MODULE IN ED 202

The Teacher and the

Community, School Culture and
Leadership

by

Nancy A. Arellano, Ed. D.

Faculty- English and Professional Education Department

Nilo L. Masba ño, Ed.D

Faculty-Professional Education Department

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NOTES TO STUDENTS
Hello, welcome to the School of Teacher Education! This is your module in ED 202 – The
Teacher and the Community, School Culture and Leadership. This course is made up of ten
(10) units. Please read and study the lessons carefully and answer all given tasks. You are
required to use intermediate pads as your answer sheet for all the activities. Units 1-5
will cover the midterm and Units 6-10 are for the final term.

Each unit is given an allotted time for you to finish, so see to it that you can move to the
next unit, and you will be able to finish everything before the midterm or final term ends.
You are going to answer this course guide according to your schedule in this subject.
Remember, you still have other subjects to attend to, so be conscious of your time
and schedule for each of your subjects.

You are expected to finish the course requirements before the schedule of midterm
examination so you can proceed with the final term. Answer sheets for the midterm, should
be also sent to my email before 5 P.M. on the scheduled date. Wait for instructions.

All course requirements should be complied and submitted before taking the final
examination. Answer sheets for the Final exams should be also sent to my email before 5
P.M. on the scheduled date. Also wait for instructions.

For questions and other concerns please stay connected, you can always chat me for your
concerns.

KEEP GOING…BE PATIENT, BE RESPONSIBLE, ENJOY LEARNING DESPITE THE

PANDEMIC, STAY SAFE EVERYONE! GOD BLESS US ALL!

LEARNING is a LIFELONG PROCESS!

Ma’am Nancy and Sir Nilo

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 COURSE OUTLINE IN ED 202

THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP

Revised/Enhanced: June, 2021

I. THE UNIVERSITY

Vision: A research university advancing quality education towards societal

transformation and global recognition.

Mission: WVSU commits to develop lifelong learners empowered to generate

knowledge and technology, and transform communities as agents
of change.

Core Values: Excellence, Creativity and Innovation and Service

Hashtag: #WVSUexcels
Branding: At WVSU, Excellence is a way of life.

Institutional Outcomes:

Taga-WEST:
-is a creative and critical thinker;
-is an effective and responsible communicator;
-has uncompromising personal and professional ethical standards;
-is technologically skilled;
-has the capacity to engage in research;
-has teaming and collaborative skills;
-is socially responsible and has strong national identity;
-is globally employable; and
-is self directed, competent and accountable professional, and
-has uncompromising personal and professional ethical standards.

II. THE CAMPUS

Campus Outcomes:
 Innovative, responsible and committed individuals
 Possess efficient communication skills
 Educationally adaptable to the changing demands of time
 Excellent in teacher education program and other areas of specialization

III. PROGRAM/ DEGREE: Bachelor of Secondary Education (BSED)

IV. Program/Degree Outcomes: Based on CMO No. 74, 75 Series 2017

Common to All Programs in All Types of Schools

The graduates have the ability to:

a. Articulate and discuss the latest developments in the specific fields of practice
(PQF Level 6 descriptor)
b. Effectively communicate in English and Filipino, both orally and in writing
c. Work effectively and collaboratively with a substantial degree of independence
in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural teams (PQF Level 6 descriptor)
d. Act in recognition of professional, social, and ethical responsibility
e. Preserve and promote “Filipino historical and cultural heritage” (based on RA
7722)

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 Common to the Discipline (Teacher Education)

a. Articulated the rootedness of education in philosophical, socio-cultural,

historical, psychological, and political contexts.
b. Demonstrated mastery of subject matter/discipline
c. Facilitate learning using a wide range of teaching methodologies and delivery
modes appropriate to specific learners and their environments
d. Developed innovative curricula, instructional plans, teaching approaches, and
resources for diverse learners
e. Applied skills in the development and utilization of ICT to promote quality,
relevant, and sustainable educational practices
f. Demonstrated a variety of thinking skills in planning, monitoring, assessing, and
reporting learning processes and outcomes
g. Practiced professional and ethical teaching standards sensitive to the local,
national, and global realities
h. Pursued lifelong learning for personal and professional growth through varied
experiential and field-based opportunities

Specific to Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in English

a. Possessed broad knowledge of language and literature for effective learning

b. Used English as a glocal language in a multilingual context as it applies to the
teaching of language and literature
c. Acquired extensive reading background in language, literature, and allied fields
d. Demonstrated proficiency in oral and written communication
e. Showed competence in employing innovative language and literature teaching
approaches, methodologies, and strategies
f. Used technology in facilitating language learning and teaching
g. Inspired students and colleagues to lead relevant and transformative changes
to improve learning and teaching language and literature
h. Displayed skills and abilities to be a reflective and research-oriented language
and literature teacher

V. COURSE NUMBER: ED 202 ; COURSE TITLE: The Teacher and the Community,
School Culture and Leadership
PRE- REQUISITES: NONE
VI. SCHOOL YEAR: 2021-2022; SEMESTER: FIRST SEMESTER

VII. COURSE DESCRIPTION: CMO 74, 75 Series of 2017

This course focuses on society as a context upon which the schools have been
established. Educational philosophies that are related to the society as a foundation
of schools and schooling shall be emphasized. Further, principles and theories on
school culture and organizational leadership shall be included to prepare prospective
teachers to become school leaders and managers.
VIII. COURSE CREDIT / UNIT: THREE (3) UNITS

IX. COURSE OUTCOMES:

At the end of the course, the students must have:

1. expounded the interrelationship of school and community through researches and
discussions about the vital roles played by teachers towards a transformative
society
2. developed trans-integration of the social science theories (Functionalism, Conflict,
Consensus and Interactionism) towards deep and meaningful understanding of
teachers’ role in the micro and macro-sociological context of the society
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 3. drawn interrelationship and relevance of discussing the various pillars of
education
4. appreciated the importance of all social institutions towards attainment of
stability, order and egalitarian society
5. acquired various knowledge and skills of teachers in handling multicultural
classrooms
6. gained useful insights in addressing the various challenges of teachers related to
curriculum up-gradation, global education and 21st century teaching-learning
processes
7. understood the educational philosophies related to the foundations of schools and
schooling
8. discussed the principles and theories on school culture and organizational
leadership
9. developed personal philosophies attuned to becoming school managers and
leaders anchored on the various domains of Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers (PPST)
10. explained the various concepts and principles of organizational leadership

X. Course Content:

Unit O: The University, Campus and the School

 The University Vision, Mission and Core Values, hashtag and branding
 The Institutional and Campus Outcomes
 The Organizational set-up of the university, campus and school
 The School Rules and Regulation
 The attributes of students in WVSU

Unit 1: SCHOOL, COMMUNITY and Its Diversity

Value Focus: Appreciation, Sense of Belongingness, Developing Sense of Purpose

1. The School
2. The Community
3. The Teacher and the Community
4. Various Roles and Responsibilities in School and the Community
5. Effective School Community Partnership
6. Towards a Transformative Society

Unit II: THE FIVE PILLARS OF EDUCATION

Value focus:

Love, Compassion, Self-Worth

1. Learning to Know
2. Learning to Do
3. Learning to Live Together
4. Learning to Be
5. Learning to Transform Oneself and Society

Unit III: SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES

Value focus:

Problem-Solver, Critical Thinker

1. The Conflict Theory
2. Interactionist Theory (Symbolic and Non-Symbolic)
3. Functionalist Theory

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 4. Symbolic and Non-symbolic Interactionism

Unit IV: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Value Focus:

Sharing, Workmanship & Cooperation

1. The Family
2. The School
3. The Religion
4. The Economy
5. The Government
6. Other minor Social Institutions

Unit V: THE CONCEPTS OF CULTURE

Focus:

Respect for Individuality, Acceptance and Toleration of Differences

1. Characteristics and Components of Culture
2. Cultural Relativism
3. Filipino Cultural Values
4. Cultural Change and Intercultural Communication
5. Cultural Dimensions of Teaching, Learning and Education
6. Teacher: Impacting School Culture
7. Cultural Patterns and Growth of Subcultures

Unit VI: MULTICULTURALISM AND MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Value focus:

Respect for Individuality, Acceptance and Toleration of Differences

1. Cultural Dimensions of Learning Teaching and Education

2. Factors that Affect Teaching and Learning Process
3. Five Ways Teachers can Impact School Culture
4. Growth of Students Subcultures

Unit VII: PEACE EDUCATION: TOWARDS A TRANSFORMATIVE TEACHING AND

LEARNING PROCESS

Value focus:

Peaceableness, Optimistic
1. Peace and Peace Education
2. Positive Peace and Negative Peace
3. Themes of Peace Education and Peaceable Teaching-Learning Process

Unit VIII: GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Value Focus:

Sensibleness, Respect and Toleration of Differences

1. Theories Related to Gender and Development
2. Gender Roles
3. Gender Law and Policies

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Unit IX: EDUCATION IN THE NEW MILIEU

Value focus:

Sense of Globalism, Global Competitiveness

1. Global Education and 21st Century Education
2. 21st Century Core Subject, Skills and Competencies and Values

Unit X: SCHOOL CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

Value focus:

Sense of Leadership, Sense of Community, Professionalism

1. School Culture and Organizational leadership

2. The Principles of Organizational Management
3. Developmental patterns of Teacher Leadership
(BASRC Cycle of Inquiry)

FOR FURTHER READINGS

CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: LIFEBLOOD OF TEACHER

LEADERSHIP

1. The Historical and Legal Bases of Continuing Professional Development in the Philippines
2. Salient Provisions of RA 10912
3. Designing Continuing Professional Development Plan
4. Practices Directed to Continuing professional Development of Teacher-Leaders
5. Continuing Professional Development in Action
6. Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers (PPST)
7. Career Stages
8. Teacher-Leader Model Standards
9. The varied Roles of Teacher Leader
10. Teacher Leadership and the New Teacher Education Curriculum

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 UNIT 1: School, Community
and Its Diversity

At the end of the unit, the learners must have:

1. defined and identified a community its roles and characteristics
2. identified the roles of the teacher in school and in the community
3. learned the factors affecting the success in a community
4. elaborated the roles of school and community partnership

Who is a teacher?
What are his roles?

In the school?

In the community?
What is a community?

COMMUNITY – a group of interacting people living in a common location.

- group that is organized around common values and is attributed

with social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units
larger than a household.

- national community

- global community

Cum – with/together + munus – gift – a broad term for fellowship or

organized society.

It means, together, among each other or to give among each other.

My community vs. our community

What are the characteristics/principles that govern the community?

1. Access
2. Communication
3. Presence
4. Participation
Community also needs:

A way of defining itself

An agreement between the members about what the community does and
how it is to be done.

A community has:

a. one or more roles that define its identity within society;

b. a set of goals-provide a sense of direction;

c. is organized within a set of formal/informal beliefs, values, expectations and

behaviors
that defines the boundary of the community;

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 d. the boundary may be explicit (physical) or implicit (defined by the shared

characteristics of its members;

e. ownership of its’ members;

f. there is some form of communication among its members;

g. skills and resources that are shared among the members;

h. balance the needs of the community with the needs of its members;

i. often has clubs, teams, groups within the community.

Social construction vs. Dysfunctional community

Social construction- where communities have different roles in society and they all
share the same characteristics.

Provide building blocks that a community is built on

Dysfunctional community- where all the characteristics of an ideal community is

lacking

Characteristics of a Community

Social Construction

Roles/Goals Institutions
Institutions Boundaries
Boundaries Members
Members

Communication Skills/Resources Teams/Groups

Roles/Goals Needs Teams/Groups

Five main roles/functions of the Community:

1. to provide service to the members

2. to provide the skills and resources necessary for the community

3. to maintain the community to a standard that can be used by all its members

4. to balance the needs of the members with the needs of the community
5. to share and draw on skills/resources where needed

Each community is based on a model:

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A. Social (holistic)

1. valued role

2. active role

3. supportive role

B. Professional (holistic/specialized)
C. Scientific (specialized)

What is anticipated…

1. the community is not where the person is living, but where a person participates,
shares experiences, and has valued relationships with others.
2. People with high support needs (severe disability, aged..) will always need
support
structures as a part of their lives.

3. The amount of participation in the community (living, education, employment,

recreation) is directly related to the skills and resources of the person, and the skills
and resources of the community that the person wishes to participate in.
4. Institutions are going to be around in one form or another whether we like it or not,
it is the way that they are used that is the problem.
5. The institutions of a particular government, organization, profession, or service
define the way the person is supported within that society.
6. Facilities that support people with high support needs do not need to be the nursing
homes or prisons in the sense that they are today, but can become warm inviting
community places within that society.
7. People with high support needs a minority group in our society, an will have the
same problems as other minority groups in being a part of a society.

EDUCATION vs. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

SES- often measured as a combination of education, income, and occupation.

Commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an individual. When
viewed through social class lens, privilege, power and control are emphasized.
HOW DOES SES AFFECTS SOCIETY?

LOW SES= low education

poverty

poor health

poor quality of life (Can you give specific examples for each?)

SES and Educational Issues

Low-SES households and communities develop academic skills more slowly

Academic skills are correlated with the home environment with low literacy
environments

Chronic stress negatively affect a child’s pre-academic skills

School systems in low-SES communities under-resourced, negatively affecting

students’ academic progress

Inadequate education, increase dropouts rates affect children’s academic

achievement

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Perpetuating the low-SES status of the community intervention reduce the risk
factors, and thus increased research o the correlation between the SES and education
is essential

SES and Family Resources

Children’s initial reading competence is correlated

Home literacy environment, number of books owned, and parent distress

Parent distress from low-SES communities may be unable to afford resources such as
books

Parents in the lowest-income quintile read to their children on a daily basis compared
with parents on the highest-income quintile.

Students from low-SES groups reported higher levels of effort towards academics.

SES and the School Environment

Research indicates that school conditions contribute more to SES differences in

learning rates than family differences

Schools in low-SES communities suffer from high levels of unemployment, migration

of best qualified teachers, and low educational achievement

Teacher’s years of experience and quality of training is correlated with children’s

academic achievement

Children in low income schools are less likely to have well-qualified teachers, high
school math teachers in low income school

The following factors have been found to improve the quality of schools in
low-SES neighborhoods:

a. focus on improving teaching and learning,

b. creation of an information-rich environment,

c. building of a learning community, continuous professional development,

involvement

of parents and increased funding and resources.

SES VS. ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Research links lower SES to lower AA

a. Slower rates of academic progress compared with higher SES communities

b. Children w/ low SES environment acquire language skills slowly, exhibit delayed
letter recognition, phonological awareness, at risk for reading difficulties
c. Children w/ higher SES background-more likely to be proficient on mathematical
tasks (addition, subtraction, ordinal sequencing, word problems…

Low SES – low grade levels,

learned less

high drop out rates

What is School and Community Partnership?

- involves the connections between schools and community individuals,

organizations and businesses that are forged to promote students’ social, emotional,
physical, and intellectual development. (holistic development)
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 Why do we need community partnership in our school?

What is a community in schools?

(Answer):

Benefits of School and Community Partnership

Opportunities for students to take what they have learned in the classroom and apply
it in the community.

To build real relationships and networks to prepare them for the real world.

Students attendance rates-the stronger the connection between school and

community partnerships, the better school attendance is.

Can provide students today with better education and helps with the demands put on
the schools to meet expectations set by education.

Provide monetary and non-monetary support.

Schools are the natural hub of a neighborhood or community and can serve as
the foundation for community partnerships that are beneficial to students,
families, businesses, agencies and other civic organizations.

Task 1: Discuss the following:

1. What are the roles of a teacher in school and in the community?

2. What is a school in a community?
3. Why is school and community partnership important? Who will benefit from this?

Unit II: Five Pillars of

Education

Introduction:

UNESCO’s role and, in fact, the task of Member States are defined by the four major thrusts
of ESD: improving quality basic education; reorienting educational programmes; developing
public understanding and awareness; and providing training.

ESD has its roots in the history of two distinct areas of interest of the United Nations –
education and sustainable development. Many milestones have marked the journey towards
sustainable development. While some attention was paid to social and economic issues, the
focus was largely on addressing the ecological impact of ever increasing unrestricted
development. From the time sustainable development was first endorsed in 1987, the UN
General Assembly explored the parallel concept of education to support sustainable
development.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson the learner must have:

Determined each function of Five pillars of education

Learned and applied the skills of five pillars of education

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Concept:

1. Learning to know

Knowledge, values and skills for respecting and searching for knowledge and wisdom

• learn to learn

• acquire a taste for learning throughout life

• develop critical thinking

• acquire tools for understanding the world

• understand sustainability concepts and issues

Education for Sustainable Development:

• recognizes the evolving nature of the concept of sustainability.

• reflects the ever growing needs of societies.

• acknowledges that fulfilling local needs often has international effects and consequences.

• addresses content, context, global issues and local priorities.

2. Learning to be

Knowledge, values and skills for personal and family well-being

• see oneself as the main actor in defining positive outcomes for the future

• encourage discovery and experimentation

• acquire universally shared values

• develop one’s personality, self-identity, self-knowledge and self-fulfillment

• be able to act with greater autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility

Education for Sustainable Development:

• builds on the principles and values that underlie sustainable development.

• deals with the well-being of all three realms of sustainability – environment, society, and
economy.

• contributes to a person’s complete development: mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity,

aesthetic appreciation and spirituality.

3. Learning to live together

Knowledge, values and skills for international, intercultural and community cooperation and
peace

• participate and co-operate with others in increasingly pluralistic, multi-cultural societies

• develop an understanding of other people and their histories, traditions, beliefs, values and
cultures

• tolerate, respect, welcome, embrace, and even celebrate difference and diversity in people

• respond constructively to the cultural diversity and economic disparity found around the
world

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• be able to cope with situations of tension, exclusion, conflict, violence, and terrorism

Education for Sustainable Development:

• is interdisciplinary. No one discipline can claim ESD for its own, but all disciplines can
contribute to it.

• builds civil capacity for community-based decision-making, social tolerance, environmental

stewardship, adaptable workforce and quality of life.

4. Learning to do

Knowledge, values and skills for active engagement in productive employment and
recreation

• be an actor as well as a thinker

• understand and act on global and local sustainable development issues

• acquire technical and professional training

• apply learned knowledge in daily life

• be able to act creatively and responsibly in one’s environment

Education for Sustainable Development:

• is locally relevant and culturally appropriate.

• must become a concrete reality for all our daily decisions and actions.

• is about helping build a sustainable and safe world for everyone.

5. Learning to transform one self and society

Knowledge, values and skills for transforming attitudes and lifestyles

• work toward a gender neutral, non-discriminatory society

• develop the ability and will to integrate sustainable lifestyles for ourselves and others

• promote behaviors and practices that minimize our ecological footprint on the world around
us

• be respectful of the Earth and life in all its diversity

• act to achieve social solidarity

• promote democracy in a society where peace prevails

Education for Sustainable Development:

• integrates the values inherent in sustainable development into all aspects of learning

• encourages changes in behavior to create a more viable and fairer society for everyone

• teaches people to reflect critically on their own communities

• empowers people to assume responsibility for creating and enjoying a sustainable future

Task 2. A. Identify the correct answer and write them on your answer sheet:

A. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of your answer in the space provided before the number.

1. What is the meaning of ESD?

a) Educational Sustainable Development

b) Electrostatic Discharge
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 c) Elementary School District

d) Endoscopic Sub mucosal Dissection

2. This are the major thrust of ESD, except one?

a) improving quality basic education;

b) reorienting educational programmed

c) developing public understanding and awareness

d) acquire a taste for learning throughout life

3. What year does the sustainable development was first endorsed?

a) 1988

b) 1986

c) 1987

d) 1984

4. What is learning to know?

a) Knowledge, values and skills for personal and family well-being

b) Knowledge, values and skills for respecting and searching for

knowledge and wisdom

c) Knowledge, values and skills for international, intercultural and

community cooperation and peace

d) Knowledge, values and skills for active engagement in productive

employment and recreation

5. This are the skills of learning to do except one.

a) Be an actor as well as thinker

b) Acquire technical and professional training.

c) Develop an understanding of other people and their histories,
traditions, beliefs, values and cultures

d) Be able to act creatively and responsibly in one's environment.

B. Matching Type: Match column A with B. Write answers on your answer sheet.

Column A Column B

1. Learning to know a) Acquire universally shared values

2. Learning to be b) Participate and cooperate with others in

increasingly pluralistic, multi-cultural societies
3. Learning to live together c) Develop critical thinking

4. Learning to do d) Work toward a gender neutral,

nondiscriminatory society

5. Learning to transform oneself and society e) Apply learned knowledge in daily life

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 UNIT 3: SOCIOLOGIGAL
THEORIES AND PHILOSOPHIES

Introduction

Sociological theories are statements of how and

why particular facts about the social world
related. They range is scope from concise
descriptions of a single social process to
paradigms for analysis and interpretation.

Philosophies come from the word philosophy the

word itself it means that it has many branches
that explore principles of specific areas, such as
knowledge (epistemology), reasoning (logic),
being in general (metaphysics), beauty
(aesthetics) and human conduct (ethics).
Sociologists develop theories to explain
social phenomena. A theory is a proposed
relationship between two or more concepts. In
other words, a theory is explanation of why or how a phenomenon occurs.

Lesson 1: Conflict Theory

Learning Targets/ Objectives:

The learners must have :

a. distinguished the two economic classes;

b. discussed how competition over limited resources occurred

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Concept:

Conflict theory according to Karl Marx, claims that society is in a state of perpetual conflict
because of competition for limited resources. it holds that social order is maintained by
domination and power, rather than consensus and conformity. According to conflict theory,
those with wealth and power try to hold on to it by any means possible, chiefly by
suppressing the poor and powerless. A basic premise of conflict theory is that individuals and
groups within society will work to maximize their own benefits.

• It focuses on the competition between groups within society over limited resources

• Views social and economic institutions as tools of the struggle between groups or
classes, used to maintain inequality and the dominance of the ruling class.

• Marxist conflict theory sees society as divided along lines of economic class between
the proletariat, working class and bourgeoisie, ruling class.

Bourgeoisie – represents the members of society who hold the majority of the wealth and
means. It is a social class that came to own the means of production during modern
industrialization and whose societal concerns are the value of property and the preservation
of capital to ensure the perpetuation of their economic supremacy in society.

Proletariat – includes those considered working class or poor. In ancient Rome the proletariat
consisted of the poor landless freemen. It included artisans and small tradesmen who had
been gradually impoverished by the extension of slavery.

Conflict Theory Assumptions

In current conflict theory, there are four primary assumptions which are helpful to
understand: competition, revolution, structural inequality and war.

Competition- competition over scarce resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and so on)
is at the heart of all social relationships. Competition rather than consensus is characteristics
of human relationships.

Revolution- change occurs as a result of conflict between competing social classes rather
than through adaptation. Change is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than evolutionary.

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Structural Inequality- inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures.
Individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained.

War- even war is a unifier of the societies involved, as well as possibly ending whole
societies.

Conflict theory is a theoretical framework that views society in a struggle for scarce
resources. Studies issues such as race, gender, social class, criminal justice and international
relations. Two main concerns for conflict theorists are economic wealth and power. In either
case, conflict theory suggests that were all struggling for more “stuff”, whether that “stuff”is
power in a marriage or wealth in the world. In general, the essence of the conflict theory
suggests that a pyramid structure of power a wealth exists in society. The elite at the top of
the pyramid determine the rules for those below.

The study of inequality in sociology always involves a consideration of conflict theory.

Therefore, the paradigm applies to social class, race, gender, marriage, religion, population,
environment and a host of other social phenomena. If you believe that discrimination,
ageism, sexism, racism and classism occur in society because some people have the power
to promote their desires over others’; then you think like conflict theorists.

Conflict Theorists
1. Karl Marx
2. Harriet Martineau
3. W.E.B. du Bois
4. Jane Addams
5. John Bellamy Foster

Karl Marx

Marx suggested that in a capitalist system, the bourgeoisie or

members of the capitalist class, own most of the wealth because they
control the businesses. Marx called the workers in a capitalist system
the proletariat, the poor working class of society. The proletariat do all
the work and owners reap all the benefits. According to Marx, workers
will never get ahead if they do not share in the wealth they create.

Marx suggest that it was because people had a false consciousness, or a lack of their
position in society. Marx proposed that the workers must develop class consciousness, or an
understanding of one’s position in the system. He suggested most workers do not truly
understand how capitalism enslaves them.

Absolute Power Corrupts, Absolutely!

Marx believed that once workers recognized their positions, they would unite to end
the tyranny and oppression. He proposed an overthrow of the ownership of business, and
instead suggested socialism. Marx felt that economic power should be in hands of the people
because wealth corrupts human nature.

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Harriet Martineau

Martineau, one of the first female sociologists, did not just

examine the inequalities in the economic system, she also focused on
the inequality between the sexes.

Society in America

In the book, Society in America, Martineau analyzed the impact

of slavery, the position of women in society, and the social customs in
the US political and economic systems. She points out how these systems favormen who
hold the power in society. She pointed out that some people did not have the same
opportunities as others.

W.E.B. du Bois

Du Bois was particularly interested in issues of racial inequality

in the United States. His book, The Philadelphia Negro, du Bois
showed that poverty among African Americans in the United States
was primarily the result of prejudice and discrimination. Implying
that slavery and capitalism led to African Americans’ problems, du
Bois pointed out that history was influential over the present. He
also noted that African Americans of his time had to live in two
worlds, a white one and a black one. Du Bois was the first and
perhaps most influential sociologist to study race in the US. He was
a social activist, and became more interested in working to improve
life on the African continent and less interested in live in the United States. Du Bois
eventually came to believe that African Americans would never be equal to whites.

Jane Addams

In Toynbee Hall, Addams witnessed the settlement house

movement. The settlement house movement supported the idea
that poverty results from ignorance and structural barriers, not from
failings in the morality of the person.

The settlement house workers actually lived and worked in the

slums.

Hull House Principles

Addams and a friend set up to open their own settlement house in Chicago in 1889
called Hull House with three principles:
1. Workers would live in the slums to better understand the problems there.
2. Every person had dignity and worth regardless of race/ethnicity, gender or social
class
3. Dedication, education and service can overcome ignorance, disease and the
structures that perpetuate poverty.

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John Bellamy Foster

Foster’s work is primarily concerned with the negative effects

of capitalism on society and the planet as a whole. In his article,
“The End of Rational Capitalism”, he points out that purely capitalist
economies, or economies in which market are totally free, and
disappearing throughout the world. Foster argues that market cannot
“solve problems” because there are no profits to be had from such
an endeavour.

Task 3

1. Differentiate the Bourgeoisie from Proletariat.

2. Explain the Conflict Theory Assumptions.

Lesson 2: Interactionist Theory

Learning Targets/ Objectives

The learners must have:

a. Interpreted the meaning of Interactionist Perspective Theory;

b. Identified the function of Interactionist Theory in the society.

Concept:

Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such as conflict,

cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction.

It is a study of how individuals shape the society and are shaped by society through
meaning that arises in interactions. Interactionist theory has grown in the latter half of the
20th century and has become one of the dominant sociological perspectives in the world
today. George Herbert Mead, as an advocate of pragmatism and the subjectivity of social
reality is considered a leader in the development of interactionism.

What is the Interactionist Perspective Theory?

20
 George Herbert Mead is considered the founder of the interactionist
theory and believes individuals functions in a way that is reflective of
interactions with other symbols. Rather than historical movements, it
is conversations, actions and reactions that happen face to face that
mold each person. These interactions also determine how some
actions may be perceived as either negative or positive. Symbolic
interaction theory is a similar idea except it focuses on how certain
images become symbolic and are used to communicate specific ideas.

Example of Interactionist Perspective Theory

A good example of this theory that everyone experiences on a daily basis is

responding to gender. Someone who checks all the boxes for what is considered to be a man
with elicit certain interactions that are considered appropriate for men. There are particular
topics that one may be more willing to have conversations on that would not be as
prominent for women. This is even more evident when it is two people belonging to the
same gender. Two women may be more with each gender are a result of the interactions an
individual has witnessed and taken part in. gender do not innately gravitate towards some
topics over others.

Task 4: Write an essay on how individuals shape society and how they are
shaped by society through meaning that arises in interactions.

Lesson 3 Functionalist Theory

Learning Target/ Objectives:

The learners must have:

a. Understood the meaning or purpose of Functionalist Theory;

b. Identified the function of Functionalist Theory

Concept:

The Functionalist Theory argues that very piece of society is inter-dependent and
contributes to the functioning of society as a whole unit. If the functionalist theory is correct
and everyone understands how each segment functions within the unit of society, then it
breeds stability, prosperity, order and productivity. If the society is functionalist society and
21
the theory fails, then the society is either doomed to fall into chaos or the members of the
society must quickly adapt to regain the order, stability and productivity of the society.

What is Functionalism?

Functionalism views society as a system of interrelated parts. It is a macro(large

scale) orientation because it studies how social structures affect how society works.

According to functionalists, society is relatively stable, which means that

things occur in society for a specific function and those functions help maintain stability.
Social institutions such as the family, economy, educational system and political system are
critical for society to function properly. Functionalism suggests that society’s values and
norms provide the foundation for the rules and laws that it creates.

These norms regulate the relationships between social institutions.

Functionalists, however, have differing views about how these structures cooperate with one
another. Some compare society to a living, breathing organism; others analyze the expected
and unexpected outcomes of a social event; while still others wonder what exactly it is that
holds a society together.

Functionalist Theorists

1. Auguste Comte
2. Herbert Spencer
3. Emile Durkheim
4. Talcott Parsons
5. Robert Merton

Auguste Comte

Comte coined the term sociology. Felt that sociology

should strive to discover social laws(statements of fact that are
unchanging under given conditions and can be used as ground
rules for many study of society).

Comte’s Social Laws – Comte suggested in order to know social

laws of a society one must study social statics and social
dynamics.
Social Statics are the existing structural elements of the society.

Social Dynamics are the change in those elements of the society.

Herbert Spencer

Spencer’s study of sociology was influenced by Charles Darwin’s

theory of natural selection. Spencer viewed society as a biological
organism, and as such, it can evolve, thrive, or die. For him, some
societies are “more fit” than others because they adapt better to
changes in the environment.

Social Darwinism – From Spencer you can see the type of thinking
known as Social Darwinism. A notion that suggests strong societies
survive and weak ones become extinct.

22
 Emile Durkheim

Durkheim was one of the first true sociologists in that he

used datato test theories. Durkheim’s work suggested that
solidarity is a vital component that holds society together.

Durkheim & Solidarity

Solidarity integrates, or holds society together because people see

themselves as unified. He points out that the type of society
influences the type of solidarity.

Mechanical & Organic

Durkheim divided solidarity into two categories:

Mechanical solidarity refers to the state of community bonding in traditional societies in

which people share beliefs and values and perform common activities.
Organic solidarity occurs when people live in a society with a diverse division of labor, this
force people to depend on one another for survival.

Durkheim’s Solidarity & Social Control

In his 1897 book Suicide, Durkheim proposed that two social forces, solidarity and
social control, influence the chance of a person taking his or her own life.

Talcott Parsons

Parsons was interested in creating grand theories that

attempted to explain every aspect of the human experience and how
social systems interconnect. Society was much like a bicycle wheel,
made up of independent spokes connected to a hub that keeps the
wheels spinning.

Parson’s Bicycle

When properly balanced, each independent spoke

connected to a hub and keeps the wheel spinning. But if just one spoke breaks on your
wheel, the entire wheel will eventually fall out of balance.

Parson’s Inertia

Parsons also commented on the inertia of social systems, meaning that they tend to remain
at rest, if they are at rest, or stay in motion, if already in motion. Thus, in order to change a
society, some great force must impact the system or it will remain unchanged. Change is
unlikely, and often disruptive.

23
 Robert Merton

Merton sought to create a middle-range theory that could

bridge the gap between current theories. He did this by breaking
society into parts and studying them individually to better understand
the whole. This idea accepted in sociology today, as most sociologists
have an area of expertise be it race, gender, crime, inequality,
population, or host of other issues. Merton’s work also shows how
sociologists are rarely “pure” theorists in any area.

Merton’s Functions

One of Merton’s greatest contributions to functionalism was the understanding that

social realities have both intended and unintended functions.
Manifest & Latent (Merton identified two types of functions)
Manifest functions are factors that lead to an expected consequence or outcome.
Latent functions are factors that lead to an unforeseen or unexpected consequence.

Task 5. Discuss the importance of Functionalist theory and its purpose in our
society.

Lesson 4 Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Interactionism

Lesson Target/ Objectives:

The learners must have:

a. Identified the difference between Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Interactionism;

b. Evaluate the purpose of Interactionism

Concept:

Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practiocal

consideration and alludes to people’s particular utilization of dialect to make images and
normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. In other words, it is a

24
frame of reference to better understand how individuals interact with one another to create
symbolic worlds, and in return how this worlds shape individual behaviours.

It is one of the most important perspectives in the field of sociology, providing a key
theoretical foundation for much of the research conducted by sociologist.

Symbolic Interactionism focuses on how communication influences the way people’s

interactions with each other create the social world in which we live.

Symbolic Interactionists believe that the root of society comes from its symbols. They
suggest that the symbols we use are arbitrary, meaning that they vary from culture to
culture.

Symbolic Interactionists

1. George Herbert Mead

2. Herbert Blumer
3. Erving Goffman
4. Howard Becker

George Herbert Mead

Symbolic Interactionism is a branch child of George Herbert Mead. In

Mind, Self and Society, Mead suggests that the root of society is the
symbols that teach us to understand the world. We then use these
symbols to develop a sense of self, or identity. It is identity that we
then take into the world and interact with other identities to create
society. Thus, building blocks of society start with our minds, where
we interpret symbols. Mead suggests that we do this through micro
interactions we have every day. Mead argues that all these various
symbols enter our minds, where their meaning is interpreted and we
are told how to react.

Mead suggests that this process is never-ending, therefore, we have a fluid sense of
who we are. Our selves can change, and they do change based on how we interpret the
symbols thrown our way. In this way, your self develops. Self is your identity, it’s what
makes you who you are and separates you from others.

Herbert Blummer

Established 3 basic premises that define the symbolic

interactionist perspective:

1. Human beings behave towards things on the basis of the

meanings they ascribe to those things.
2. The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of
the social interaction that one has with others and society.
3. These meanings are handled in and modified through an
interpretive process used by the person in dealing with the
things he or she encounters.

25
 Erving Goffman

Goffman developed a theory called dramaturgy, a theory of

interaction in which all life is like acting. Goffman uses this theory
to compare daily social interactions to the gestures of actors on
stage. People are constantly acting in order to convince people of
the character they wish to portray to the outside world.

Not to say that people are faking it, but rather that people are
concerned about what the rest of the world will think of them and
they adjust their social interactions
accordingly.

Howard Becker

Becker suggests that human action is related to the labels

attached to it. In his book, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of
Deviance, Becker suggests that a label is attached to a certain
behaviour when a group with powerful social status labels it
deviant. He suggests that deviance is rooted in the reactions and
responses of others to an individual’s acts. Becker would suggest
that the label we ascribe to people has a major influence on their
behaviour.

Non-Symbolic Interactionism does not require a highly thinking about in certain

things because its formally a gestures explanatory that do not require thinking/assigning
meaning because not all things require the process of your cognitive thinking because in a
form of gestures, signs, marks and any form of things which we know, we can give it
meaning. For instance, when the hands of one person are waving his/her hand in someone,
it means that “bye-bye” is the meaning of the gestures his/her trying to insinuate in a
particular events.

Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Information

Symbolic information is needed for cognitive tasks. Non-Symbolic information is needed for
motor tasks. Almost all learning and curricula (e.g., reading, mathematics, social studies =,
science) require students to manipulate, acquire, retain, transform and recall symbolic
information. In contrast, non-symbolic information requires them to learn physical or motor
tasks, such as picking up a pencil, shooting a basketball, or running and jumping.

Symbolic Vs Non-symbolic Information

Symbolic Information Example: Non-symbolic Information Example:

Reading the word CUP Picking up a CUP

1. Learning processes are covered and 1. Learning processes are covert and
cannot be seen (e.g., silently reading a can be seen.
page of textbook). Only final outcomes can The steps in picking up a cup are public and
be observed. can be observed. It is not possible to pick

26
 The phonological, linguistic and cognitive up a cup without observing the entire act or
processes implicated in reading the word physical processes
CUP are not readily observable.

2. Skills related to a task are 3. Skills related to a task are easy

sometimes difficult to identity and to identify and demonstrate.
demonstrate. The steps in picking up a cup follow a
The skills implied by the act of reading vary particular sequence and involve a limited
greatly, depending on a student cognitive set of physical acts (e.g., gripping the cup,
abilities and perspective about reading in an holding it tightly, picking it up, etc.)
alphabetic writing system.

3. Feedback is not obvious in the 4. Feedback is instantaneous and

execution of task. obvious in the execution of the
A beginning reader must get feedback from task.
the teacher or other individuals to tell To see whether a learner has picked up the
whether his or her, comprehension is cup correctly, one needs only to observe
accurate. the action and the final response.

Task 6:
Create a matrix and identify the differences between symbolic and non-
symbolic interactionism.

Unit 4: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

At the end of the unit the students must have:

• distinguished the five basic types of social institutions

• identified their roles in every social institution

• Applied what they have learned from the discussion

27
What are Social Institutions?

• Social structures and social mechanism of social order and cooperation that
govern the behavior of its members.

• A group of social positions, connected by social relations, performing a social

role.

• It performs five essential tasks namely: replacing members of procreation,

teaching new members, producing, distributing and consuming goods and
services preserving order, and providing and maintaining a sense of purpose.

Characteristic of an Institution

(Palispis, 1996)

1. Institutions are purposive. Each of them has the satisfaction of social needs as
its own goal or objective.
2. They are relatively permanent in their content. The pattern roles and relations
that people enact in a particular culture become traditional and enduring.

3. Institutions are structured. The components Tend to band together, and

reinforce one another.
4. Institutions are a unified structure. They function as a unit. Institutions are
dependent on one another.

5. Institutions are necessarily value-laden. Their repeated uniformities, patterns

and trends become codes of conduct.

Function of an Institutions

1. Institution's simplify social behavior for the individual person.

2. Institutions, therefore, provide ready-made forms of social relations and social

roles for the individual

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 3. Institutions also act as agencies of coordination and stability for the total
culture.

4. Institutional tend to control behavior.

Major Social Institution

The Family

• The family is the smallest social Institutions with the unique function or producing and
rearing the young. Also considered as the backboned of the society.
•The family is a far we know, the toughest institutions we have. It is, in fact, the institution
to which we owe our humanity (Margaret Mead).

Functions of the family

• Reproduction of the race and rearing of the young

• Cultural transmission or enculturation

• Socialization of the child

• Providing affection and a sense of security

• Providing the environment for personality development and the growth of self-concept

in relation to others

• Providing social status

Classification of family according to structure

a. Conjugal or nuclear family- this is the primary or elementary Family consisting of husband,
wife and children.

b. Consanguine or Extended family-hit consists of married couple, their parents, siblings,

grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins.

Classification of family according to terms of marriage

a. Polyandry- one woman is married to two or more men at the same time.

b. Polygamy- one man is married to two or more women at the same time.

29
c. Cenogamy- two or more men mate with two or more women in a group marriage

Classification of family according to descent

a. Patrilineal- descent is recognized through fathers’ line.

b. Matrilineal-l descent is recognized through mothers’ line

c. Billineal- descent is recognized through both fathers and mothers’ line.

Classification of family according to residence

a. Patrilocal- when newlywed couple lives with the parents of the husband.

b. Matrilocal- when newlywed couple lives with the parents of the wife.

c. Neolocal- when newlywed couple maintains a separate household and live

themselves.

Classification of family according to authority

a. Patriarchal-father play a dominant role.

b. Matriarchal- Both father and mother share in making the decisions and are equal
in authority.

Education

-The basic purpose of education is to transmit knowledge to the students. School

bears most of the responsible of preparing young people for the working environment.
Education plays a large part in the socialization of learners into society

Functions of schools

Mcnergy and Herbert (2001) described the school as a first and foremost a social
institution, that is, an established organization having an indemnifiable structure and a set of
functions meant to preserve and extend social order.

30
Purpose of schooling

Intellectual purposes- teaching students the basic cognitive skills and transmit
specific knowledge.

Political purposes- inculcate allegiance to the existing political order (patriotism) and

to prepare citizens who will participate in political order.

Social purposes- socialized children into the various roles, behaviors, and values of
the society.

Economic purposes- to prepare students for their later occupational roles and to

select, trail, and allocate individuals into the division of labor.

Multiple School Functions

1. Technical/economic Functions- They refer to the contributions of schools to

the technical or economic development and needs of the individual, the
institutions, the local community, the society, and the international
community.

2. Human/social function- They refer to the contribution of schools to human

development and social relationships at different levels of the society.

3. Political functions- They refer to the contribution of schools to political

development at different levels of a society.

4. Cultural functions- They refer to the contribution of school to the cultural

transmission and development at different levels of society.
5. Education functions - they refer to the contribution of schools to the
development and maintenance of education at the different levels of society.

Manifest and Latent Functions of Education

The manifest functions of education are defined as the open and intended goals or
consequences of activities within an organization or an institution.

Six Major manifest Function of Education (Javier et al,2002)

1. Socialization

2. Social Control

3. Social Placement

4. Transmitting Culture

5. Promoting Social and Political Integration

6. Agent of change

31
 Latent Functions of Education

1. Restricting some Activities

2. Matchmaking and production of social networks

3. Creation of Generation Gap

4. Function of schools (Calderon, 1998)

5. Conservation Function

6. Instructional function

7. Research function

8. Social service function

Religion

Religion is the socially

defined patterns of beliefs
concerning the ultimate meaning
of life; it assumes the existence of
supernatural (Stark).
It teaches a moral code
that is generally reflective of the
society

Characteristics of Religion

• Belief in a deity or a power beyond an individual

• A doctrine (accepted teaching) of salvation

• A code of conduct

• The use of sacred stories, and

• Religious rituals (acts and ceremonies)

Functions of Religion

• Religion serves as a means of social control.

• It excerpts a great influence upon personality development.

• Religion allays fear of the unknown.

• Religion explains events or situations which are beyond the comprehension of

man.

• It gives man comfort, strength and hope in times of crisis and despair.

• It preserves and transmits knowledge, skills, spiritual, and cultural values and
practices.

• It serves as an instrument of change.

• It promotes closeness, love, cooperation, friendliness, and helpfulness.

• Religion alleviates suffering from major calamities.

32
 • It provides hope for a blissful life after death

What is the difference among churches, sects and cults?

Church- tend to be a large, with inclusive membership, in low tension with

surrounding society.

Sect- has a small, exclusive membership, high tension with society. It tends toward
the emotional, mystics, stress faith, felling, and conversation experience, to be born
again.

Cults- referred to as the more innovation institutions that are formed when people
create new religious beliefs and practices (Stark and Bainbridge, 1985)

The Elements of Religion

1. Sacred and profane- sacred refers to phenomena that are regarded as

extraordinary, transcendent, and outside the everyday course of events- that
is supernatural. profane on the other hand refers to all phenomena that are
not sacred.

2. Legitimation of norms- there is religious sanctions and beliefs reinforce the

legitimacy of many rules and norms in the community.

3. Rituals- formal patterns of activity that express symbolically a set of shared

meaning, in the case of rituals such baptism or communion, the shared
meanings are sacred.
4. Religious community- religion established a code of behavior for the
members, and the members often share the same interests, values and
beliefs (Anderson, 1999).

Economic Institutions

The economy is the institution that

provides for the production and distribution of
goods and services, which people in every
society need.
Sometimes, they can provide these
things for themselves, and sometimes they rely
on others to provide them.
Microeconomics is concerned with the
specific economic units of parts that make an
economic system and relationship between
those parts.

Macroeconomics on the other hand is concerned with the economy as a whole, or

large segments of it.

What are the three basic economic problem?

First, what goods and services to produce and how much?

Second, how to produce goods and services

Third, for whom are the goods and services.

33
 Government as a Social Institutions

Government is an institution which resolves

conflicts that are public in nature and involve more
than few people. The supreme court of the Philippines
also defines government as "that institutions by which
an to live in a social state, or which are imposed
upon the people for that society by those who
possess the power or authority of prescribing
them"

Three Branches of Government

1. Executive Branch- propose and enforces rules and laws.

2. Legislative Branch- makes rules and laws.

3. Judicial Branch- adjudicates rules and laws.

Functions of Government

1. The constituent functions contribute to the very bonds of a society and are
therefore compulsory.

2. Ministrant functions are those undertaken to advance the general interests of

society, such as public works, public charity, and regulation of trade and
industry.

Task 7. Choose the letter of the correct answer:

1. It is an institution that includes belief and practices that serves the needs of
society. It teaches a moral code that is generally reflective of the society.

a. Family b. Social Institution c. Religion d. Economy

2. This institution plays an important role and considered the backboned of

society.

a. Religion b. School/Education c. Government d. Family

3. It’s an institution that provides for the production and distribution of goods
and services, which people in every society need.

a. Economy b. Religion c. Government d. Social

Institution

4. A group of social position, connected by social relations, performing a social

role and a structure of a social order and cooperation that govern the
behavior of its member.

a. Government b. Social Institution c. Family d.

School/Education

5. It bears most of the responsible of preparing young people for the working
environment. It also plays a large part in the socialization of learners into
society.

a. Economy b. Family c. Religion d. School/Education

34
 Task 8: Give the five basic social institutions, give their functions and state
how important they are to you as a member of your community.

Unit 5: CONCEPTS OF
CULTURE

Introduction:

You, like others have important roles to play that make you interested in
shaping yourself to become healthy and developed young adult. Learning how to recognize
and perform your roles effectively is a good indicator that you’re a responsible individual
using even your past experiences to make a difference in your life. Learning to identify the
concept of culture and how it shapes the society where you and others belong will help you
enhance your understanding of the world. This will help you accept, respect and give
importance to individual differences that varies among the beliefs and traditions of different
cultures.

In this unit, we will identify and understand the concept of culture including
the different characteristics and components of culture the definition of cultural relativism,
different Filipino cultural values, causes of cultural change, and the important of intercultural
communication.

LESSON 1: CHARACTERISTICS AND COMPONENTS OF CULTURE

LEARNING TARGETS:
At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:

• Shared prior knowledge about the topic

• Identified the different characteristic of culture

• Enumerated and define each of the characteristic and components of culture

• Performed task by following the instructions, for you to apply what you have
learned from the lesson

LEARNING CONTENT

I. Culture refers to the characteristics, patterns of attitudes, values, beliefs, and

behaviors shared by a society or population. Therefore, it emphasizes the manner we learn,
live and behave. And because of these many theorists believe that culture is an important
shaper of our personality.

A. CHARACTERISTIC OF CULTURE:
• Culture is Learnt: culture is not inherited biologically, but learnt socially by
man. It is not an inborn tendency. There is no cultural instinct as such. Culture is often called
‘learned ways of behavior’. Unlearned behavior, such as closing the eyes while sleeping, the
eye blinking reflex and so on, are purely physiological and not cultural. Shaking hands or
saying ‘namaskar’ or ‘thanks’ and shaving and dressing, on the other hand, are cultural.
Similarly, wearing clothes, combing the hair, wearing ornaments, cooking the food, drinking
from a glass, eating from a plate or a leaf, reading a newspaper, driving a car, enacting a
role in a drama, singing, worshipping, etc., are all ways of behavior learnt by man culturally.

35
 • Culture is Social: culture does not exist in isolation. It is a product of society it
originates and develops through social interactions. It is shared by the members of society.
No man can acquire culture without association with other human beings. Man becomes man
only among men. It is the culture which helps man to develop human qualities in a human
environment. Deprivation of company or association of other individuals to an individual is
nothing but deprivation of human qualities.

• Culture is Shared: culture in the sociological sense, is something shared. It is

not something that at individual along can opposes. For example, customs, traditions,
beliefs, ideas values, morals, etc., are all shared by people of a group or society. The
inventions of Arya Bhatta or Albert Einstein, ‘Charaka’ or Charles Darwin; the literacy works
of Kalidasa or Keats, Dandi or Dante; the philosophical works of Confucius or Lao Tse,
Shankarachaya or Swami Vivekananda; the artistic works of Ravi Verma or Raphael, etc., are
all shared by a large number of people. ‘culture is something adopted, used, believed,
practiced, or possessed by more than one person. It depends upon group life for its
existence’.

• Culture is Transmissive: culture is capable of being transmitted from one

generation to the next. Parents pass on culture traits to their children and they in turn to
their children, and so on. Culture is transmitted not through genes but by means of
language. Language is the main vehicle of culture. Language in its different forms like
reading, writing and speaking makes it possible for the present generation to understand the
achievements of earlier generations. But language itself is a part of culture. Once language is
acquired, it unfolds to the individual its wide field. Transmission of culture may take place by
imitation as well as by instruction.

• Culture is Continuous and Cumulative: culture exists as a continuous process.

In its historical growth it tends to become cumulative. Culture is a ‘growing whole’ which
includes in itself, the achievements of the past and the present and makes provision for the
future achievements of mankind. “Culture may thus be conceived of as a kind of stream
flowing down through the centuries from one generation to another”.

• Culture is Consistent and Integrated: a culture, in its development has

revealed a tendency to be consistent. At the same time different parts of culture are
interconnects. For example, the value system of a society is closely connected with its other
aspects such as morality, religion, customs, traditions, beliefs, and so on.

• Culture is Dynamic and Adaptive: though culture is relatively stable it is not

altogether static. It is subject to slow but constant changes. Change and growth are latent in
culture. We find amazing growth in the present Indian culture when we compare it with the
culture of the Vedic times. Culture hence dynamic. Culture is responsive to the changing
conditions of the physical world. It is adaptive. It also intervenes in the natural environment
and helps man in his process of adjustment. Just as our houses shelter us from the storm, so
also does our culture help us from natural dangers and assist us to survive. Few of us,
indeed, could survive without culture.

• Culture is Gratifying: culture provides proper opportunities and prescribes

means for the satisfaction of our needs and desires. These needs may be biological or social
in nature. Our need for food, shelter, and clothing on the one hand, and our desire for
status, name, fame, money, mates and etc., are all, for example, fulfilled according to the
cultural ways. Culture determines and guides the varied activities of man. In fact, culture is
defined as the process through which human beings satisfy their wants.
Every society has a culture of its own. Thus people in different societies all over the
world have different cultures. These cultures are not only diverse but also unequal. Along
with cultural diversities and disparities that are found in societies throughout the world, we
observe certain cultural similarities.

36
 B. COMPONENTS OF CULTURE:

• Material Culture: Material culture consists of man-made objects such as tolls,

implements, furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the physical
substance which has been changed and used by man. It is concerned with the external,
mechanical and utilitarian objects. It includes technical and material equipment’s like a
printing press, a locomotive, a telephone, a television, a tractor, a machine gun, etc. it
includes our banks, parliaments, insurance schemes, currency systems, etc. it is referred to
as civilization.

• Non-Material Culture: The term ‘culture’ when used in the ordinary sense,
means ‘non-material culture’. It is something internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the
inward nature of man. Non-material culture consists of the words the people use or the
language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and virtues they cherish, habits they
follow, rituals and practice that they do and the ceremonies they observe. It also includes
our customs and tastes, attitudes and outlook, in brief, our ways of acting, feeling and
thinking.

Task 9: Give at least 3 characteristics of culture and discuss how these

characteristics affects you as an individual.

LESSON 2: Cultural Relativism

LEARNING TARGETS:

At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:

• Determined the importance of cultural relativism and its categories

• Made their own understanding about the meaning of cultural relativism

• Related the importance of cultural relativism to your own life through making
activities related to cultural relativism.

LEARNING CONTENT:

I. CULTURAL RELATIVISM- is the ability to understand a culture on its own

terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one’s own culture.

The goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not typically
part of one’s own culture. Using the perspective of cultural relativism leads to the view that
no one culture is superior than another culture when compared to systems of morality, law,
politics, etc. It is a concept that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a
specific social context.

This is also based on the idea that there is no absolute standard of good or evil,
therefore every decision and judgment of what is right and wrong is individually decided in
each society. The concept of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is
subject to the perspective of each person within their particular culture. Overall, there is no
right or wrong ethical system. In a holistic understanding of the term cultural relativism, it
tries to promote the understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures
such as eating insects, genocides or genital cutting.

There are two different categories of cultural relativism:

37
 Absolute: Everything that happens within a culture must and should not be
questioned by outsiders. The extreme example of absolute cultural relativism would be the
Nazi party’s point of view justifying the Holocaust.

Absolute cultural relativism is displayed in many cultures, especially Africa, that

practice female genital cutting. This procedure refers to the partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia or any other trauma to the female reproductive/genital organs. By
allowing this procedure to happen, females are considered women and then are able to be
married. FGC is practiced mainly because of culture, religion and tradition. Outside cultures
such as the United States look down upon FGC, but are unable to stop this practice from
happening because it is protected by its culture.
Critical: Creates questions about cultural practices in terms of who is accepting them
and why. Critical cultural relativism also recognizes power relationships.

Task 10: Answer Me!

Differentiate the two categories of Cultural Relativism.

Absolute Critical
1 1

2 2

3 3

4
4
5
5

LESSON 3: Filipino Cultural Values

LEARNING TARGETS

At the end of this lesson, the learner must have:

• Identified the different Filipino Cultural Values

• Understand the important of Filipino Cultural Values

• Applied the different Filipino Cultural Values in yourselves as Filipinos

• Determined the difference of Filipino Cultural Values among the cultural
values of other countries

LEARNING CONTENT:

II. FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES- are the core principles and ideals which an
entire community exist. This is made up of several parts: Customs; which are traditions and
rituals, Values; which are beliefs, and Culture; which is all of a groups guiding values. Filipino
value system or Filipino values refers to the set of values or the value system that a majority
of the Filipino have historically importance in their lives.

This Philippine values includes their own unique assemblage of consistent Ideologies,
moral codes, ethical practices, etiquette and cultural and personal values that are promoted
by their society.

38
 Filipino values are for the most important part which centered at maintaining social
harmony, motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group. The maim
sanction against diverging into these values are the concepts of "Hiya" or the sense of
shame and the Amor propio or the self-esteem.

The major concern of these are the social approval, acceptance by a group and
belonging to a group. Caring about what others will think, say or do are strong influences on
social behavior among Filipinos. Based on Leonardo Mercado linguistics analyses of Filipino
value terms like loob (Cebuano, buot) he concludes that our desire as Filipinos is harmony
not only in interpersonal relationships but also with nature and religion

Human Activities

Family Orientation: The basic and most important unit of a Filipino's life is the
family. Unlike in Western countries, young Filipinos who turn 18 are not expected to move
out of their parents' home. When a Filipino's parents are old and cannot take care of
themselves, they are cared for in their children's homes and are very rarely brought by their
children to Homes for the Aged. The practice of separating the elderly from the rest of the
family, while common in Western countries, is often looked down upon in Filipino society.
Family lunches with the whole clan with up to 50 people, extending until the line of second
cousins, are not unusual. The Filipino puts a great emphasis on the value of family and being
close to one's family members.

Joy and Humor: This famous trait is the ability of Filipinos to find humor in
everything. It sheds light on the optimism and positivity of Filipinos in whatever situation
they are in so as to remain determined in going through struggles or challenges. It serves as
a coping technique, the same way a child who has fallen laughs at himself/herself to hide
his/her embarrassment.

Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity: Studies show that Filipinos often have
an aversion to a set of standardized rules or procedures; They are known to follow a "natural
clock" or organic sense of time—doing things in the time they feel is right. They are present-
oriented: which means that one attends to a task or requirement at the time it is needed and
does not worry much about future engagements. This allows the Filipino to adapt and be
flexible in doing the tasks at times not bound to a particular schedule or timeframe. This
allows them think on their feet and be creative in facing whatever challenge or task they
have even when it is already right in front of them.

Faith and Religiosity: The Philippines is approximately 85 percent Christians

(mostly Roman Catholics), 10 percent Muslim, and 5 percent 'other' religions, including the
Taoist-Buddhist religious beliefs of Chinese and the 'indigenous' Anitism belief of peoples in
upland areas that resisted 300 years of Spanish colonial rule. This is a reflection of the
Filipinos' strong faith in God as seen in their various practices. This includes the numerous
church holidays they observe, the customary (and obligatory) Sunday Mass, the individual's
basis of their moral standpoints, the influence of the Church on the minds, actions, and
opinions of the majority, importance of the Sacraments, praying at almost any possible time
of the day, the extreme practices during Holy Week.

Ability to Survive: The Filipinos as a people who have been constantly under
the rule of numerous powerful countries has over time, developed a sense of resourcefulness
or the ability to survive with whatever they have. They have the extraordinary ability to
make something out of almost nothing. If a Filipino was given just a screwdriver, plastic
bags, and some tape, he would still be able to build a bird tree, especially for the sake of
survival, and provided that he be allowed to hunt for some needed surrounding material.

Hard Work and Industriousness: Filipinos are very determined and

persevering in accomplishing whatever they set their minds to. Filipinos over the years have
proven time and time again that they are a people with an industrious attitude. Sadly, this is
seen by others as Filipinos being only useful as domestic helpers, working abroad to help
their families in the country. This is also present in the country’s workforce particularly the
39
farmers. Even with little support, technological weaknesses and the country’s seasonal
typhoons, the Filipino farmer still strives to earn their daily meal.

Hospitality: Foreigners who come to visit the Philippines speak of Filipinos

going out of their way to help them when lost, or the heartwarming generosity of a Filipino
family hosting a visitor in their poverty-stricken home. Meanwhile, most foreigners who
attend Filipino gatherings abroad (which are frequently organized for hundreds of reasons)
testify to the warmth and friendliness of Filipinos as they experience that feeling of
“belongingness.” Indeed, the legendary Filipino hospitality is not limited to the Philippines. It
is everywhere wherever there are Filipinos.

Task 11: Getting the Most out of Life

Look at these pictures and share your ideas about them. Answer the following
questions:

1. What cultural values is being presented and showed in every picture?

2. What do you think is the importance of Filipino Cultural Values?

3. Choose one among the three picture that catches your attention, then explain
why did you choose that picture among others.

4. Take a deep look at the picture you have chosen. Describe what you have
seen in the picture.

5. How can you apply that cultural values in your life?

Task 12: Advertisement

Make an advertisement that promote Filipino Cultural Values.

Use long size laid paper for your output. (paper used for certificates)

40
 LESSON 4: Cultural Change

LEARNING TARGETS:

At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:

• Understand what cultural change is all about

• Determined the causes of cultural change

• Evaluated the causes and effects of cultural change to determine its impact to
people and community

LEARNING CONTENT:

III. CULTURAL CHANGE- It emphasized the influenced of cultural capital on

individual and community behavior. Sometimes, it is called Repositioning of culture which
means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.

Cultural Change places stress on the social and cultural capital determinants of
decision making and the manner in which these interact with other factors like the
availability of information or the financial incentives facing individuals to drive behavior.

Cultural Change can be Material or Non-Material. -Cultural Capital influences include

the role of Parenting, families and close associates; Organizations such as Schools and
Workplaces; Communities and Neighborhoods, and wider social influences such as Media.

What are the causes of Cultural Change?

There are few major causes of cultural change but the most influenced
catalyst of change is Interaction with the other culture, where in the societies that remains
isolated experienced very few change. However, due to cross cultural interactions it leads to
culture adopting elements from each other.

Example: People who live near international borders are more likely to speak multiple
languages and share cultural practices with their neighbors across the borders.

Three main factors of cultural change:

a. Contact: The contact between two societies will obviously change the culture of
both the societies through the process of cultural Diffusion and Acculturation.

b. Technology Evolution: Any technological evolution in the country will bring a

change in their culture also.

Example: Changes in production technology, Changes in the means of

communication and Changes in the means of transportation

d. Geographical and Ecological factor: it is a natural or physical factor, the climate or

rainfall, attitude of the place, closeness to the sea side, the culture and lifestyle of
the people. Any change in physical features will automatically lead to a change in
their culture, habits and way of living.

41
 Task 13: Strive! Write an essay about the image presented below. How
would you relate the image to cultural change?

LESSON 5: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

LEARNING TARGET

At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:

• Identified the types of intercultural communication

• Discussed the importance of intercultural communication

• Created presentation using different types of intercultural communication

LEARNING CONTENT

IV. INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Intercultural communication (or

cross-cultural communication) is a discipline
that studies communication across different
cultures and social groups, or how culture
affects communication. It describes the wide
range of communication processes and
problems that naturally appear within an
organization or social context made up of
individuals from different religious, social,
ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this
sense it seeks to understand how people
from different countries and cultures act,
communicate and perceive the world around
them.

Many people in intercultural business communication argue that culture determines

how individuals encode messages, what medium they choose for transmitting them, and the
way messages are interpreted. With regard to intercultural communication proper, it studies
situations where people from different cultural backgrounds interact. Aside from language,
intercultural communication focuses on social attributes, thought patterns, and the cultures
of different groups of people. It also involves understanding the different cultures, languages
and customs of people from other countries.

42
 Intercultural communication plays a role in social sciences such as anthropology,
cultural studies, linguistics, psychology and communication studies. Intercultural
communication is also referred to as the base for international businesses. Several cross-
cultural service providers assist with the development of intercultural communication skills.
Research is a major part of the development of intercultural communication skills.
Intercultural communication is in a way the 'interaction with speakers of other languages on
equal terms and respecting their identities'.

Identity and culture are also studied within the discipline of communication to
analyze how globalization influences ways of thinking, beliefs, values, and identity, within
and between cultural environments. Intercultural communication scholars approach theory
with a dynamic outlook and do not believe culture can be measured nor that cultures share
universal attributes. Scholars acknowledge that culture and communication shift along with
societal changes and theories should consider the constant shifting and nuances of society.

The study of intercultural communication requires intercultural understanding, which

is an ability to understand and value cultural differences. Language is an example of an
important cultural component that is linked to intercultural understanding.
There are two types of intercultural communication:

1. Verbal Communication

2. Non Verbal Communication

Verbal Communication which consists of words that are used to communicate
messages and Non Verbal Communication which is use gestures that give out messages.

Non Verbal language may have the following basic functions:

1. To communicate attitudes and emotions

2. To support the sense of words

3. Substitute of verbal language

Language is an example of an important cultural component that is linked to

intercultural understanding. Intercultural communication is in a way the 'interaction with
speakers of other languages on equal terms and respecting their identities.

What is the importance of intercultural communication?

It offers ability to deal across cultures, which is increasingly important, as the world
gets smaller doesn't mean that the world is being identical, it means having more and more
contact with people who are culturally different.

Example: An African American speaking to a Caucasian, A Jew speaking to a Muslim,

a Cajun speaking to a Californian, and a man communicating to a woman.

Task 14: Venn Diagram

In a separate sheet of paper, make a Venn Diagram. Identify the similarities and
differences between Verbal and Non- Verbal Communication.

43
MIDTERM ENDS HERE!
KEEP GOING…

44
 Unit 6: MULTI-CULTURAL
EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

Multicultural education refers to

any form of education or teaching that
incorporates the histories, texts,
values, beliefs, and perspectives of
people from different cultural
backgrounds. At the classroom level,
for example, teachers may modify or
incorporate lessons to reflect the
cultural diversity of the students in a
particular class. In many cases,
“culture” is defined in the broadest
possible sense, encompassing race, ethnicity, nationality, language, religion, class, gender,
sexual orientation, and “exceptionality” a term applied to students with specialized needs or
disabilities.
Generally speaking, multicultural education is predicated on the principle of
educational equity for all students, regardless of culture, and it strives to remove barriers to
educational opportunities and success for students from different cultural backgrounds. In
practice, educators may modify or eliminate educational policies, programs, materials,
lessons, and instructional practices that are either discriminatory toward or insufficiently
inclusive of diverse cultural perspectives. Multicultural education also assumes that the ways
in which students learn and think are deeply influenced by their cultural identity and
heritage, and that to teach culturally diverse students effectively requires educational
approaches that value and recognize their cultural backgrounds.

LESSON 1: CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING TEACHING

AND EDUCATION

LEARNING TARGET/LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this discussion the learners must have:

a. Applied the differences from different cultures/diversities

b. Identified/understand correctly what culturally responsive teaching is.

LESSON PROPER:

As our nation continues to change, teachers as well as the students interact

with others from quite different background from their own in the classroom. The manner in
which we respond to others who seem different can have a serious impact on success in
school, work, and harmonious relationships with others. It is important to remember that
different is not “deficient”. Cultural differences imply the transmission of ideas from
generation to generation by significant members of the older (parents, teachers, religious
leaders, etc.)
45
 Increasingly, children from different cultures are interacting with each other, thus
presenting parents and educators with unique opportunities for further understanding across
cultures. Given these circumstances, is it any wonder that our classrooms have become the
focus of efforts to achieve such understanding? The old cliché that the school reaches all
children of all people is as true today as it ever was. Helping children of various cultures to
achieve as fully as possible, while simultaneously adapting to each other, demands innovate
strategies on the part of the parent, teachers, and administrations.

What is Culturally-Responsive Teaching?

Culturally responsive instruction covers areas related to:

1. Inclusive content in the curriculum that reflects the diversity of society. In effect,
students from diverse backgrounds see themselves and their experiences in the curriculum.

2. Students prior knowledge, including their culture and language.

3. The idea that culture is central to student learning, because there is strong
evidence that culture practices affect the thinking process.

Culturally responsive teaching encompasses elements such as:

1. Communication of high expectations

2. Active teaching methods that promote student engagement

3. Teacher as facilitator

4. Positive perspectives on parents and families of culturally and linguistically diverse

students.

5. Culturally sensitivity

6. Reshaping the curriculum so that it is culturally responsive to the background of

students.

7. Culturally mediated instruction that is characterized by the use of culturally

mediated cognition, culturally appropriate social situations for learning and
culturally valued knowledge in curriculum content.

8. Small group instruction and academically related discourse.

Culturally responsive teaching acknowledges cultural diversity in classrooms and

accommodates this diversity in instruction. It does this in three important ways.

1. By recognizing and accepting student diversity, it communicates that all students

are welcome and valued as human beings.

2. By building on students cultural backgrounds, culturally responsive teacing

communicates positive images about the students home cultures.

3. By being responsive to different student learning styles, culturally responsive

teaching builds on students strengths and uses these to help students learn.
Effective teachers accept and value their students as human beings. This is true for
all students, but it is particularly important for cultural and ethnic minorities who may feel
some form of alienation from school. This is amplified when teachers communicate that all
students can learn and are expected to do so.

46
 If the teacher understands about the students cultures he/she may use them to
develop students personal pride of their own cultures. He/She could develop and create a
learning environment that meets the emotional needs of different cultural groups.

Teachers who recognize that students come from homes where behavioral and
interaction patterns differ from those expected in school are in a better position to adapt
their instruction than those who have a narrower view of acceptable classroom behavior.

TASK: 1 TRUE/FALSE

Identify the following statements whether True or False.

1. It is important to remember that different is not “efficient.”

2. Cultural differences imply the transmission of ideas from government to

barangay officials.

3. The idea that culture is central to student learning because there is strong
evidences that culture practices affect the thinking process.

4. One of the elements of culturally responsive teaching is rebuilding the

curriculum so that it is culturally and linguistically diverse students.

5. By recognizing and accepting student diversity it communicates that all

students are welcomed and valued as humans

6. Culture is central to teaching.

7.Efficient teachers accept and value their students are as human beings.

8. By building on students cultural backgrounds culturally responsive teaching

builds on students strengths and uses these to help students learn.

TASK 2: Conduct a survey in your community, ask/observe for the cultural

differences that exist and how the people collaborate/interact for the success of your
community.

LESSON 2: FACTORS THAT AFFECT TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESS

LEARNING TARGET/LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this discussion the learners must have:

1. Identified and understand the factors that affect the teaching and learning
process.

LESSON PROPER:

1. Intellectual factor

The term refers to the individual mental level. Success in school is generally closely
related to level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty
in mastering schoolwork. Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual
disabilities. A low score in one subject and his scores in other subjects indicate the possible
presence of a special deficiency. Psychology reveals to use that an individual possess
47
different kinds to intelligence. Knowledge of the nature of the pupil’s intellect is of
considerable value in the guidance and the diagnosis of disability.

2. Learning factor

Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of work or
study, and narrowness of experimental background may affect the learning process of any
pupil. If the school proceeds too rapidly and does not constantly check up on the extent to
which the pupil is mastering what is being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of
deficiencies that interfere with successful progress. Weakness in addition will contribute
directly to the deficiency in multiplica¬tion. Likewise, failure in history may be due to low
reading ability or weakness in English. Similarly, because of faulty instruction, the pupil may
have learned inefficient methods of study. Many other kinds of difficulty which are directly
related to learning factors may interfere with progress.

3. Physical factor

Under this group are included such factors as health, physical development, nutrition,
visual and physical defects, and glandular abnormality. It is generally recognized that ill
health retards physical and motor develop¬ment, and malnutrition interferes with learning
and physical growth. Children suffering from visual, auditory, and other physical defects are
seriously handicapped in developing skills such as reading and spelling. It has been
demonstrated that various glands of internal secretion, such as the thyroid and pituitary
glands, affect behavior. The health of the learner will likely affect his ability to learn and his
power to concentrate.

4. Mental factor

Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic
elements. They are not to be confused with emotions that are character¬ized by internal
visceral disturbances. Attitudes are more or less of definite sort. They play a large part in the
mental organization and general behavior of the individual. Attitudes are also important in
the development of personality. Among these attitudes interest, cheerfulness, affection,
prejudice, -open mindedness, and loyalty. Attitudes exercise a stimulating effect upon the
rate of learning and teaching and upon the progress in school. The efficiency of the work
from day to day and the rapidity with which it is achieved are influenced by the attitude of
the learner. A favorable mental attitude facilitates learning. The factor of interest is very
closely related in nature to that of symbolic drive and reward.

5. Emotional and social factor

Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such as
cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation. It is a
recognized fact that the various responses of the individual to various kinds of stimuli are
determined by a wide variety of tendencies. Some of these innate tendencies are
constructive and others are harmful. For some reason a pupil may have developed a dislike
for some subject because he may fail to see its value, or may lack foundation. This dislike
results in a bad emotional state. Some pupils are in a continuing state of unhappiness
because of their fear of being victims of the disapproval of their teachers and classmates.
This is an unwholesome attitude and affects the learning process to a considerable degree.

48
 6. Teacher’s Personality

The teacher as an individual personality is an important element in the learning

environment or in the failures and success of the learner. The way in which his personality
interacts with the personalities of the pupils being taught helps to determine the kind of
behavior which emerges from the learning situation. The supreme value of a teacher is not
in the regular performance of routine duties, but in his power to lead and to inspire his pupils
through the influence of his moral personality. Strictly speaking, personality is made up of all
the factors that make the individual what he is, the complex pattern of characteristics that
distinguishes him from the others of his kind. In other words, an individual’s personality is a
composite of his physical appearance, his mental capacity, his emotional behavior, and his
attitudes towards others. Effective teaching and learning are the results of an integrated
personality of the teacher. Pupils or students love a happy, sympathetic, enthusiastic, and
cheerful teacher. Effective teaching and learning are the results of love for the pupils,
sympathy for their interests, tolerance, and a definite capacity for understanding. The
teacher must therefore recognize that in all his activities in the classroom he is directly
affecting the behavior of the growing and learning organism.
7. Environmental factor

Physical conditions needed for learning is under environmental factor. One of the
factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learning takes place.
This includes the classrooms, textbooks, equipment, school supplies, and other instructional
materials.

In the school and at the home, the conditions for learning must be favorable
and adequate if teaching is to produce the desired results. It cannot be denied that the type
and quality of instructional materials and equipment play an important part in the
instructional efficiency of the school. It is difficult to do a good job of teaching in a poor type
of building and without adequate equipment and instructional materials. A school building or
a classroom has no merit when built without due regard to its educational objectives and
functions.

TASK 3: MULTIPLE CHOICE:

1. This factor refers to the individual mental level.

a. Intellectual factor

b. Learning factor

c. Mental factor

2. Under this group are included such factors as health physical development,
nutrition visual and physical defects and glandular abnormality.

a. Mental factor

b. Physical factor

c. Learning factor

3. What factor that attitudes are made up of organic and kinesthetic elements?

a. Mental factor
b. Physical factor

c. Learning factor
4. It is one of the factors that affect the efficiency of learning of the student it is also
where learning takes place.

49
 a. Environmental factor

b. Emotional and social factor

c. Physical factor

5. This factor refers to instinct and emotions and social factors such as cooperation
and rivalry are directly related to a complex psychology of motivation.

a. Emotional and social factor

b. Mental factor
c. Learning factor

LESSON 3: FIVE WAYS TEACHERS CAN IMPACT SCHOOL CULTURE

LEARNING TARGET/LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this discussion, the learners must have:

a. Applied the 5 ways on how the teachers can impact school culture.

LESSON PROPER:

1. Observe other teachers' classrooms and invite them to observe yours.

I strongly believe that one of the best professional development strategies is

to learn from the teachers down the hall. When you initiate peer observations, you foster a
culture of collaboration within the building. It creates a more cohesive faculty and increases
the likelihood that the best instructional practices in the building get replicated.

2. Take responsibility for your students' academic achievement and share your data
with colleagues.

Data is used by the most successful schools to make instructional decisions

and drive school improvement efforts. It is not always comfortable to share your own
assessment results, but it is an essential component of healthy professional learning
communities. When you take the tough steps of sharing your data with colleagues, it
encourages others to follow suit. Your candor sends the message that weaknesses will be
confronted head on. Faculties that are honest with each other about student achievement
are in the best position to do something about it. Don't wait on the principal or instructional
coach to call a data meeting you start the conversation. It will make it more likely that your
colleagues will own their data as well.

3. Take risks

It is easy for faculties to become complacent, especially when the status quo
is adequate. Try something new in your classroom, and let your colleagues know how it
goes. If a new activity or strategy bombs, scrap it... or tweak it, but share your experiences
and move on. Your courage and your transparency will inspire other teachers to break out of
their own ruts. Innovation thrives in schools where teachers are free to fail.

4. Be patient with the knuckleheads and never lose sight of your purpose.
Most teachers have some challenging students at some point during the day.
It can be tempting for teachers to complain about them in the lounge, at the lunch table, in
50
the hallways, or even at faculty meetings. You teach the knuckleheads too, but you give
them the benefit of the doubt. You show empathy, you understand that the inappropriate
behaviors are a manifestation of dysfunctional circumstances outside of school that no kid
should have to deal with. Your attitude toward the toughest students will not go unnoticed
by other teachers. It is usually the case that the most difficult kids need the most TLC. Your
patience with these kids reminds other teachers what's really important making a difference
in the lives of kids.

5. Stay positive even in the face of adversity.

We all have tough days, and some circumstances seem to conspire to destroy
the morale of the faculty. Smile, remain optimistic, and figure out a way to remind your
colleagues "the glass is half full." Optimism is contagious. The positive energy you bring to
work each day will lift the spirits of those around you. Your commitment to maintaining a
positive outlook will generate positive energy in the building that can make the naysayers
irrelevant.

TASK 4: Discuss how the teachers can impact school culture.

LESSON 4: GROWTH OF STUDENTS SUBCULTURES

A growth of students subculture or youth subculture is a group of young

people defined by distinct styles, behaviors and interests. Youth subcultures offer
participants an identity outside of that prescribed by social institutions like family, work,
home and school. Youth subcultures that show a systematic hostility to the dominant culture
are sometimes described as countercultures. Youth music genres are associated with many
youth subcultures, and include punks, emos, ravers, Juggalos, metalheads and goths . The
study of subcultures often consists of the study of the symbolism attached to clothing, music
and other visible affections by members of the subculture. It also studies the ways these
same symbols are interpreted by members of the dominant culture.

LEARNING TARGET/LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this discussion the learners must have:

a. Identified the functions of subculture.

b. Identified the distinctive subcultures among college students.

LESSON PROPER:

Subculture perform specific function such as:

1. Permitting specialized activity- because subcultures (particularly occupational

occupational subcultures) carry the knowledge necessary to perform specialized tasks, they
are essential to the division of labor which is essential in any society which is becoming
larger and more complex.

2. Identify in mass society- subcultures also provide a source of identity in mass

society, thus preventing feelings of isolation and anomie.

3. Cultural adaptation and change- another important functions of subculture is to

serve as a source of adaptation to society. Often a subculture is the mechanism through
which cultural diffusion occurs.

51
 Subcultures can be based on a variety of factors, including religion, race ethnicity,
age and sexual orientation.

Demographic Characteristics Examples of Subcultures

Age Adolescent, Young, Adult, middle aged,
Eldely
Ethnic origin African, Hispanic, Asian, European
Sex Female, Male
Race Black, Caucasian, Oriental
Income Level Affluent, Middle income, Poor, Destitute

Each student is exposed to competing subcultures and must determine which seems
most in line with his or her feeling and interest. Here are the four distinctive subculture
among college students.

1. Collegiate subculture- focuses on having fun and socializing

2. Academic- identifies with intellectual concerns

3. Vocational- interested primarily in career prospects

4. Non-Comformist- hostile to college environment

TASK 5: Choose inside of the box the correct choice.

Vocational Collegiate Subculture

Non-conformist Academic

1. Interested primarily in career prospects.

2. Focuses on having fun and socializing.

3. Hostile to college environment.

4. Identifies with intellectual concerns.

52
 Unit 7: PEACE EDUCATION TOWARDS A
TRANSFORMATIVE TEACHING AND
LEARNING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION

The learning process that utilized in peace education is holistic and it tries to address the
cognitive, affective and active dimensions of the learners. A usual procedure includes the
introduction of relevant new knowledge, posing, valuing questions and using discussions and
other participatory methods to cultivate concern and eliciting/challenging/encouraging
appropriate and social action. Peace education or an education that promotes a culture of
peace, is essentially transformative. It cultivates the knowledge behaviors that, in the first
place, have either created or exacerbated violent conflicts. It seeks this transformative by
building awareness and understanding, developing concern, and finally, challenging personal
and social that will enable people to create conditions and systems that actualize
nonviolence, justice, environmental care and other peace values.

LESSON 1: Peace Education

At the end of the lesson the learners must have:

Identify the importance of Peace Education

Define the values of Peace Education

Understand the meaning and the impact of Peace Education in the society.

CONCEPT: (Learning Content/Lesson Proper)

Peace education should be contextual relevant to the

participants/learners. Everyone in the peace education
process is teaching and learning (“edulearner” concept;
developing a horizontal rather than hierarchical
relationship) and it’s a lifelong learning process. It is also
the process of acquiring the values, the knowledge, and
developing the attitudes, skills, and behaviors to live in
harmony with oneself, with others, and with the natural
environment. Peace education promote knowledge, skills,
and attitudes that will help people ether to prevent occurrence of conflict, resolve conflicts
peacefully, or create social conditions conducive to peace. Strategies for achieving peace fall
under three basic categories: peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building. Peacekeeping
generally involves police or military action and strives to achieve peace through strength and
force. Peacemaking involves communication skills like conflict resolution and mediation
strategies for interacting non-violently with others. Both of these categories are reactive
approaches that kick in after a violent incident has occurred. Peace building, on the other
hand, is a more proactive approach that uses peace education as a means of creating a
more stable and peaceful culture, thereby preventing violent incidents from occurring. Peace
education is critical to creating a culture that reduces the need for peacemaking and
peacekeeping by developing a comprehensive program that teaches people how to interact
with others and avoid unnecessary aggression. Let's look at the objectives typically found in
53
 peace education. There are ten primary objectives of
peace building, or peace education. These goals rely on
the assumption that while violent conflict is unavoidable,
there is a process by which we can address conflict and
minimize violence. Peace education seeks to reduce
violence and promote peace building using the following
objectives to inform the instruction. This objective is met
by studying the arts and humanities as they relate to
peace.

TASK 6: Draw and Tell

Draw an image which shows the meaning and impact of Peace Education in your
society.

LESSON 2: Positive Peace and Negative Peace

At the end of the lesson the learners must have:

Identify the differences of Negative Peace and Positive Peace

Enumerate the meaning of Negative Peace and Positive Peace.

Discuss the influence of Negative and Positive Peace in the society.

CONCEPT: (Learning Content/Lesson Proper)

NEGATIVE PEACE

Negative peace refers to the absence

of violence. When, for example, a
ceasefire is enacted, a negative
peace will ensue. It is negative
because something undesirable
stopped happening (e.g. the violence
stopped, the oppression ended).
Positive peace is filled with positive
content such as restoration of
relationships, the creation of social
systems that serve the needs of the
whole population and the constructive resolution of conflict. It tends to make curative
approach towards any form of conflict of violence and this type of peace may have been
restored without peaceful means. It uses force or coercion is common in this scenario. Peace
does not mean the total absence of any conflict. It means the absence of violence in all
forms and the unfolding of conflict in a constructive way. Peace therefore exists where
people are interacting non-violently and are managing their conflict positively – with
respectful attention to the legitimate needs and interest of all concerned.

54
POSITIVE PEACE

Positive Peace is the integration of human society.

It is the absence of structural violence, and
prevalence of justice, harmony and quality.
Positive Peace is defined as peace with justice for
all. Often times, “peace” is mistaken simply as
the absence of some negative force, such as
tension or violence. But Dr. King reminded us
that peace is not only the absence of tension, but
the presence of
justice. We live in a
society filled with
violence, and in an effort the curb the levels of violence we see,
we are often misled into believing that we can use violence and
injustice ourselves to attain a “peaceful” society. We often
times use unjust methods to create a false sense of “peace.”
Throwing every single young person in this country into a prison
cell may prevent a lot of violence, but it would not mean that
we would be creating peace since that “peace” (absence of
tension) was created by an act of injustice. Positive Peace is a
true, lasting, and sustainable peace built on justice for all people.

TASKS 7: A. IDENTIFICATION

1. It tends to make curative approach towards any form of conflict or violence.

2. It is the integration of human society.

3. It refers to justice for all, it does not only mean the absence of violence but it also
emphasizes on the presence of justice to everyone indiscriminately.

4. Positive Peace is the integration of .

5. Negative Peace uses .

B. Research on how Positive and Negative Peace affect the lives of the people in
the society.

LESSON 3: Themes of Peace Education and Peaceful Teaching-Learning Process

At the end of the lesson the learners must have:

Identify the meaning of the Themes of Peace Education and the Peaceful Teaching-
Learning Process
Provide understanding about the importance of the Themes of Peace Education.
Identify the phases of Peaceful Teaching-Learning Process

CONCEPT: (Learning Content/Lesson Proper)

Themes of Peace Education include nonviolence,

conflict resolution techniques, democracy, disarmament,
gender equality, human rights, environmental
responsibility, history, communication skills,
coexistence, and international understanding and
tolerance diversity. Since the psychologist Gordon
Allport formulated his well-known contact hypothesis in
1954, this theoretical framework became the most
applicable principle for programs whose main goal is to
change the relationships between groups in conflict.
According to Allport's theory, for the intergroup contact to be successful and accomplish
55
positive changes in attitudes and behavior, it must fulfill four basic conditions: the contact
groups must be of equal status, the contact must be personal and manifold, the groups must
depend on each other working for a superordinate goal, and there must be institutional
support for the equality norm. On the other hand Peaceful Teaching Learning Process has
three phases. It includes Cognitive Phase, Affective Phase, and Active Phase. Cognitive
phase refers to the understanding and awareness of the people. Affective Phase means
being concerned with someone or something while the Active Phase refers in taking practical
action, responding, and valuing.

TASK 8: Enumerate and discuss the Themes of Peace Education

and how they can be peacefully attained.

56
 UNIT 8: GENDER AND
DEVELOPMENT

I. INTRODUCTION

Gender and Development is an inter disciplinary field of research and applied study that
implements feminist approach to understanding and addressing the desperate impact that
economic development and globalization have on people based upon their location, gender,
class, background ,and other socio-political identities. There are also theories related to
Gender and Development which are intended to explain how was one's gender changes
over a period of time. These theories include factors that cause a certain gender to evolve
aligned or not with an expectations of oneself into an assigned sex. Gender roles will also
be tackle as we go through of our lessons, that will surely shown the expected roles of men
and women in the society in which they are belong. In addition Gender law and policies will
be included in the next lesson, that will promote awareness about the reality in the context
in which we stepped in.

LESSON 1: THEORIES RELATED TO GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT

Learning Targets/ Learning Objectives:

After the discussions, learners must have:

1. Enumerated and be familiar of the theories related to GAD.

2. Identified the differences among theories.

3. Applied the concepts of theories into real life situation.

57
II. CONCEPTS ( Learning Content/ Lesson Proper)

Theories are sets of ideas or concepts that are intended to explain a certain phenomenon.
These are theories related to Gender and Development:

1. PSYCHODYNAMIC
THEORY It is an approach to
psychology that emphasizes
systematic study of the
psychological forces that underlie
human behavior, feelings, and
emotions and how they might
relate to early experience.

2. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONALISM
THEORY It is a sociological theory that
develops from practical considerations and
alludes to people's particular utilization of
dialect to make images and normal
implications , for deduction and
correspondence with others.

3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

It combines cognitive learning
theory, which posits that learning
is based on psychological factors,
and behavioral learning theory,
which assumes that learning is
based on responses to
environmental stimuli.

4. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY It is a broad theory that explains thinking and differing
mental processes and how they are influenced by internal and external factors in order to
produce learning in individuals.

5. STANDPOINT THEORY It is
concerns with various levels of
people's perceptions. For instance
people have similarity in their opinion
depending on their demography and
it concerns mostly of general issues.

TASK 9: Do research on at least 5 theories related to Gender and Development.

58
LESSON 2: GENDER ROLE

I. INTRODUCTION

Roles are common among us. It is nature to humankind to play roles as a basic
things in life. According to William Shakespeare, All the world is a stage and all the men and
women were merely players. To sum up the thought of the line, it simply tells us that every
individuals has a roles to be played all throughout their existence.

LEARNING TARGETS/ LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After the discussion, learners must have:

1. Recalled the specific roles that are assigned into a certain sex.

2. Differentiated the roles of men from women, and vice versa.

3. Critiqued the roles of each sex.

II. CONCEPTS ( Learning Content/ Lesson Proper)

GENDER ROLES

Gender roles in society

means how we are expected to
act, speak ,dress ,groom ,and
conduct ourselves based upon
our assigned sex.

GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT

COMPONENTS: *Concept or
beliefs A feeling that
something is good, right ,or valuable. *Verbalized Gendered Preferences An advantage
that is given to certain gender and not to others. It might be written or being spoken that is
trying to convey the preferences of a certain person.

* Gender Identity or Self perception It is the way you understand Gender using
one of your senses.

ROLES OF WOMEN

A SISTER: As a sister, a woman gives love and warmth to her brothers and sisters. A
FRIEND: It is scientifically proven fact that a female's body is equipped with hormones that
make her more sensitive and emotional, than a man.

A WIFE: When a man brings home a bride ,he is always expecting that he has got a
partner for life who is going to make his life happy and joyful.

59
A DAUGHTER IN LAW: With the married life ,comes a new role, to be a daughter to a new
set of parents.

A PROFESSIONAL: When education is imperative and a career for a woman is no more a

taboo, women are pronouncing their presence in the professional world with enhanced
power and enthusiasm

A MOTHER IN LAW: Then comes a time when she weds off her prized possessions, her
children.
A MOTHER: When she become a mother, she takes a new birth in the form of her own
children.

A GRANDMOTHER:As she ages, up a new role of becoming a grandparent to the newest of

the family, her grandchildren.
ROLES OF MEN

PURSUER: Men are expected to be the instigator of pretty much all romance and the
like.

BREAD-WINNER: Once the male has found a mate he is expected to tend to her

DEFENDER:T his can either be the 'white knight' protecting the fair maidens honour
or the hardened soldier fighting for his children's future.

THE HONOURABLE SACRIFICE/MEAT SHIELD: In almost any emergency situation we

as a society will put women and children first. Men are societally expected to
be the honorable sacrifies.
WE EXPECT MEN TO DIE FOR WOMEN: We can tell it is an expectation when you
look at men who act in their own interest in the face of disaster.

LEADER : In times gone by we would naturally look to men as leaders. Naturally, the
provider or protector must also be the leader.

TASKS 10: Exposition Writing

* Among the roles being presented, choose 3 roles for each sexes, then write a brief
discussions for each role.

Task 11: Tell whether the sentence describes the role of men or role of
women. Kindly write RM if it is a role of men and RW if otherwise.

1. He/ she is obliged to serve his/ her partner.

2. He/ she is considered a bread- winner of a family.

3. He/ she is considered a better friend with compassion.

4. He/ she is deserving for a career , which exempted the taboo to be a professional.

60
 5. He/ she is expected to die for his/ her loved one.

Task 12: Writing a position paper

-It is intended for learners to critique and criticize the importance of each roles
assigned to diverse sexes. Indeed, it is for them to utilize their critical thinking skill.

* Write a position paper that content your stand with the regards of the roles given
to a specific sex. You have to choose between roles of women and roles of men, and state
your position upon considering the roles of men as more significant than roles of women,
and vice versa.

LESSON 3: GENDER LAW AND POLICIES

I. INTRODUCTION

Equality between men and women

is one of the fundamental principles of the
EU, and the principle of gender equality is
been reinforced with legation ,both generic
and specific , obliging Member States to
ensure equal treatment for men and women
, and to combat any form of discrimination
on the grounds of gender .

LEARNING TARGETS/ LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, learners must have:

1. Understand the difference between gender equality and gender equity.

2. Applied the concept of gender equality and gender equity into real life situation.

3. Created an output regarding the topic.

II. CONCEPTS ( Learning Content/ Lesson Proper)

GENDER LAW AND POLICIES

European institutions have often been the first one to approve such laws about
gender and have proved model for Member states. In addition, while national laws may be
generally quite advanced with reference to right recognition and gender issues, their
application may meet practical and cultural obstacles.

61
 Terms related to Gender Law and Policies:

*GENDER EQUALITY

It is a basic human right

and fundamental principle of the
Commonwealth. It is also widely
recognized to have broad and positive
implications for commonwealth's goal
for eradicating poverty, promoting
economic growth and sustainable,
peaceful development.

It refers to the equal rights ,responsibilities and opportunities of women ,men ,girls,
boys.

*GENDER EQUITY

It means fairness of
treatment for women and men,
according to their respective
needs. This may include equal
treatment that is different but
which is considered equivalent in
terms of rights, benefits,
obligations and opportunities.

*GENDER MAINSTREAMING

It is a strategy for making the concerns and strategies of women and men an
integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
programmes in all political, economic, and societal spheres, so what women and men can
benefit equally, and equality is not perpetuated.
*WOMEN'S EMPOWERMENT

It refers to the process of women gaining power and control over their own lives.

TASK 13: Write an essay

about the difference between
gender equality and gender
equity.

62
 Unit 9. EDUCATION IN THE
NEW MILIEU

Introduction

Today, we live in an age of lightning fast information transfer. One consequence of this is
the ever increasing demand on education to help all learners acquire higher level skills that
allow them to more readily analyze, make decisions, and solve complex "real world"
problems. Technology has allowed individuals to obtain, assemble, analyze and communicate
information in more detail at a much faster pace than ever before. Globalisation is the
process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of massively
increased trade and cultural exchange.

Lesson 1. Globalization and 21st Century Education

Learning Targets:
At the end of the lesson the learners must have:

a) Understand the concept of globalisation and the 21st century education.

b) Determined how globalisation affects the 21st century education

c) Identified the differences between the education before and the 21st century

education.

Globalization is the process of international Integration arising from the interchange of world
views, products, ideas, and other aspects of culture. The average change to global job
market requires a shift in educational goals and objectives as well as the method of
pedagogy to ensure students have the largest advantage possible.

Technology is the medium that has allowed globalization to occur. It allowstask to be

completed collaboratively from anywhere in the world.

63
 For Students For Teachers
A Shift From A Shift To A Shift From A Shift To
Passively waiting for Actively searching Always being viewed Participating at times
the teachers to give for needed as the content as one who may not
directions and information and expert and source know it all but des
information. learning for all the answers
experiences,
determining what is
needed and seeking
ways to attain it
Always being in the Participating at times Being viewed as the Being viewed as a
role of learner as the expert / primary source of support, collaborator
knowledge provider information who and coach for
continually directs it students as they
to students learn to gather and
evaluate information
for themselves
Always following Desiring to explore, Always asking the Actively coaching
given procedure discover, and create questions and students to develop
unique solutions to controlling the focus and pose their own
learning process of the student questions and
learning explore their own
alternative ways in
finding answers
Viewing the teacher Viewing the teacher Directing students Actively encouraging
as the one who has as a resource , through preset step- individuals to use
all the answers model, and helper, by-step exercises so their personal
who will encourage that all achieve knowledge and skills
exploration, and similar conclusions to create unique
attempts to find to solutions to the
find unique solutions problems
to problems

Task 14: Determine whether the statement is True or False.

1. Globalization allows technology to occur.

2. Friedman is exactly right in giving the impression that globalization started with the fall of
the Berlin Wall.

3. A shift from means outcomes-based and a shift to means content-based.

4. Globalisation is the process by which the world is becoming increasingly

intraconnected.

5. Science refers to the theory and physical expression and creativity found in human
societies and culture.

Task 15. Essay

How globalisation affects 21st century education?

64
Lesson 2. 21ST CENTURY CORE SUBJECT, SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES

Learning Targets:

At the end of the lesson the learners must have:

a) Identified the 21st century core subjects and skills

b) Applied 21st century skills and competencies in real life situations

c) Created their own perception towards 21st century competencies as a future

educator.

Introduction
Globalization, changing demographics and technological advancement are some key driving
forces of the future. Our students will have to be prepared to face these challenges and
seize the opportunities brought about by these forces. To help our students thrive in a fast
changing world, MOE has identified competencies that have become increasingly important
in the 21st century. These competencies represented in the following framework, underpin
the holistic education that our schools provide to better prepare our students for the future.
It is and envisaged that schools and parents need to work hand in hand to help our students
develop these 21st century competencies.

Core subjects in 21st century themes essential for students:

English, Reading or language arts- comprehensive literary program meant to build strong
communication skills. English and language arts are two of the most basic and widely taught
subjects in United States schools. The American National Council of Teachers of English
External link separates English and language arts into five basic categories: reading, writing,
speaking, listening and viewing.

In elementary school, language arts classes focus on basic reading, writing and linguistic /
communication skills. Periods of silent sustained reading, cursive writing, syntax, thematic
writing and vocabulary are all major focal points of elementary lessons. Through these
exercises, children are expected to develop reading and writing skills at an early age.

In middle school, the English curriculum evolves and expands to include more complicated
reading comprehension, such as fiction, poetry and essays. In addition, grammar and
semantics become a focal point of lessons, and students begin to foster writing skills that
encompass poetry, expository writing and creative writing. Students in middle school are
expected to expand vocabularies and develop a mature grasp of the five categories of
language arts.

High school students take mandatory English classes in which they are expected to develop
analytical skills. Classes generally revolve around reading novels, essays and other forms of
literature, and require students to analyze, interpret and dissect written material in order to
compare, contrast and discuss elements, like theme, characters and plot. Proficient writing
skills are necessary at this point as these discussions of literature typically manifest in the
form of an essay or research paper. High school English is a comprehensive study,
combining the five skills of language arts in order to understand literature and its value.

English is also a crucial component of college preparation, getting students ready for the
extensive research and analytical skills they will be expected to utilize throughout their
college careers.

World languages- spoken internationally and learned by a huge number of people and as
second language. It may be surprising but it is very difficult question to answer. First of all,
there are languages in some parts of the world that have not yet been studied such as in
65
Papua New Guinea and the Amazon. Secondly, there are no clear-cut criteria for deciding
what constitutes a separate language and what constitutes a dialect of a language because
purely linguistic considerations can often compete with issues of statehood, culture, writing
systems, political and economic power. For example, Chinese varieties such as Mandarin,
Cantonese, Wu, and Hakka are as less mutually intelligible than are Spanish, French, Italian,
and Portuguese. Yet the former are considered to be dialects of Chinese, while the latter are
considered to be separate languages. Why is that? The answer is that the Chinese varieties
are primarily spoken within a single nation, while the latter are spoken in different countries.
Hindi and Urdu are almost identical, yet considered to be different languages because they
are associated with different countries (India and Pakistan), religious beliefs (Hindu and
Moslem), and different writing systems (Devanagari and Arabic). However, before Pakistan
became independent from India in 1947, Hindi and Urdu were considered a single language
called Hindustani. Serbo-Croatian was considered to be a single language with several
dialects: Orthodox Serbs used the Cyrillic alphabet, Catholic Croats used the Latin alphabet,
and Muslim Bosnians used both alphabets. After the breakup of Yugoslavia in 2001, these
three varieties are now officially listed as three separate languages.

Arts- refers to the theory and physical expression of creativity found in human societies and
culture. Arts is a broad academic field under which scholars study numerous types of human
interactions, using methods that are largely analytical, critical or exploratory. Arts courses
contain something explicit to explore in itself. As it serves several disciplines where human
beings and society focus on various types of studies. Arts courses are also referred to
Integrated Arts which states this stream as the study of these arts courses subjects. Art is a
common word for every individual in the world. Art is a diverse range of one’s activities. Arts
is a human expression influenced by the culture and driven by human impulses. It can be
characterised as visual arts, literary arts, performing arts, decorative art and tangible arts.
Arts courses are commonly referred to a popular course option selected by candidates after
Class 12th. Although there is a perception that only weak learners opt for arts courses after
12th , this is far from the truth. Contrary to this perception there are a lot of career
opportunities available for art graduates right after their graduation. This domain covers a
wide array of subjects and the key among which include: History, Languages, Literature,
Law, Philosophy, Religion, Performing Arts, Anthropology, Communication, Sociology,
Psychology.

Mathematics- study of topics such as quantity, structure, space and change. For more than
two thousand years, mathematics has been a part of the human search for understanding.
Mathematical discoveries have come both from the attempt to describe the natural world and
from the desire to arrive at a form of inescapable truth from careful reasoning. These remain
fruitful and important motivations for mathematical thinking, but in the last century
mathematics has been successfully applied to many other aspects of the human world:
voting trends in politics, the dating of ancient artifacts, the analysis of automobile traffic
patterns, and long-term strategies for the sustainable harvest of deciduous forests, to
mention a few. Today, mathematics as a mode of thought and expression is more valuable
than ever before. Learning to think in mathematical terms is an essential part of becoming a
liberally educated person.

Economics- science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and
scarce means which have alternative uses. Economics is about making choices. We make all
kinds of choices every day. How much should I spend on gas? What’s the best route to
work? Where should we go for dinner? Which job or career should I go for? What are the
pros and cons of finishing college versus taking a job or inventing the next, best Internet
startup? Which roommate should take care of washing the dishes? Can I get that dog as a
pet? Should I get married, have children, and if so, when? Which politician should I vote for
when they all claim they can improve the economy or make my life better? What is “the
economy,” anyway? What if my personal or religious principles conflict with what people tell
me is in my best economic interest?

66
Many people hear the word “economics” and think it is all about money. Economics is not
just about money. It is about weighing different choices or alternatives. Some of those
important choices involve money, but most do not. Most of your daily, monthly, or life
choices have nothing to do with money, yet they are still the subject of economics. For
example, your decisions about whether it should be you or your roommate who should be
the one to clean up or do the dishes, whether you should spend an hour a week
volunteering for a worthy charity or send them a little money via your cell phone, or whether
you should take a job so you can help support your siblings or parents or save for your
future are all economic decisions. In many cases, money is merely a helpful tool or just a
veil, standing in for a partial way to evaluate some of the goals you really care about and
how you make choices about those goals.

You might also think economics is all about “economizing” or being efficient–not making
foolish or wasteful choices about how you spend or budget your time and money. That is
certainly part of what economics is about. However, that’s just the tip of the iceberg. We all
know that we can save money or time by being more efficient in our planning. A trip to the
supermarket can be coordinated with a trip to take your child to school or to deposit a check
at the bank across the street to save on gas. But we sometimes don’t choose the most
efficient options. Why not? Economics is also about plumbing the depths of why we
sometimes do and sometimes don’t make what seem like the most economizing or
economical choices.

Is economics a science (like physics), or is it a social science, or even an art? What is the
difference, and what do we know about what we can’t or don’t know for now? Can economic
problems be solved by better government, more experts, bigger computers, more
engineering, better education, less government, more dispersed knowledge, more markets?
How can we make informed choices?

You’ve probably heard that economists disagree about a lot of things. Actually, what
economists disagree about is politics or public policy, not economics. Exploring the interface
between politics and economics is part of the fun.

Economics is the study of given ends and scarce means. Lionel Robbins, biography, from the
Concise Encyclopedia of Economics:

Robbins’ most famous book was An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic
Science, one of the best-written prose pieces in economics. That book contains three main
thoughts. First is Robbins’ famous all-encompassing definition of economics that is still used
to define the subject today: “Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a
relationship between given ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.”

Science- study of the nature and behavior of natural things and the knowledge that is obtain
about them. Study Science and you will be learning from lecturers whose expertise and
knowledge in their subjects is respected both locally and internationally. Our progressive and
innovative subject range allows our graduates to meet the needs of regional industries and
to contribute to the development of the national and international knowledge economy.

Geography- study of the physical features of the earth as its atmosphere. A qualification in
geography will definitely help your application for further study, but it’s not always a
requirement.

If you’re studying physical geography, a science qualification could support your application.
For human geography degrees, subjects like politics and sociology will help.

Many universities look for the right type of character, rather than the right academic
background. So, you should demonstrate an open mind, along with a passion for problem-
solving and analysis in your personal statement. And, of course, a strong interest in the
natural and man-made world.

67
History- a story or tale of what has happened or may have happened in the past. History is
the story of the people on our planet. It is the human story. The story of everything that
people have ever done since recognizable humans first evolved between 150,000 and
200,000 years ago. That's some story. Our story. Your story. It is the story of changing
human cultures, politics, lifestyles, beliefs and creativity.

Government and Civics- a system or group of people governing an organized community

often a state. Civics an action required by for a citizen to perform. Societies have long had
an interest in the ways in which their young are prepared for citizenship and in how they
learn to take part in civic life. Today that interest might better be described as a concern-in
fact as a growing concern, particularly in democratic societies. There is evidence aplenty that
no country, including our own United States, has achieved the level of understanding and
acceptance of the rights and responsibilities among the totality of its citizens that is required
for the maintenance and improvement of any constitutional democracy.

In the past decade we have witnessed dramatic demands for freedom on the part of peoples
from Asia to Africa and from Central and Eastern Europe to Latin America. And as we have
seen one totalitarian or authoritarian regime after another toppled and fledgling democratic
governments replace them, we may have become too optimistic about the future of
democracy. We also may have become too complacent, too sure of democracy's robustness
or of its long term viability. History, however, teaches us that few countries have sustained
democratic governments for prolonged periods, a lesson which we as Americans are
sometimes inclined to forget. Americans, of course, should take pride and confidence from
the fact that they live in the world's oldest constitutional democracy and that the
philosophical foundations underlying their political institutions serve as a model for aspiring
peoples around the world. The "shot heard 'round the world" two centuries ago at the
opening of the American Revolution continues to resound today, and it should remind
Americans that free institutions are among humanity's highest achievements and worthy of
their full energies and earnest devotion to preserve.

21st Century Skills

68
Critical Thinking- intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully, conceptually
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and or evaluating information. Part of critical thinking is
the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text.
People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and
properly explain to others the implications of that information. Asking thoughtful questions,
data analysis, research, interpretation, judgment, questioning evidence, recognizing
patterns, skepticism.
Creativity- use of imagination original ideas, especially in the production of an artistic work.
Creativity is the act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality. Creativity is
characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to
make connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions.
Creativity involves two processes: thinking, then producing.

Collaboration- action of working with someone to produce or to create something.

Collaboration means working together with one or more people to complete a project or task
or develop ideas or processes. In the workplace, collaboration occurs when two or more
people work together towards a common goal that benefits the team or company. Workplace
collaboration requires interpersonal skills, communication skills, knowledge sharing and
strategy, and can occur in a traditional office or between members of a virtual team.

Working as a team not only drives greater productivity, but it also fosters healthy
relationships between employees. Often, when employees work together they’re more
effective and efficient than those who attempt to manage the same projects alone.
Successfully collaborating with your coworkers can also increase your motivation and level of
engagement at work. Additionally, sharing ideas and brainstorming is helpful for developing
unique solutions to complex challenges. There are many ways to collaborate effectively at
work, and the skills and techniques you rely on when you collaborate can lead to greater
efficiency and success.

Communication- act of transferring information from one place to another. Communication

skills are abilities you use when giving and receiving different kinds of information. Some
examples include communicating ideas, feelings or what’s happening around you.
Communication skills involve listening, speaking, observing and empathizing. It is also helpful
to understand the differences in how to communicate through face-to-face interactions,
phone conversations and digital communications, like email and social media.
Information Literacy- understanding of how information is produced and valued and the
use of information in creating new knowledge. Information literacy includes the ability to
identify, find, evaluate, and use information effectively. From effective search strategies to
evaluation techniques, students learn how to evaluate the quality, credibility, and validity of
websites, and give proper credit. Information Literacy has also been referred to as digital
literacy or media literacy. Regardless of the terminology, be it digital literacy or media
literacy, having information literacy skills are the fundamentals to thrive in a digital space.

Media Literacy- ability to access, analyze, evaluate, create and act using all forms of
communication. Used well, the media can entertain and inform our children in positive ways.
However, since most children aren’t taught to use media thoughtfully, many media messages
contribute to public health issues such as obesity, bullying and aggression, low self-esteem,
depression, negative body image, risky sexual behavior, and substance abuse, among other
problems.

Technology Literacy- ability to use, manage, understand and assess technology.

Technology literacy is increasingly becoming an explicit goal of schools throughout the
country. But few educators, parents, or policymakers have a clear idea of what that phrase
means. Real technology literacy begins at an early age, in an informal way, long before
students begin to use computers.

69
Flexibility- the willingness and ability to readily respond to changing circumstances and
expectations. Being flexible when it comes to work is worth a lot. Flexibility has become an
increasingly valuable skill in modern workplaces where unpredictability and change is often
constant. When you are flexible, you are able to deal with unexpected challenges quickly,
calmly and efficiently. But flexibility isn't just about reacting to situations as and when they
arise.

21st Century Competencies

Knowledge and skills must be underpinned by values. Values define a person’s character.
They shape the beliefs, attitudes and actions of a person, and therefore form the core of the
framework of 21st century competencies.

Social and emotional Competencies- skills necessary for children to recognize and manage
their emotions, develop care and concern for others, make responsible decisions establish
positive relationships, as well as handle challenging situations actively.

Civic literacy, Global awareness and cross cultural skills- knowledge and skills need to
participate in the community and foundation of communication that involves the ability of
standing back from ourselves and becoming aware of our cultural values, beliefs and
perceptions.

Critical and inventive thinking- involve students thinking boldly and deeply using skills,
behaviors and dispositions such as reason, logic, resourcefulness, imagination and all
learning areas at school and in their lives beyond school.

Communication, Collaboration and information skills- interpersonal skills that help people
work well with one another.

Task 1. Identification

1) A science that studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce

means which have alternative uses.

2) Study of the nature and behavior of natural things and the knowledge that is
obtained

about them.

70
 3) A system or group of people governing an organized community often a state and
an

action required by for a citizen to perform.

4) Intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully, conceptually, analyzing,

synthesizing and evaluating information.

5) An ability to access, analyze, evaluate, create and act using all forms of

communication

Task 16: Essay

As a future educator, what is the best 21st century competency that suits you and suits the
present educational system?

Unit 10: School Culture and

Leadership in Teaching and
Learning

Introduction

School culture refers to the way teachers and other

staff members work together and the set of beliefs,
values, and assumptions they share. A positive
school climate and school culture promotes
students' ability to learn. Leadership must focus on
teaching and learning, rather than just on other
administrative and management tasks. This form of
leadership is traditionally called instructional
leadership.

For leadership to be effective in improving student learning, it matters what practices

principals and other school leaders focus on, even within the instructional domain. For
example, it was traditionally thought that time spent by the principal in classrooms, or the
number of visits made by the principal to classrooms, is an effective instructional practice.

Although we are confident that the more leadership is distributed in schools, the larger is its
effect on student achievement, research is still in its infancy as to what form distributed
leadership should take. Leadership appears to have greater effects on teaching and learning
if it is not monopolized by the principal, but distributed across other senior- and middle-level
leaders in school, even teachers (Leithwood, 2006). In other words, leadership makes a
larger contribution to teaching and learning if it is seen as a process that can be grown,
shared and distributed.

The notion of teacher leadership is not new, but recently it has been transformed. In the
past, teacher leadership roles have been limited in scope and established at the prerogative
of school administrators. Teachers have long served as team leaders, department chairs,
association leaders and curriculum developers. In these roles teachers have often served as
71
"representatives" rather than "leaders" who enact change (Livingston, 1992). In addition,
leadership roles for teachers have traditionally lacked flexibility and required a lengthy,
ongoing commitment of time and energy. Often the decision to take on leadership tasks has
been accompanied by a decision to get out of teaching and into administration.

Advocacy for teacher professionalism and expanded leadership roles is based on the
understanding that teachers, because they have daily contacts with learners, are in the best
position to make critical decisions about curriculum and instruction.

Lesson1. School Culture and Organizational Leadership

Introduction

Good leaders have the power to change organizations, while better leaders have power to
change people. Human beings are at the heart of organizations. Simply, changing people can
create a positive culture in terms of the development and growth of the organization,
especially in schools. Leadership can take a wide range of forms, including authoritarian,
charismatic, transformational, traditional, ethical, cultural, situational, and visionary (O'Brien,
Draper & Murphy, 2008).

As leaders, school principals are aware of the teachers' need in their professional and private
lives. They show the teachers and students that they care about their employees and
students while interacting with them, they are aware of informal groups, and they visit
classrooms and establish close ties with the near and far stakeholders of the school in order
to create a positive school culture (Marzano, Waters & McNulty, 2005).

Learning Objectives

At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:

a.) identified appositive school culture and Organizational leadership;

b.) applied their acquired knowledge, values and skills in real-life situations to create a
positive school culture.

Concept: School Culture and Organizational Leadership

The formation of an organizational culture is a complex process that involves many variables,
such as socialization, rituals, language, authority, economy, technology, and influence. For
this reason, culture emerges as a product of the interaction of many dimensions. Some of
these dimensions may be more dominant than others. However, the formation of a common
culture first depends on the presence and association of a group of people interacting with
each other (Sisman, 2002). In educational organizations, where humans are in the center,
every school has a culture built in the process of its formation (Marzano, Waters, &McNulty,
2005).

Organizational culture holds its units together and shares values, norms, philosophers,
perspectives, expectations, attitudes, myths, and trends that give it distinctive identity
(Hoy&Miskel, 2010).

Cultural elements of organizations that reflect the upper culture of a society:

1. Dominant values

2. Ideas

3. Assumptions

72
For this reason, in terms of cultural characteristics, an organization can be seen as a sub
culture of society. At the same time, organizations reflecting the culture of the community
form their own culture to achieve organizational integration among their members. Since
each organization is formed by people with different characteristics, culture developed by
organizations has unique features that separate it from others (Demirtas, 2010).

The school is the living and learning area where meaning is created. Organizations,
especially schools, are product of the cultural paradigm of the society in which they exist.
Based on its special environment and different inputs and processes, every organization
produces a culture that separates itself from other organizations. During the production of
school culture, school administrators have some basic tasks, such as setting goals and
objectives for the school and education regarding the values desired to take place at the
school, guiding the members of the school community to implement these goals and
objectives, and creating and sustaining a school culture based on mutual trust.

Example of a positive school culture:

The main task of the principal in creating a positive atmosphere is to contribute to the
creation of a strong school culture. As a result, the school's formal and informal dimensions
integrate with each other.

Administrators, teachers and students take pride in the schools they belong to. This common
sentiment provides cohesion and convergence among administrators, teachers, students and
parents (Ozdemir, 2006). During the process of creating successful schools, effective school
administrators focus on common goals and learning objectives. In order to strengthen a
positive school culture, managers celebrate cooperation, and use a clear and shared
language to strengthen the commitment of staff and school through their statements and
discourse with others (Celikten, 2003).

According to this point of view, leadership in the school is not only a function of the principal
but also a tendency to reach a shared goal jointly with stake holders. School leadership and
school culture can also be defined as nested processes. Even though school culture is built
on the history and deep values of the school society, replacing and renovating the school
culture is contributed through the basic function of the leader. This aspect of the relationship
between school culture and leadership is associated with changing the culture in a positive or
negative way (Deal & Peterson, 2009).

Tasks 17: A. True or false

Direction. Write T if the statement is correct and F if it is wrong.

1. Administrators, teachers and students take pride in the school they belong to.

2. Replacing and renovating the school culture is contributed through the basic function
of the leader.

3. Classroom is the living and learning area where learning is created.

4. Schools are product of cultural paradigm of the society in which they exist.

5. During the production of school culture, school administrators have some basic tasks.

73
B. Multiple Choice

6. The formation of an organizational culture is a complex process which involves the

following except:

a. language

b. socialization

c. product

d. economy
7. Changing people can create a culture in terms of the development and
growth of the organization.

a. positive

b. negative

c. mutual

d. specific

8. Which of the following take/s pride in the school they belong to?

a. Teachers
b. Administrators

c. Students

d. All of the above

9. Who reinforces the standards and values of the school through the statements and
discourse with others?

a. organizations

b. students

c. people in the community

d. school leaders

10. It can take a wide range of forms including authoritarian and charismatic.

a. Culture

b. Leadership

c. Rituals

d. Language

74
Lesson2. The Principles of Organizational Management

Introduction

Management is essential to any organization that wishes to be efficient and achieve its
aims. Without someone in position of authority there would be organizational anarchy with
no structure and very little, if any focus. It has been said that management has four basic
functions-planning, organizing, leading and controlling. Common sense dictates that without
these principles of management being in place, an organization would have troubles in
achieving its aims in the first place. A classic theory on the principles of management was
written by Henri Fayol. It seems to divide management into 14 principles.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the learners must have:

a.) identified the principles of organizational management; and

b.) performed the function of organizational management principles.

Concept

Fayol's 14 Principles of Management

1. Division of work

- In practice, employees are specialized in different areas and they have different skills.
Different levels of expertise can be distinguished within the knowledge areas (from generalist
to specialist). Personal and professional developments support this. According to Henri Fayol
specialization promotes efficiency of the workforce and increases productivity. In addition,
the specialization of the workforce increases their accuracy and speed. This management
principle of the 14 principles of management is applicable to both technical and managerial
activities.

2. Authority

- In order to get things done in an organization, management has the authority to give
orders to the employees. Of course with this authority comes responsibility. According to
Henri Fayol, the accompanying power or authority gives the management the right to give
orders to the subordinates. The responsibility can be traced back from performance and it is
therefore necessary to make agreements about this. In other words, authority and
responsibility go together and they are two sides of the same coin.

3. Discipline

- This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about obedience. It is often a

part of the core values of a mission and vision in the form of good conduct and respectful
interactions. This management principle is essential and is seen as the oil to make the
engine of an organization run smoothly.

75
4. Unity of Command

- The management principle ‘Unity of command’ means that an individual employee should
receive orders from one manager and that the employee is answerable to that manager. If
tasks and related responsibilities are given to the employee by more than one manager, this
may lead to confusion which may lead to possible conflicts for employees. By using this
principle, the responsibility for mistakes can be established more easily.

5. Unity of Direction
- This management principle of the 14 principles of management is all about focus and unity.
All employees deliver the same activities that can be linked to the same objectives. All
activities must be carried out by one group that forms a team. These activities must be
described in a plan of action. The manager is ultimately responsible for this plan and he
monitors the progress of the defined and planned activities. Focus areas are the efforts
made by the employees and coordination.

6. Subordination individual interests to collective interests

- There are always all kinds of interests in an organization. In order to have an organization
function well, Henri Fayol indicated that personal interests are subordinate to the interests of
the organization (ethics). The primary focus is on the organizational objectives and not on
those of the individual. This applies to all levels of the entire organization, including the
managers.

7. Remuneration

- Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the smooth running of an
organization is concerned. This management principle of the 14 principles of management
argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep employees motivated and
productive. There are two types of remuneration namely non-monetary (a compliment, more
responsibilities, credits) and monetary (compensation, bonus or other financial
compensation). Ultimately, it is about rewarding the efforts that have been made.
8. Centralization

- Management and authority for decision-making process must be properly balanced in an

organization. This depends on the volume and size of an organization including its hierarchy.

- Centralization implies the concentration of decision making authority at the top

management (executive board). Sharing of authorities for the decision-making process with
lower levels (middle and lower management), is referred to as decentralization by Henri
Fayol. Henri Fayol indicated that an organization should strive for a good balance in this.

9. Scalar Chain

- Hierarchy presents itself in any given organization. This varies from senior management
(executive board) to the lowest levels in the organization. Henri Fayol ’s “hierarchy”
management principle states that there should be a clear line in the area of authority (from
top to bottom and all managers at all levels). This can be seen as a type of management
structure. Each employee can contact a manager or a superior in an emergency situation
without challenging the hierarchy. Especially, when it concerns reports about calamities to
the immediate managers/superiors.

10. Order

- According to this principle of the 14 principles of management, employees in an

organization must have the right resources at their disposal so that they can function
properly in an organization. In addition to social order (responsibility of the managers) the
work environment must be safe, clean and tidy.

76
11. Equity

- The management principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an organization.
According to Henri Fayol, employees must be treated kindly and equally. Employees must be
in the right place in the organization to do things right. Managers should supervise and
monitor this process and they should treat employees fairly and impartially.

12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel

- This management principle of the 14 principles of management represents deployment and

managing of personnel and this should be in balance with the service that is provided from
the organization. Management strives to minimize employee turnover and to have the right
staff in the right place. Focus areas such as frequent change of position and sufficient
development must be managed well.

13. Initiative

- Henri Fayol argued that with this management principle employees should be allowed to
express new ideas. This encourages interest and involvement and creates added value for
the company. Employee initiatives are a source of strength for the organization according to
Henri Fayol. This encourages the employees to be involved and interested.

14. Esprit de Corps (Morale)

- The management principle ‘esprit de corps’ of the 14 principles of management stands for
striving for the involvement and unity of the employees. Managers are responsible for the
development of morale in the workplace; individually and in the area of communication.
Esprit de corps contributes to the development of the culture and creates an atmosphere of
mutual trust and understanding.

In conclusion on the 14 Principles of management

The 14 principles of management can be used to manage organizations and are useful tools
for forecasting, planning, process management, organization management, decision-making,
coordination and control.

Although they are obvious, many of these matters are still used based on common sense in
current management practices in organizations. It remains a practical list with focus areas
that are based on Henri Fayol ’s research which still applies today due to a number of logical
principles.

Task 17: Identification

Direction. Identify all the principles of organizational management.

1. This principle relates to the fact that discipline is needed within an organization for it to
run effectively.

2. There should be a clear chain of command in place within an organization.

3. In order to motivate and be fair to employees, they should be paid a reasonable rate for
the work they carry out.

4. This principle looks at the concept of managerial authority.

5. Decision-making process must be properly balanced.

6. This principle relates to whether decisions should be made centrally as in from the top
down or in more democratic way from the bottom up.

7. This relates to the principle of a clear chain of communication existing between employees
and superiors.

77
8. This relates to the proper use of resources and their effective deployment in a structured
fashion.

9. Managers should behave ethically towards those they manage.

10. Keeping a high level of morale and team spirit is an essential part of having the most
productive organization possible.

78
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