildings, but also the very
clear and practical guidance it conveys on how to potentially intervene in such structures.

Rui Pinho
Professor of Structural Engineering
University of Pavia, Italy

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­Acknowledgments

Writing this book was harder than I initially thought, but more rewarding than I could have
ever imagined. None of this would have been possible without so many supportive people
in my life. I wish to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have directly or indirectly
contributed to this endeavor. In particular, I would like to express my special thanks to:
●● Dr Rui Pinho for being a great friend and partner (in Seismosoft), for providing continu-
ous support and unfailing assistance, and for inspiring me in many different ways. His
contribution to my work has been invaluable, not least because he had the initial idea for
this book back in the summer 2019.
●● Kostas Antoniou, who has been extremely helpful, supportive, and resilient throughout
all this time. Apart from being my brother and a lifetime friend, he is a fantastic partner
(in Alfakat), who keeps tidying up all the messes that I leave behind, when I move for-
ward to the next “big” thing.
●● Zoe Gronti from Seismosoft and Giouli Liaskou from Alfakat, who made the initial
reviews of the chapters and gave me extremely valuable first feedback on several aspects
of the book.
●● My friends and colleagues in Seismosoft and Alfakat, who have contributed significantly
to the book in many different ways. Special thanks to Dr Thanasis Farantos, Panagiotis
Doulos, Thodoris Rakintzis, Evi Visviki, Thanasis Karatzas, Yiannis Spilios, Vaggelis
Trikkas, Dr Fanis Moschas, Artan Xhemalallari, Apostolis Economou, George Kalfas,
Nancy Gouma, Vassilis Samaras, Nikos Modes and Marios Basoukos.
●● Christos Giannelos and Christos Giarlelis for providing useful material and photographs,
but more importantly for their constructive comments, which helped me in crystallizing
several points I make throughout the book.
●● Odysseas Verroios, Nikos Zarkadoulas, George Kyriakou, Jose Poveda, and Christos
Varelas for providing useful material and photographs.
●● Sara Kaufman for the corrections in the initial English text, but also for her insightful
suggestions and positive comments.
●● My parents for their continued love, support, and patience, but also for their guidance
and encouragement at the different stages of my academic and professional life.
●● Everyone on the Wiley team who helped in getting this book out in the market.
●● Last, but certainly not least, my family – and in particular, my wife, Eleni, and my daugh-
ter, Lydia, for their patience and understanding all this time, and more importantly, for
making this life journey as good as it gets (and even better).

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 1

Introduction

1.1 ­General

The vast majority of existing buildings, even in the most developed countries, have been
built with older provisions, with low or no seismic specifications. As a result, their ability
to withstand earthquake loads is considerably lower with respect to modern standards, and
they suffer from significant irregularities in plan and/or elevation, low ductility, and low
lateral strength and stiffness. They exhibit increased vulnerability to seismic loading and
often have a critical need for strengthening.
Seismic assessment and strengthening is a promising field of civil engineering. It requires
special knowledge and often poses great challenges to the engineer, both in the design and
the construction phase of the strengthening interventions. Because many older structures
are vulnerable to seismic activity, this constitutes an exciting new field of the construction
industry that is far from saturated and is expected to gain importance and exhibit signifi-
cant development in the years to come. This significance is highlighted by the publication
of several documents and standards worldwide that are dedicated to this subject from
organizations such as the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the United States, New Zealand Society for
Earthquake Engineering (NZSEE) in New Zealand, the Earthquake Planning and Protection
Organization (EPPO) in Greece, The European Committee for Standardization in the EU,
and other regulatory agencies in Europe.
The documents and standards provided by these agencies include ASCE 41 (ASCE 2017)
and its predecessors FEMA 273 (FEMA 1997) and FEMA 356 (FEMA 2000) in the United
States, Eurocode 8, Part 3, in Europe (CEN 2005), NZSEE in New Zealand (2017), KANEPE
(2022) in Greece, and large dedicated chapters in NTC-­18 (NTC  2018) in Italy and the
Turkey Building Earthquake Regulation (TBDY 2018) in Turkey.
The main incentive for writing this book has been the realization that, despite the
importance of the subject and the publication of thousands of papers on the strengthening
of existing structures, there are very few complete books or reports with specific guidelines
on the strategy for structural retrofit. This book attempts to provide structural engineers
a  thorough insight on seismic assessment and strengthening, specifically for existing

Seismic Retrofit of Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings, First Edition. Stelios Antoniou.

© 2023 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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2 1 Introduction

reinforced concrete buildings, providing information on available strengthening techniques

and on the methodologies and procedures that should be followed to assess an ­existing or
strengthened structure. More importantly, it gives detailed directives on the strategy for the
strengthening interventions – that is, which method(s) to use, when, how, and why.
This chapter provides a brief introduction on the main international and national stand-
ards employed for the seismic evaluation and strengthening of existing structures. The
remaining book is divided in two parts.
In the first part (Chapters 2–5), issues of a more practical nature will be discussed, as well
as all the field works related to structural assessment and strengthening. In Chapter 2, the
main problems affecting existing reinforced concrete (RC) buildings are described, such as
bad detailing, poor workmanship, corrosion, and bad construction practices. In Chapter 3,
the challenges of monitoring RC buildings are explained, and the methods for the measure-
ment of the required structural quantities, and the nondestructive and destructive testing
involved are presented. In Chapter 4, the available strengthening techniques for the retrofit
of a reinforced concrete building are described in detail, and the most important design
and construction issues related to them are discussed, together with their main advantages
and disadvantages. A simple example with the seismic retrofit of an existing building with
the most important techniques is also presented. Finally, in Chapter 5 the criteria for select-
ing the most appropriate strengthening method and the basic principles of conceptual
design are discussed, and more than 15 actual case studies from practical applications of
the retrofit of existing buildings are presented, explaining in each case which strengthen-
ing method was selected and why.
The second part (Chapters  6–10) constitutes a detailed description of the code-­based
seismic assessment and retrofit procedures, which should be followed for the structural
upgrading of existing RC buildings. In Chapter 6 the performance levels, the limit states,
the seismic hazard levels, and the performance objectives are explained, and a detailed
discussion is given on how to make an appropriate selection of performance objective. In
Chapter 7 the linear and nonlinear methods for structural analysis are presented, and in
Chapter 8 general issues on the modeling of reinforced concrete structures are discussed,
with a particular focus on the modeling for nonlinear analysis. Chapter  9 describes the
main safety verification checks that are performed in a structural evaluation methodology,
while in Chapter 10 an application example of the structural evaluation and strengthening
of an existing reinforced concrete building is presented, following all the steps of the pro-
cedure: selection of performance and seismic hazard levels, modeling, structural analysis
and safety verifications.
Appendix A presents a succinct description of the code-­based assessment methodologies
and procedures of the most common standards worldwide: ASCE 41 (US standard), and
Eurocode 8, Part 3 (EC8, European standard). It is noted that, although reference to other
codes will also be made in different sections of the book, the main focus will be on ASCE
41 and EC8, Part 3, which are the best known and most used worldwide.
Appendix B provides a large set of pictures from bad construction and design practices in
existing RC buildings. These are some characteristic examples I have come across during
my professional life, and they give a rough idea of what an engineer should expect when
working on existing buildings.

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 1.2 ­Why Do Old RC Buildings Need Strengthening 3

Finally, Appendix C presents a selection of characteristic photographs on the various

methods of strengthening, so that the reader can appreciate most of the construction
details of these methods, and understand the challenges and difficulties related to their
construction.
In the examples of Chapters 4, 5, and 10, all the structural analyses and the verification
checks are performed with the use of the SeismoBuild (2023) and SeismoStruct (2023) soft-
ware packages. These are two finite element programs by Seismosoft Ltd. capable of per-
forming linear and nonlinear structural analysis, and carrying out the entire code-­based
assessment procedures for different structures. SeismoBuild focuses on reinforced concrete
buildings and concentrates on the code-­based methodologies, while SeismoStruct allows
more freedom, and can also model other types of structures (e.g., steel, composite struc-
tures, bridges).

1.2 ­Why Do Old RC Buildings Need Strengthening?

Old reinforced concrete buildings have been typically designed and constructed without
considerations for seismic loads and the lateral resisting system. Even in the cases when a
seismic code existed (buildings constructed after the 1960s or 1970s), usually the prescribed
earthquake load was just a fraction of today’s standards with design ground accelerations
less than 0.10 g, and often close to or equal to zero. This means that a large proportion of
the existing building stock have been designed without consideration for any seismic forces
or against very low horizontal loads (Figure 1.1).1
These buildings suffer from bad construction practices, low material grades, lack of stir-
rups, short lap splices, bad detailing (e.g., the hoops were never bent to 135° angles inside
the concrete core), lack of correct supervision, and poor workmanship. As a result, the
ductility in older RC buildings is very low and unreliable. Moreover, the aging framing
system, the carbonation of concrete, and the corrosion of reinforcing steel further degrade
the buildings’ capacity to sustain earthquake loads. As a result, the lateral capacity of older
reinforced buildings is significantly lower (often less than 50%) than the capacity of similar
buildings designed with today’s standards.
It is noted that with other types of construction, namely steel and composite structures,
this difference is not as accentuated. Steel is a more ductile material, steel buildings do not
suffer so much from brittle types of failure (such as shear in RC structures), and they retain
an adequate level of ductility even if they were not designed specifically for it. Furthermore,
anti-­corrosion measures were taken during the construction of steel buildings even in older
times, and this has prevented the rapid degradation of the buildings’ strength during their
lifetime.

1  It should be noted that with older seismic codes these small seismic coefficients were not further reduced
with the application of a behavior q factor, as is done in today’s standards. However, in the general case the
difference between the horizontal forces imposed now and then is still very high (typically 100% or more).
After all, older RC buildings lacked ductility; even if a q-factor was applied to them, this could not have
assumed a high value.

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