A 

cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches

a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the
primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during the late 19th
century. Cannons vary in gauge, effective range, mobility, rate of fire, angle of
fire and firepower; different forms of cannon combine and balance these attributes in
varying degrees, depending on their intended use on the battlefield. A cannon is a type
of heavy artillery weapon.
The word cannon is derived from several languages, in which the original definition can
usually be translated as tube, cane, or reed. In the modern era, the term cannon has
fallen into decline, replaced by guns or artillery, if not a more specific term such
as howitzer or mortar, except for high-caliber automatic weapons firing bigger rounds
than machine guns, called autocannons.
The earliest known depiction of cannons appeared in Song dynasty China as early as
the 12th century; however, solid archaeological and documentary evidence of cannons
do not appear until the 13th century.[1] In 1288 Yuan dynasty troops are recorded to have
used hand cannon in combat, and the earliest extant cannon bearing a date of
production comes from the same period.[2][3][4] By the early 14th century, possible
mentions of cannon had appeared in the Middle East[5] and the depiction of one in
Europe by 1326. Recorded usage of cannon began appearing almost immediately after.
[6][7]
 They subsequently spread to India, their usage on the subcontinent being first
attested to in 1366.[8] By the end of the 14th century, cannons were widespread
throughout Eurasia.[9][10][11][12][13][13] Cannons were used primarily as anti-infantry weapons
until around 1374, when large cannons were recorded to have breached walls for the
first time in Europe.[14] Cannons featured prominently as siege weapons, and ever larger
pieces appeared. In 1464 a 16,000 kg (35,000 lb) cannon known as the Great Turkish
Bombard was created in the Ottoman Empire.[15] Cannons as field artillery became more
important after 1453, with the introduction of limber, which greatly improved cannon
maneuverability and mobility.[16][17] European cannons reached their longer, lighter, more
accurate, and more efficient "classic form" around 1480. This classic European cannon
design stayed relatively consistent in form with minor changes until the 1750s.[18]

Etymology and terminology

The word cannon is derived from the Old Italian word cannone, meaning "large tube",
which came from Latin canna, in turn originating from the Greek κάννα (kanna), "reed",
[19]
 and then generalised to mean any hollow tube-like object; cognate
with Akkadian qanu(m)[20] and Hebrew qāneh, "tube, reed".[21][22][23] The word has been used
to refer to a gun since 1326 in Italy, and 1418 in England. Both of the plural
forms cannons and cannon are correct.[21][24]

History
Main article: History of cannon
Further information on the historical use of gunpowder in general: History of
gunpowder and Timeline of the Gunpowder Age
Bronze cannon with inscription dated the 3rd year of the Zhiyuan era (1332) of the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368);
it was discovered at the Yunju Temple of Fangshan District, Beijing in 1935.

East Asia
Main article: Gunpowder artillery in the Song dynasty
Further information on development of gunpowder warfare in China: Science and
technology of the Song dynasty

A bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon" from the Huolongjing.

The cannon may have appeared as early as the 12th century in China,[1] and was
probably a parallel development or evolution of the fire-lance, a short ranged anti-
personnel weapon combining a gunpowder-filled tube and a polearm of some sort.[25] Co-
viative projectiles such as iron scraps or porcelain shards were placed in fire lance
barrels at some point,[26] and eventually, the paper and bamboo materials of fire lance
barrels were replaced by metal.[27]
The earliest known depiction of a cannon is a sculpture from the Dazu Rock Carvings in
Sichuan dated to 1128,[1] however, the earliest archaeological samples and textual
accounts do not appear until the 13th century. The primary extant specimens of cannon
from the 13th century are the Wuwei Bronze Cannon dated to 1227, the Heilongjiang
hand cannon dated to 1288, and the Xanadu Gun dated to 1298. However, only the
Xanadu gun contains an inscription bearing a date of production, so it is considered the
earliest confirmed extant cannon. The Xanadu Gun is 34.7 cm in length and weighs
6.2 kg. The other cannons are dated using contextual evidence.[28] The
Heilongjiang hand cannon is also often considered by some to be the oldest firearm
since it was unearthed near the area where the History of Yuan reports a battle took
place involving hand cannons. According to the History of Yuan, in 1288, a Jurchen
commander by the name of Li Ting led troops armed with hand cannons into battle
against the rebel prince Nayan.[29]
Chen Bingying argues there were no guns before 1259, while Dang Shoushan believes
the Wuwei gun and other Western Xia era samples point to the appearance of guns by
1220, and Stephen Haw goes even further by stating that guns were developed as early
as 1200.[30] Sinologist Joseph Needham and renaissance siege expert Thomas Arnold
provide a more conservative estimate of around 1280 for the appearance of the "true"
cannon.[31][32] Whether or not any of these are correct, it seems likely that the gun was
born sometime during the 13th century.[33]
References to cannons proliferated throughout China in the following centuries. Cannon
featured in literary pieces. In 1341 Xian Zhang wrote a poem called The Iron Cannon
Affair describing a cannonball fired from an eruptor which could "pierce the heart or
belly when striking a man or horse, and even transfix several persons at once."[34] By the
1350s the cannon was used extensively in Chinese warfare. In 1358 the Ming army
failed to take a city due to its garrisons' usage of cannon, however, they themselves
would use cannon, in the thousands, later on during the siege of Suzhou in 1366.[35][10][11]
The Mongol invasion of Java in 1293 brought gunpowder technology to
the Nusantara archipelago in the form of cannon (Chinese: Pao).[36] During the Ming
dynasty cannons were used in riverine warfare at the Battle of Lake Poyang.[37] One
shipwreck in Shandong had a cannon dated to 1377 and an anchor dated to 1372.
[38]
 From the 13th to 15th centuries cannon-armed Chinese ships also travelled
throughout Southeast Asia.[39] Cannon appeared in Đại Việt by 1390 at the latest.[12]
The first of the western cannon to be introduced were breech-loaders in the early 16th
century, which the Chinese began producing themselves by 1523 and improved on by
including composite metal construction in their making.[40]
Japan did not acquire cannon until 1510 when a monk brought one back from China,
and did not produce any in appreciable numbers.[41] During the 1593 Siege of
Pyongyang, 40,000 Ming troops deployed a variety of cannons against Japanese
troops. Despite their defensive advantage and the use of arquebus by Japanese
soldiers, the Japanese were at a severe disadvantage due to their lack of cannon.
Throughout the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), the Ming–Joseon coalition
used artillery widely in land and naval battles, including on the turtle ships of Yi Sun-sin.
[42][43]

According to Ivan Petlin, the first Russian envoy to Beijing, in September 1619, the city
was armed with large cannon with cannonballs weighing more than 30 kg (66 lb). His
general observation was that the Chinese were militarily capable and had firearms:
There are many merchants and military persons in the Chinese Empire. They have
firearms, and the Chinese are very skillful in military affairs. They go into battle against
the Yellow Mongols who fight with bows and arrows.[44]

— Ivan Petlin

Western Europe
Main article: Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages

Earliest picture of a European cannon, "De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum", Walter de Milemete,
1326

Western European handgun, 1380

The first Western image of a battle with cannon: the Siege of Orléans in 1429

Cannon from the 15th century at Šibenik city walls

Outside of China, the earliest texts to mention gunpowder are Roger Bacon's Opus

Majus (1267) and Opus Tertium in what has been interpreted as references
to firecrackers. In the early 20th century, a British artillery officer proposed that another
work tentatively attributed to Bacon, Epistola de Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae, et
de Nullitate Magiae, dated to 1247, contained an encrypted formula for gunpowder
hidden in the text. These claims have been disputed by science historians.[45] In any
case, the formula itself is not useful for firearms or even firecrackers, burning slowly and
producing mostly smoke.[46][47]
There is a record of a gun in Europe dating to 1322 being discovered in the nineteenth
century but the artifact has since been lost.[48] The earliest known European depiction of
a gun appeared in 1326 in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete, although not
necessarily drawn by him, known as De Nobilitatibus, sapientii et prudentiis
regum (Concerning the Majesty, Wisdom, and Prudence of Kings), which displays a gun
with a large arrow emerging from it and its user lowering a long stick to ignite the gun
through the touch hole.[6][7] In the same year, another similar illustration showed a darker
gun being set off by a group of knights, which also featured in another work of de
Milemete's, De secretis secretorum Aristotelis.[49] On 11 February of that same year,
the Signoria of Florence appointed two officers to obtain canones de mettallo and
ammunition for the town's defense.[50] In the following year a document from the Turin
area recorded a certain amount was paid "for the making of a certain instrument or
device made by Friar Marcello for the projection of pellets of lead".[7] A reference from
1331 describes an attack mounted by two Germanic knights on Cividale del Friuli, using
man-portable gunpowder weapons of some sort.[6][7] The 1320s seem to have been the
takeoff point for guns in Europe according to most modern military historians. Scholars
suggest that the lack of gunpowder weapons in a well-traveled Venetian's catalogue for
a new crusade in 1321 implies that guns were unknown in Europe up until this point,
further solidifying the 1320 mark, however more evidence in this area may be
forthcoming in the future.[7]
The oldest extant cannon in Europe is a small bronze example unearthed in
Loshult, Scania in southern Sweden.[51] It dates from the early-mid 14th century,[52] and is
currently in the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm.
Early cannons in Europe often shot arrows and were known by an assortment of names
such as pot-de-fer, tonnoire, ribaldis, and büszenpyle. The ribaldis, which shot large
arrows and simplistic grapeshot, were first mentioned in the English Privy
Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy, between 1345 and
1346.[53] The Florentine Giovanni Villani recounts their destructiveness, indicating that by
the end of the battle, "the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and
cannon balls".[53] Similar cannon were also used at the Siege of Calais (1346–47),
although it was not until the 1380s that the ribaudekin clearly became mounted on
wheels.[53]
Early use
The Battle of Crecy which pitted the English against the French in 1346 featured the
early use of cannon which helped the longbowmen repulse a large force of Genoese
crossbowmen deployed by the French. The English originally intended to use the
cannon against cavalry sent to attack their archers, thinking that the loud noises
produced by their cannon would panic the advancing horses along with killing the
knights atop them.[54][page  needed]
Early cannons could also be used for more than simply killing men and scaring horses.
English cannon were used defensively in 1346 during the Siege of Breteuil to launch fire
onto an advancing siege tower. In this way cannons could be used to burn down siege
equipment before it reached the fortifications. The use of cannons to shoot fire could
also be used offensively as another battle involved the setting of a castle ablaze with
similar methods. The particular incendiary used in these projectiles was most likely a
gunpowder mixture. This is one area where early Chinese and European cannons share
a similarity as both were possibly used to shoot fire.[54]
Another aspect of early European cannons is that they were rather small, dwarfed by
the bombards which would come later. In fact, it is possible that the cannons used at
Crécy were capable of being moved rather quickly as there is an anonymous chronicle
that notes the guns being used to attack the French camp, indicating that they would
have been mobile enough to press the attack. These smaller cannons would eventually
give way to larger, wall-breaching guns by the end of the 1300s.[54]
Islamic world

The Dardanelles Gun, a 1464 Ottoman bombard

Malik E Maidan, a 16th-century cannon, was effectively used by the Deccan sultanates, and was the largest
cannon operated during the Battle of Talikota.

There is no clear consensus on when the cannon first appeared in the Islamic world,
with dates ranging from 1260 to the mid-14th century. The cannon may have appeared
in the Islamic world in the late 13th century, with Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century stating
that cannons were used in the Maghreb region of North Africa in 1274, and other Arabic
military treatises in the 14th century referring to the use of cannon by Mamluk forces in
1260 and 1303, and by Muslim forces at the 1324 Siege of Huesca in Spain. However,
some scholars do not accept these early dates. While the date of its first appearance is
not entirely clear, the general consensus among most historians is that there is no doubt
the Mamluk forces were using cannon by 1342.[5] Other accounts may have also
mentioned the use of cannon in the early 14th century. An Arabic text dating to 1320–
1350 describes a type of gunpowder weapon called a midfa which uses gunpowder to
shoot projectiles out of a tube at the end of a stock.[55] Some scholars consider this a
hand cannon while others dispute this claim.[56][57] The Nasrid army besieging Elche in
1331 made use of "iron pellets shot with fire".[58]
According to historian Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, during the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260,
the Mamluks used cannon against the Mongols. He claims that this was "the first
cannon in history" and used a gunpowder formula almost identical to the ideal
composition for explosive gunpowder. He also argues that this was not known in China
or Europe until much later.[59][60] Al-Hassan further claims that the earliest textual evidence
of cannon is from the Middle East, based on earlier originals which report hand-held
cannons being used by the Mamluks at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.[59] Such an early
date is not accepted by some historians,[5] including David Ayalon, Iqtidar Alam
Khan, Joseph Needham and Tonio Andrade. Khan argues that it was the Mongols who
introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world,[61] and believes cannon only reached Mamluk
Egypt in the 1370s.[62] Needham argued that the term midfa, dated to textual sources
from 1342 to 1352, did not refer to true hand-guns or bombards, and that contemporary
accounts of a metal-barrel cannon in the Islamic world did not occur until 1365.
[63]
 Similarly, Andrade dates the textual appearance of cannons in middle eastern
sources to the 1360s.[13] Gabor Ágoston and David Ayalon note that the Mamluks had
certainly used siege cannons by 1342[5] or the 1360s, respectively, but earlier uses of
cannons in the Islamic World are vague with a possible appearance in the Emirate of
Granada by the 1320s and 1330s, though evidence is inconclusive.[64][13]
Ibn Khaldun reported the use of cannon as siege machines by the Marinid sultan Abu
Yaqub Yusuf at the siege of Sijilmasa in 1274.[59][65] The passage by Ibn Khaldun on the
Marinid Siege of Sijilmassa in 1274 occurs as follows: "[The Sultan] installed siege
engines ... and gunpowder engines ..., which project small balls of iron. These balls are
ejected from a chamber ... placed in front of a kindling fire of gunpowder; this happens
by a strange property which attributes all actions to the power of the Creator."[48] The
source is not contemporary and was written a century later around 1382. Its
interpretation has been rejected as anachronistic by some historians, who urge caution
regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204–1324 period as late medieval
Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, as they did for an earlier
incendiary, naphtha.[66][64] Ágoston and Peter Purton note that in the 1204–1324 period,
late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for
an earlier incendiary, naphtha.[67] Needham believes Ibn Khaldun was speaking of fire
lances rather than hand cannon.[68]
The Ottoman Empire made good use of cannon as siege artillery. Sixty-eight super-
sized bombards were used by Mehmed the Conqueror to capture Constantinople in
1453. Jim Bradbury argues that Urban, a Hungarian cannon engineer, introduced this
cannon from Central Europe to the Ottoman realm;[69] according to Paul Hammer,
however, it could have been introduced from other Islamic countries which had earlier
used cannons.[65] These cannon could fire heavy stone balls a mile, and the sound of
their blast could reportedly be heard from a distance of 10 miles (16 km).
[69]
 Shkodëran historian Marin Barleti discusses Turkish bombards at length in his
book De obsidione Scodrensi (1504), describing the 1478–79 siege of Shkodra in which
eleven bombards and two mortars were employed. The Ottomans also used cannon to
control passage of ships through the Bosphorus strait.[70] Ottoman cannons also proved
effective at stopping crusaders at Varna in 1444 and Kosovo in 1448 despite the
presence of European cannon in the former case.[70]
The similar Dardanelles Guns (for the location) were created by Munir Ali in 1464 and
were still in use during the Anglo-Turkish War (1807–1809).[15] These were cast in
bronze into two parts: the chase (the barrel) and the breech, which combined weighed
18.4 tonnes.[71] The two parts were screwed together using levers to facilitate moving it.
Fathullah Shirazi, a Persian inhabitant of India who worked for Akbar in the Mughal
Empire, developed a volley gun in the 16th century.[72]
While there is evidence of cannons in Iran as early as 1405 they were not widespread.
[73]
 This changed following the increased use of firearms by Shah Ismail I, and the Iranian
army used 500 cannons by the 1620s, probably captured from the Ottomans or
acquired by allies in Europe.[74] By 1443, Iranians were also making some of their own
cannon, as Mir Khawand wrote of a 1200 kg metal piece being made by an
Iranian rikhtegar which was most likely a cannon.[75] Due to the difficulties of transporting
cannon in mountainous terrain, their use was less common compared to their use in
Europe.[74]
Eastern Europe
Documentary evidence of cannons in Russia does not appear until 1382 and they were
used only in sieges, often by the defenders.[76] It was not until 1475 when Ivan III
established the first Russian cannon foundry in Moscow that they began to produce
cannons natively.[77] The earliest surviving cannon from Russia dates to 1485.[78]
Later on large cannons were known as bombards, ranging from three to five feet in
length and were used by Dubrovnik and Kotor in defence during the later 14th century.
The first bombards were made of iron, but bronze became more prevalent as it was
recognized as more stable and capable of propelling stones weighing as much as 45
kilograms (99 lb). Around the same period, the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate
its own cannon to face the Ottoman Empire, starting with medium-sized cannon 3 feet
(0.91 m) long and of 10 in calibre.[79] The earliest reliable recorded use of artillery in the
region was against the Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1396, forcing the Ottomans
to withdraw.[79] The Ottomans acquired their own cannon and laid siege to the Byzantine
capital again in 1422. By 1453, the Ottomans used 68 Hungarian-made cannon for the
55-day bombardment of the walls of Constantinople, "hurling the pieces everywhere and
killing those who happened to be nearby".[79] The largest of their cannons was the Great
Turkish Bombard, which required an operating crew of 200 men[80] and 70 oxen, and
10,000 men to transport it.[79] Gunpowder made the formerly devastating Greek
fire obsolete, and with the final fall of Constantinople—which was protected by what
were once the strongest walls in Europe—on 29 May 1453, "it was the end of an era in
more ways than one".[81]
Southeast Asia

Collection of Philippine lantaka in a European museum

The Javanese Majapahit Empire was arguably able to encompass much of modern-day

Indonesia due to its unique mastery of bronze-smithing and use of a central arsenal fed
by a large number of cottage industries within the immediate region. Cannons were
introduced to Majapahit when Kublai Khan's Chinese army under the leadership of Ike
Mese sought to invade Java in 1293. History of Yuan mentioned that the Mongol used a
weapon called p'ao against Daha forces.[82]: 1–2 [36][83]: 244–245 [84]: 220  This weapon is interpreted
differently by researchers, it may be a trebuchet that throws thunderclap bombs,
firearms, cannons, or rockets. It is possible that the gunpowder weapons carried by the
Mongol–Chinese troops amounted to more than one type.[85]: 97 
Thomas Stamford Raffles wrote in The History of Java that in 1247 saka (1325 AD),
cannons were widely used in Java especially by the Majapahit. It is recorded that the
small kingdoms in Java that sought the protection of Majapahit had to hand over their
cannons to the Majapahit.[86]: 106 [87]: 61  Majapahit under Mahapatih (prime minister) Gajah
Mada (in office 1331–1364) utilized gunpowder technology obtained from Yuan
dynasty for use in naval fleet.[88]: 57  One of the earliest references to cannon
and artillerymen in Java is from the year 1346.[89]

A cannon found from the Brantas river. Made of bronze, with a triangular embossed touch hole. The wooden
parts were recently made for display.

Mongol-Chinese gunpowder technology of Yuan dynasty resulted in eastern-style

cetbang which is similar to Chinese cannon. Swivel guns however, only developed in
the archipelago because of the close maritime relations of the Nusantara archipelago
with the territory of West India after 1460 AD, which brought new types of gunpowder
weapons to the archipelago, likely through Arab intermediaries. This weapon seems to
be cannon and gun of Ottoman tradition, for example the prangi, which is a breech-
loading swivel gun. A new type of cetbang, called the western-style cetbang, was
derived from the Turkish prangi. Just like prangi, this cetbang is a breech-loading swivel
gun made of bronze or iron, firing single rounds or scattershots (a large number of small
bullets).[85]: 94–95 
Cannons derived from western-style cetbang can be found in Nusantara, among others
were lantaka and lela. Most lantakas were made of bronze and the earliest ones
were breech-loaded. There is a trend toward muzzle-loading weapons during colonial
times.[90] A pole gun (bedil tombak) was recorded as being used by Java in 1413.[91][92]: 245 
Portuguese and Spanish invaders were unpleasantly surprised and even outgunned on
occasion.[93] Circa 1540, the Javanese, always alert to new weapons, found the newly
arrived Portuguese weaponry superior to that of the locally made variants. Majapahit-
era cetbang cannon were further improved and used in the Demak Sultanate period
during the Demak invasion of Portuguese Malacca. During this period, the iron, for
manufacturing Javanese cannon was imported from Khorasan in northern Persia. The
material was known by Javanese as wesi kurasani (Khorasan iron). When
the Portuguese came to the archipelago, they referred to it as Berço, which was also
used to refer to any breech-loading swivel gun, while the Spaniards called it Verso.[94]: 151 
Duarte Barbosa c. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java were great masters in casting
artillery and very good artillerymen. They made many one-pounder cannon
(cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand
cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannon), and other fireworks. Every place was considered
excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.[95]: 198 [96]: 224  In 1513,
the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much
artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all
works in iron, over and above what they have in India".[94]: 162 [97]: 23  By early 16th century, the
Javanese already locally-producing large guns, some of them still survived until the
present day and dubbed as "sacred cannon" or "holy cannon". These cannons varied
between 180- and 260-pounders, weighing anywhere between 3 and 8 tons, length of
them between 3 and 6 m (9.8 and 19.7 ft).[98]
Cannons were used by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1352 during its invasion of the Khmer
Empire.[99] Within a decade large quantities of gunpowder could be found in the Khmer
Empire.[99] By the end of the century firearms were also used by the Trần dynasty.[12]
Saltpeter harvesting was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as being common in
even the smallest villages and was collected from the decomposition process of large
dung hills specifically piled for the purpose. The Dutch punishment for possession of
non-permitted gunpowder appears to have been amputation.[100]: 180–181  Ownership and
manufacture of gunpowder was later prohibited by the colonial Dutch occupiers.
[101]
 According to colonel McKenzie quoted in Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles' The History
of Java (1817), the purest sulfur was supplied from a crater from a mountain near the
straits of Bali.[100]: 180–181 
Africa
In Africa, the Adal Sultanate and the Abyssinian Empire both deployed cannons during
the Adal-Abyssinian War. Imported from Arabia, and the wider Islamic world, the
Adalites led by Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi were the first African power to introduce
cannon warfare to the African continent.[102] Later on as the Portuguese Empire entered
the war it would supply and train the Abyssinians with cannons, while the Ottoman
Empire sent soldiers and cannon to back Adal. The conflict proved, through their use on
both sides, the value of firearms such as the matchlock musket, cannon, and
the arquebus over traditional weapons.[103]
Offensive and defensive use
While previous smaller guns could burn down structures with fire, larger cannons were
so effective that engineers were forced to develop stronger castle walls to prevent their
keeps from falling.[54] Nonetheless, cannons were used other purposes than battering
down walls as fortifications began using cannons as defensive instruments such as an
example in India where the fort of Raicher had gun ports built into its walls to
accommodate the use of defensive cannons.[104] In The Art of War, Niccolò Machiavelli
opined that field artillery forced an army to take up a defensive posture and this
opposed a more ideal offensive stance.[105] Machiavelli's concerns can be seen in the
criticisms of Portuguese mortars being used in India during the sixteenth century as lack
of mobility was one of the key problems with the design.[106] In Russia the early cannons
were again placed in forts as a defensive tool.[107] Cannon were also difficult to move
around in certain types of terrain with mountains providing a great obstacle for them, for
these reasons offensives conducted with cannons would be difficult to pull off in places
such as Iran.[74]
Early modern period

Various 16th-century artillery pieces, including culverin, falconet and mortar

By the 16th century, cannons were made in a great variety of lengths and bore
diameters, but the general rule was that the longer the barrel, the longer the range.
Some cannons made during this time had barrels exceeding 10 ft (3.0 m) in length, and
could weigh up to 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg). Consequently, large amounts of
gunpowder were needed to allow them to fire stone balls several hundred yards.[108] By
mid-century, European monarchs began to classify cannons to reduce the
confusion. Henry II of France opted for six sizes of cannon,[109] but others settled for
more; the Spanish used twelve sizes, and the English sixteen. They are, from largest to
smallest: the cannon royal, cannon, cannon serpentine, bastard cannon, demicannon,
pedrero, culverin, basilisk, demiculverin, bastard culverin, saker, minion, falcon,
falconet, serpentine, and rabinet.[110][111] Better powder had been developed by this time as
well. Instead of the finely ground powder used by the first bombards, powder was
replaced by a "corned" variety of coarse grains. This coarse powder had pockets of air
between grains, allowing fire to travel through and ignite the entire charge quickly and
uniformly.[112]
The end of the Middle Ages saw the construction of larger, more powerful cannon, as
well as their spread throughout the world. As they were not effective at breaching the
newer fortifications resulting from the development of cannon, siege engines—such
as siege towers and trebuchets—became less widely used. However, wooden "battery-
towers" took on a similar role as siege towers in the gunpowder age—such as that used
at Siege of Kazan in 1552, which could hold ten large-calibre cannon, in addition to 50
lighter pieces.[113] Another notable effect of cannon on warfare during this period was the
change in conventional fortifications. Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, "There is no wall,
whatever its thickness that artillery will not destroy in only a few days."[114] Although
castles were not immediately made obsolete by cannon, their use and importance on
the battlefield rapidly declined.[115] Instead of majestic towers and merlons, the walls of
new fortresses were thick, angled, and sloped, while towers became low and stout;
increasing use was also made of earth and brick in breastworks and redoubts. These
new defences became known as bastion forts, after their characteristic shape which
attempted to force any advance towards it directly into the firing line of the guns.[115] A
few of these featured cannon batteries, such as the House of Tudor's Device Forts in
England.[115] Bastion forts soon replaced castles in Europe and, eventually, those in the
Americas as well.[116]
By the end of the 15th century, several technological advancements made cannons
more mobile. Wheeled gun carriages and trunnions became common, and the invention
of the limber further facilitated transportation.[117] As a result, field artillery became more
viable, and began to see more widespread use, often alongside the larger cannons
intended for sieges.[117][118] Better gunpowder, cast-iron projectiles (replacing stone), and
the standardisation of calibres meant that even relatively light cannons could be deadly.
[117]
 In The Art of War, Niccolò Machiavelli observed that "It is true that
the arquebuses and the small artillery do much more harm than the heavy
artillery."[114] This was the case at the Battle of Flodden, in 1513: the English field
guns outfired the Scottish siege artillery, firing two or three times as many rounds.
[119]
 Despite the increased maneuverability, however, cannon were still the slowest
component of the army: a heavy English cannon required 23 horses to transport, while
a culverin needed nine. Even with this many animals pulling, they still moved at a
walking pace. Due to their relatively slow speed, and lack of organisation, and
undeveloped tactics, the combination of pike and shot still dominated the battlefields of
Europe.[120]
Innovations continued, notably the German invention of the mortar, a thick-walled,
short-barrelled gun that blasted shot upward at a steep angle. Mortars were useful for
sieges, as they could hit targets behind walls or other defences.[121] This cannon found
more use with the Dutch, who learnt to shoot bombs filled with powder from them.
Setting the bomb fuse was a problem. "Single firing" was first used to ignite the fuse,
where the bomb was placed with the fuse down against the cannon's propellant. This
often resulted in the fuse being blown into the bomb, causing it to blow up as it left the
mortar. Because of this, "double firing" was tried where the gunner lit the fuse and then
the touch hole. This, however, required considerable skill and timing, and was
especially dangerous if the gun misfired, leaving a lighted bomb in the barrel. Not until
1650 was it accidentally discovered that double-lighting was superfluous as the heat of
firing would light the fuse.[122]
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden emphasised the use of light cannon and mobility in his
army, and created new formations and tactics that revolutionised artillery. He
discontinued using all 12 pounder—or heavier—cannon as field artillery, preferring,
instead, to use cannons that could be handled by only a few men. One obsolete type of
gun, the "leatheren", was replaced by 4 pounder and 9 pounder demi-culverins. These
could be operated by three men, and pulled by only two horses. Gustavus Adolphus's
army was also the first to use a cartridge that contained both powder and shot which
sped up reloading, increasing the rate of fire.[123] Finally, against infantry he pioneered the
use of canister shot—essentially a tin can filled with musket balls.[124] Until then there was
no more than one cannon for every thousand infantrymen on the battlefield but
Gustavus Adolphus increased the number of cannons sixfold. Each regiment was
assigned two pieces, though he often arranged them into batteries instead of
distributing them piecemeal. He used these batteries to break his opponent's infantry
line, while his cavalry would outflank their heavy guns.[125]
At the Battle of Breitenfeld, in 1631, Adolphus proved the effectiveness of the changes
made to his army, by defeating Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly. Although severely
outnumbered, the Swedes were able to fire between three and five times as many
volleys of artillery, and their infantry's linear formations helped ensure they did not lose
any ground. Battered by cannon fire, and low on morale, Tilly's men broke ranks and
fled.[126]
In England, cannons were being used to besiege various fortified buildings during
the English Civil War. Nathaniel Nye is recorded as testing a Birmingham cannon in
1643 and experimenting with a saker in 1645.[127] From 1645 he was the master gunner
to the Parliamentarian garrison at Evesham and in 1646 he successfully directed the
artillery at the Siege of Worcester, detailing his experiences and in his 1647 book The
Art of Gunnery.[127] Believing that war was as much a science as an art,[128] his
explanations focused on triangulation, arithmetic, theoretical mathematics,
[129]
 and cartography[127] as well as practical considerations such as the ideal specification
for gunpowder or slow matches.[130] His book acknowledged mathematicians such
as Robert Recorde and Marcus Jordanus as well as earlier military writers on artillery
such as Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia and Thomas (or Francis[131]) Malthus (author of A
Treatise on Artificial Fire-Works[132]).[127]
Around this time also came the idea of aiming the cannon to hit a target. Gunners
controlled the range of their cannons by measuring the angle of elevation, using a
"gunner's quadrant". Cannons did not have sights; therefore, even with measuring tools,
aiming was still largely guesswork.[133]
In the latter half of the 17th century, the French engineer Sébastien Le Prestre de
Vauban introduced a more systematic and scientific approach to attacking gunpowder
fortresses, in a time when many field commanders "were notorious dunces in
siegecraft".[134] Careful sapping forward, supported by enfilading ricochets, was a key
feature of this system, and it even allowed Vauban to calculate the length of time a
siege would take.[134] He was also a prolific builder of bastion forts, and did much to
popularize the idea of "depth in defence" in the face of cannon.[135] These principles were
followed into the mid-19th century, when changes in armaments necessitated greater
depth defence than Vauban had provided for. It was only in the years prior to World War
I that new works began to break radically away from his designs.[136]

The Tsar Cannon, the largest howitzer ever made, cast by Andrey Chokhov[137]

 

Remains of a post-medieval cannon battery, mounted on a medieval town wall, although without

carriages.
 

Contemporary illustration on how a cannon could be used with the aid of quadrants for improved
precision.
 

The use of gabions with cannon was an important part in the attack and defence of fortifications.
 
 

Fort Bourtange, a bastion fort, was built with angles and sloped walls specifically to defend
against cannon.

18th and 19th centuries

See also: Naval artillery in the Age of Sail, Field artillery in the American Civil War,
and Siege artillery in the American Civil War

36-pounder long gun at the ready

The lower tier of 17th-century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi-
cannons, guns that fired a 32-pound (15 kg) solid shot, and could weigh up to 3,400
pounds (1,500 kg).[138] Demi-cannons were capable of firing these heavy metal balls with
such force that they could penetrate more than a metre of solid oak, from a distance of
90 m (300 ft), and could dismast even the largest ships at close range.[139] Full cannon
fired a 42-pound (19 kg) shot, but were discontinued by the 18th century, as they were
too unwieldy. By the end of the 18th century, principles long adopted in Europe
specified the characteristics of the Royal Navy's cannon, as well as the acceptable
defects, and their severity. The United States Navy tested guns by measuring them,
firing them two or three times—termed "proof by powder"—and using pressurized water
to detect leaks.[140]
The carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779; the lower muzzle velocity of the
round shot when fired from this cannon was intended to create more wooden splinters
when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel, as they were believed to be more deadly
than the ball by itself.[141] The carronade was much shorter, and weighed between a third
to a quarter of the equivalent long gun; for example, a 32-pounder carronade weighed
less than a ton, compared with a 32-pounder long gun, which weighed over 3 tons. The
guns were, therefore, easier to handle, and also required less than half as much
gunpowder, allowing fewer men to crew them.[142] Carronades were manufactured in the
usual naval gun calibres,[143] but were not counted in a ship of the line's rated number of
guns. As a result, the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can be
misleading, as they often carried more cannons than were listed.
Illustration by William Simpson shows action in a British artillery battery during the Crimean War with cannon
firing and being loaded and men bringing in supplies.

Cannons were crucial in Napoleon's rise to power, and continued to play an important
role in his army in later years.[144] During the French Revolution, the unpopularity of
the Directory led to riots and rebellions. When over 25,000 royalists led by General
Danican assaulted Paris, Paul Barras was appointed to defend the capital;
outnumbered five to one and disorganised, the Republicans were desperate.[145] When
Napoleon arrived, he reorganised the defences but realised that without cannons the
city could not be held. He ordered Joachim Murat to bring the guns from the Sablons
artillery park; the Major and his cavalry fought their way to the recently captured
cannons, and brought them back to Napoleon. When Danican's poorly trained men
attacked, on 13 Vendémiaire 1795 (5 October in the calendar used in France at the
time), Napoleon ordered his cannon to fire grapeshot into the mob,[146] an act that
became known as the "whiff of grapeshot".[147] The slaughter effectively ended the threat
to the new government, while, at the same time, making Bonaparte a famous—and
popular—public figure.[146][148] Among the first generals to recognise that artillery was not
being used to its full potential, Napoleon often massed his cannon into batteries and
introduced several changes into the French artillery, improving it significantly and
making it among the finest in Europe.[149][150] Such tactics were successfully used by the
French, for example, at the Battle of Friedland, when 66 guns fired a total of
3,000 roundshot and 500 rounds of grapeshot,[149][151] inflicting severe casualties to the
Russian forces, whose losses numbered over 20,000 killed and wounded, in total.[152] At
the Battle of Waterloo—Napoleon's final battle—the French army had many more
artillery pieces than either the British or Prussians. As the battlefield was
muddy, recoil caused cannons to bury themselves into the ground after firing, resulting
in slow rates of fire, as more effort was required to move them back into an adequate
firing position;[153] also, roundshot did not ricochet with as much force from the wet earth.
[154]
 Despite the drawbacks, sustained artillery fire proved deadly during the engagement,
especially during the French cavalry attack.[155] The British infantry, having
formed infantry squares, took heavy losses from the French guns, while their own
cannons fired at the cuirassiers and lancers, when they fell back to regroup. Eventually,
the French ceased their assault, after taking heavy losses from the British cannon and
musket fire.[156]
In the 1810s and 1820s, greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long-range
gunfire, and less on the weight of a broadside. Around 1822, George
Marshall wrote Marshall's Practical Marine Gunnery. The book was used by cannon
operators in the United States Navy throughout the 19th century. It listed all the types of
cannons and instructions.[157]

A 3-inch Parrott rifle from the Battle of Chancellorsville

The carronade, although initially very successful and widely adopted, disappeared from
the Royal Navy in the 1850s after the development of wrought-iron-jacketed steel
cannon by William Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth. Nevertheless, carronades were
used in the American Civil War.[141][158]
Western cannons during the 19th century became larger, more destructive, more
accurate, and could fire at longer range. One example is the American 3-inch (76 mm)
wrought-iron, muzzle-loading rifle, or Griffen gun (usually called the 3-inch Ordnance
Rifle), used during the American Civil War, which had an effective range of over 1.1 mi
(1.8 km). Another is the smoothbore 12-pounder Napoleon, which originated in France
in 1853 and was widely used by both sides in the American Civil War. This cannon was
renowned for its sturdiness, reliability, firepower, flexibility, relatively lightweight, and
range of 1,700 m (5,600 ft).[159]

Armstrong gun deployed by Japan during the Boshin war (1868–69).

The 1870s de Bange 90 mm cannon on the yard of Eastern Finland military office in Mikkeli, South Savonia,
Finland

The practice of rifling—casting spiralling lines inside the cannon's barrel—was applied
to artillery more frequently by 1855, as it gave cannon projectiles gyroscopic stability,
which improved their accuracy. One of the earliest rifled cannons was the breech-
loading Armstrong Gun—also invented by William Armstrong—which boasted
significantly improved range, accuracy, and power than earlier weapons. The projectile
fired from the Armstrong gun could reportedly pierce through a ship's side and explode
inside the enemy vessel, causing increased damage and casualties.[160] The British
military adopted the Armstrong gun, and was impressed; the Duke of Cambridge even
declared that it "could do everything but speak".[161] Despite being significantly more
advanced than its predecessors, the Armstrong gun was rejected soon after its
integration, in favour of the muzzle-loading pieces that had been in use before.[162] While
both types of gun were effective against wooden ships, neither had the capability to
pierce the armour of ironclads; due to reports of slight problems with the breeches of the
Armstrong gun, and their higher cost, the older muzzle-loaders were selected to remain
in service instead.[163] Realising that iron was more difficult to pierce with breech-loaded
cannons, Armstrong designed rifled muzzle-loading guns,[164] which proved
successful; The Times reported: "even the fondest believers in the invulnerability of our
present ironclads were obliged to confess that against such artillery, at such ranges,
their plates and sides were almost as penetrable as wooden ships."[165]
The superior cannon of the Western world brought them tremendous advantages in
warfare. For example, in the First Opium War in China, during the 19th century, British
battleships bombarded the coastal areas and fortifications from afar, safe from the
reach of the Chinese cannons. Similarly, the shortest war in recorded history, the Anglo-
Zanzibar War of 1896, was brought to a swift conclusion by shelling from British
cruisers.[166] The cynical attitude towards recruited infantry in the face of ever more
powerful field artillery is the source of the term cannon fodder, first used by François-
René de Chateaubriand, in 1814;[167] however, the concept of regarding soldiers as
nothing more than "food for powder" was mentioned by William Shakespeare as early
as 1598, in Henry IV, Part 1.[168]
20th and 21st centuries

Comparison of 1888 and 1913 German cannon

Cannons in the 20th and 21st centuries are usually divided into sub-categories and
given separate names. Some of the most widely used types of modern cannon are
howitzers, mortars, guns, and autocannon, although a few very large-calibre cannon,
custom-designed, have also been constructed. Nuclear artillery was experimented with,
but was abandoned as impractical.[169] Modern artillery is used in a variety of roles,
depending on its type. According to NATO, the general role of artillery is to provide fire
support, which is defined as "the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of
forces to destroy, neutralize, or suppress the enemy".[170]
When referring to cannons, the term gun is often used incorrectly. In military usage, a
gun is a cannon with a high muzzle velocity and a flat trajectory, useful for hitting the
sides of targets such as walls,[171] as opposed to howitzers or mortars, which have lower
muzzle velocities, and fire indirectly, lobbing shells up and over obstacles to hit the
target from above.[172][173]

Royal Artillery howitzers at the Battle of the Somme

Main article: Artillery
By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most
artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannons proved
highly effective during World War I, directly or indirectly causing over 75% of casualties.
[174]
 The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly
increased the demand for howitzers, as they were more suited at hitting targets in
trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried more explosives than those of guns, and
caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army had the advantage here as
they began the war with many more howitzers than the French.[175] World War I also saw
the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This 200 mm (8 in) calibre
gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than 122 km
(76 mi) away.[176]
The Second World War sparked new developments in cannon technology. Among them
were sabot rounds, hollow-charge projectiles, and proximity fuses, all of which
increased the effectiveness of cannon against specific target.[177] The proximity fuse
emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944.[178] Used to great effect
in anti-aircraft projectiles, proximity fuses were fielded in both
the European and Pacific Theatres of Operations; they were particularly useful
against V-1 flying bombs and kamikaze planes. Although widely used in naval warfare,
and in anti-air guns, both the British and Americans feared unexploded proximity fuses
would be reverse engineered, leading to them limiting their use in continental battles.
During the Battle of the Bulge, however, the fuses became known as the American
artillery's "Christmas present" for the German army because of their effectiveness
against German personnel in the open, when they frequently dispersed attacks.[179] Anti-
tank guns were also tremendously improved during the war: in 1939, the British used
primarily 2 pounder and 6 pounder guns. By the end of the war, 17 pounders had
proven much more effective against German tanks, and 32 pounders had entered
development.[180][181] Meanwhile, German tanks were continuously upgraded with
better main guns, in addition to other improvements. For example, the Panzer III was
originally designed with a 37 mm gun, but was mass-produced with a 50 mm cannon.
[182]
 To counter the threat of the Russian T-34s, another, more powerful 50 mm gun was
introduced,[182] only to give way to a larger 75 mm cannon, which was in a fixed mount as
the StuG III, the most-produced German World War II armoured fighting vehicle of any
type.[183] Despite the improved guns, production of the Panzer III was ended in 1943, as
the tank still could not match the T-34, and was replaced by the Panzer
IV and Panther tanks.[184] In 1944, the 8.8 cm KwK 43 and many variations, entered
service with the Wehrmacht, and was used as both a tank main gun, and as the PaK
43 anti-tank gun.[185][186] One of the most powerful guns to see service in World War II, it
was capable of destroying any Allied tank at very long ranges.[187][188]

USS Iowa firing her 16 in (41 cm) guns

Despite being designed to fire at trajectories with a steep angle of descent, howitzers
can be fired directly, as was done by the 11th Marine Regiment at the Battle of Chosin
Reservoir, during the Korean War. Two field batteries fired directly upon a battalion of
Chinese infantry; the Marines were forced to brace themselves against their howitzers,
as they had no time to dig them in. The Chinese infantry took heavy casualties, and
were forced to retreat.[189]
The tendency to create larger calibre cannons during the World Wars has reversed
since. The United States Army, for example, sought a lighter, more versatile howitzer, to
replace their ageing pieces. As it could be towed, the M198 was selected to be the
successor to the World War II–era cannons used at the time, and entered service in
1979.[190] Still in use today, the M198 is, in turn, being slowly replaced by
the M777 Ultralightweight howitzer, which weighs nearly half as much and can be more
easily moved. Although land-based artillery such as the M198 are powerful, long-
ranged, and accurate, naval guns have not been neglected, despite being much smaller
than in the past, and, in some cases, having been replaced by cruise missiles.
[191]
 However, the Zumwalt-class destroyer's planned armament included the Advanced
Gun System (AGS), a pair of 155 mm guns, which fire the Long Range Land-Attack
Projectile. The warhead, which weighted 24 pounds (11 kg), had a circular error of
probability of 50 m (160 ft), and was mounted on a rocket, to increase the effective
range to 100 nmi (190 km), further than that of the Paris Gun. The AGS's barrels would
be water cooled, and fire 10 rounds per minute, per gun. The combined firepower from
both turrets would give a Zumwalt-class destroyer the firepower equivalent to 18
conventional M198 howitzers.[192][193] The reason for the re-integration of cannons as a
main armament in United States Navy ships was because satellite-guided munitions
fired from a gun would be less expensive than a cruise missile but have a similar
guidance capability.[191]
Autocannon
Main article: Autocannon

A large bore Maxim on USS Vixen c. 1898

Autocannons have an automatic firing mode, similar to that of a machine gun. They
have mechanisms to automatically load their ammunition, and therefore have a higher
rate of fire than artillery, often approaching, or, in the case of rotary autocannons, even
surpassing the firing rate of a machine gun.[194] While there is no minimum bore for
autocannons, they are generally larger than machine guns, typically 20 mm or greater
since World War II and are usually capable of using explosive ammunition even if it is
not always used. Machine guns in contrast are usually too small to use explosive
ammunition;[195] such ammunition is additionally banned in international conflict for the
parties to the Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868.
Most nations use rapid-fire cannon on light vehicles, replacing a more powerful, but
heavier, tank gun. A typical autocannon is the 25 mm "Bushmaster" chain gun, mounted
on the LAV-25 and M2 Bradley armoured vehicles. Autocannons may be capable of a
very high rate of fire, but ammunition is heavy and bulky, limiting the amount carried.
For this reason, both the 25 mm Bushmaster and the 30 mm RARDEN are deliberately
designed with relatively low rates of fire. The typical rate of fire for a modern
autocannon ranges from 90 to 1,800 rounds per minute. Systems with multiple barrels,
such as a rotary autocannon, can have rates of fire of more than several thousand
rounds per minute. The fastest of these is the GSh-6-23, which has a rate of fire of over
10,000 rounds per minute.[194]
Autocannons are often found in aircraft, where they replaced machine guns and as
shipboard anti-aircraft weapons, as they provide greater destructive power than
machine guns.[196]
Aircraft use
Main article: Aircraft artillery
The first documented installation of a cannon on an aircraft was on the Voisin Canon in
1911, displayed at the Paris Exposition that year. By World War I, all of the major
powers were experimenting with aircraft-mounted cannons; however their low rate of
fire and great size and weight precluded any of them from being anything other than
experimental. The most successful (or least unsuccessful) was the SPAD 12 Ca.1 with
a single 37mm Puteaux mounted to fire between the cylinder banks and through the
propeller boss of the aircraft's Hispano-Suiza 8C. The pilot (by necessity an ace) had to
manually reload each round.[197]
The first autocannon were developed during World War I as anti-aircraft guns, and one
of these, the Coventry Ordnance Works "COW 37 mm gun", was installed in an aircraft.
However, the war ended before it could be given a field trial, and it never became
standard equipment in a production aircraft. Later trials had it fixed at a steep angle
upwards in both the Vickers Type 161 and the Westland C.O.W. Gun Fighter, an idea
that would return later.
During this period autocannons became available and several fighters of the
German Luftwaffe and the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service were fitted with 20 mm
cannons. They continued to be installed as an adjunct to machine guns rather than as a
replacement, as the rate of fire was still too low and the complete installation too heavy.
There was a some debate in the RAF as to whether the greater number of possible
rounds being fired from a machine gun, or a smaller number of explosive rounds from a
cannon was preferable. Improvements during the war in regards to rate of fire allowed
the cannon to displace the machine gun almost entirely.[196] The cannon was more
effective against armour so they were increasingly used during the course of World War
II, and newer fighters such as the Hawker Tempest usually carried two or four versus
the six .50 Browning machine guns for US aircraft or eight to twelve M1919 Browning
machine guns on earlier British aircraft. The Hispano-Suiza HS.404, Oerlikon 20 mm
cannon, MG FF, and their numerous variants became among the most widely used
autocannon in the war. Cannons, as with machine guns, were generally fixed to fire
forwards (mounted in the wings, in the nose or fuselage, or in a pannier under either); or
were mounted in gun turrets on heavier aircraft. Both the Germans and Japanese
mounted cannons to fire upwards and forwards for use against heavy bombers, with the
Germans calling guns so-installed Schräge Musik. This term derives from a German
colloquialism for jazz music (the German word schräg means "off-key").
Preceding the Vietnam War the high speeds aircraft were attaining led to a move to
remove the cannon due to the mistaken belief that they would be useless in a dogfight,
but combat experience during the Vietnam War showed conclusively that despite
advances in missiles, there was still a need for them. Nearly all modern fighter
aircraft are armed with an autocannon and they are also commonly found on ground-
attack aircraft. One of the most powerful examples is the 30mm GAU-8/A Avenger
Gatling-type rotary cannon, mounted exclusively on the Fairchild Republic A-10
Thunderbolt II.[196][198] The Lockheed AC-130 gunship (a converted transport) can carry a
105 mm howitzer as well as a variety of autocannons ranging up to 40 mm.[199] Both are
used in the close air support role.

Westland C.O.W. Gun Fighter with 37mm C.O.W. gun mounted to fire upwards
 
 

Supermarine Spitfire with 20 mm cannon protruding from the leading edge of the wing
 

GSh-23 autocannon mounted on the underside of a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23

 

The GAU-8/A Avenger rotary cannon, mounted in a Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II

Materials, parts, and terms

Side elevation of a typical 18th-century cannon

Cannons in general have the form of a truncated cone with an internal cylindrical bore
for holding an explosive charge and a projectile. The thickest, strongest, and closed part
of the cone is located near the explosive charge. As any explosive charge will dissipate
in all directions equally, the thickest portion of the cannon is useful for containing and
directing this force. The backward motion of the cannon as its projectile leaves the bore
is termed its recoil, and the effectiveness of the cannon can be measured in terms of
how much this response can be diminished, though obviously diminishing recoil through
increasing the overall mass of the cannon means decreased mobility.
Field artillery cannon in Europe and the Americas were initially made most often
of bronze, though later forms were constructed of cast iron and eventually steel.[200]: 
61 
 Bronze has several characteristics that made it preferable as a construction material:
although it is relatively expensive, does not always alloy well, and can result in a final
product that is "spongy about the bore",[200]: 61  bronze is more flexible than iron and
therefore less prone to bursting when exposed to high pressure; cast-iron cannon are
less expensive and more durable generally than bronze and withstand being fired more
times without deteriorating. However, cast-iron cannon have a tendency to burst without
having shown any previous weakness or wear, and this makes them more dangerous to
operate.
The older and more-stable forms of cannon were muzzle-loading as opposed to breech-
loading—to be used they had to have their ordnance packed down the bore through the
muzzle rather than inserted through the breech.
The following terms refer to the components or aspects of a classical western cannon
(c. 1850) as illustrated here.[200]: 66  In what follows, the words near, close, and behind will
refer to those parts towards the thick, closed end of the piece, and far, front, in front of,
and before to the thinner, open end.
Negative spaces
 Bore: The hollow cylinder bored down the centre of the cannon, including
the base of the bore or bottom of the bore, the nearest end of the bore into
which the ordnance (wadding, shot, etc.) gets packed. The diameter of the
bore represents the cannon's calibre.
 Chamber: The cylindrical, conical, or spherical recess at the nearest end of
the bottom of the bore into which the gunpowder is packed.
 Vent: A thin tube on the near end of the cannon connecting the explosive
charge inside with an ignition source outside and often filled with a length
of fuse; always located near the breech. Sometimes called the fuse hole or
the touch hole. On the top of the vent on the outside of the cannon is a flat
circular space called the vent field where the charge is lit. If the cannon is
bronze, it will often have a vent piece made of copper screwed into the length
of the vent.
Solid spaces
The main body of a cannon consists of three basic extensions: the foremost and the
longest is called the chase, the middle portion is the reinforce, and the closest and
briefest portion is the cascabel or cascable.

 The chase: Simply the entire conical part of the cannon in front of

the reinforce. It is the longest portion of the cannon, and includes the
following elements:
 o The neck: the narrowest part of the chase, always located near the
foremost end of the piece.
o The muzzle: the portion of the chase forward of the neck. It
includes the following:
 The swell of the muzzle refers to the slight swell in the
diameter of the piece at the very end of the chase. It is
often chamfered on the inside to make loading the
cannon easier. In some guns, this element is replaced
with a wide ring and is called a muzzle band.
 The face is the flat vertical plane at the foremost edge of
the muzzle (and of the entire piece).
 The muzzle mouldings are the tiered rings which
connect the face with the rest of the muzzle, the first of
which is called the lip and the second the fillet
 The muzzle astragal and fillets are a series of three
narrow rings running around the outside of the chase
just behind the neck. Sometimes also collectively called
the chase ring.
o The chase astragal and fillets: these are a second series of such
rings located at the near end of the chase.
o The chase girdle: this is the brief length of the chase between the
chase astragal and fillets and the reinforce.
 The reinforce: This portion of the piece is frequently divided into a first
reinforce and a second reinforce, but in any case is marked as separate from
the chase by the presence of a narrow circular reinforce ring or band at its
foremost end. The span of the reinforce also includes the following:
o The trunnions are located at the foremost end of the reinforce just
behind the reinforce ring. They consist of two cylinders
perpendicular to the bore and below it which are used to mount the
cannon on its carriage.
o The rimbases are short broad rings located at the union of the
trunnions and the cannon which provide support to the carriage
attachment.
o The reinforce band is only present if the cannon has two
reinforces, and it divides the first reinforce from the second.
o The breech refers to the mass of solid metal behind the bottom of
the bore extending to the base of the breech and including
the base ring; it also generally refers to the end of the cannon
opposite the muzzle, i.e., the location where the explosion of the
gunpowder begins as opposed to the opening through which the
pressurized gas escapes.
o The base ring forms a ring at the widest part of the entire cannon
at the nearest end of the reinforce just before the cascabel.
 The cascabel: This is that portion of the cannon behind the reinforce(s) and
behind the base ring. It includes the following:
 o The knob which is the small spherical terminus of the piece;
o The neck, a short, narrow piece of metal holding out the knob; and
o The fillet, the tiered disk connecting the neck of the cascabel to
the base of the breech.
o The base of the breech is the metal disk that forms the most
forward part of the cascabel and rests against the breech itself,
right next to the base ring.
To pack a muzzle-loading cannon, first gunpowder is poured down the bore. This is
followed by a layer of wadding (often nothing more than paper), and then the cannonball
itself. A certain amount of windage allows the ball to fit down the bore, though the
greater the windage the less efficient the propulsion of the ball when the gunpowder is
ignited. To fire the cannon, the fuse located in the vent is lit, quickly burning down to the
gunpowder, which then explodes violently, propelling wadding and ball down the bore
and out of the muzzle. A small portion of exploding gas also escapes through the vent,
but this does not dramatically affect the total force exerted on the ball.
Any large, smoothbore, muzzle-loading gun—used before the advent of breech-
loading, rifled guns—may be referred to as a cannon, though once standardised names
were assigned to different-sized cannon, the term specifically referred to a gun
designed to fire a 42-pound (19 kg) shot, as distinct from a demi-cannon – 32 pounds
(15 kg), culverin – 18 pounds (8.2 kg), or demi-culverin – 9 pounds
(4.1 kg). Gun specifically refers to a type of cannon that fires projectiles at high speeds,
and usually at relatively low angles;[171] they have been used in warships,[201] and as field
artillery.[202] The term cannon is also used for autocannon, a modern repeating weapon
firing explosive projectiles. Cannon have been used extensively in fighter aircraft
since World War II.[196]

Operation
Main article: Cannon operation

The parts of a cannon described in John Roberts' The Compleat Cannoniere, London, 1652

0:17
Firing of a field gun of the early 17th century with a linstock

In the 1770s, cannon operation worked as follows: each cannon would be manned by
two gunners, six soldiers, and four officers of artillery. The right gunner was to prime the
piece and load it with powder, and the left gunner would fetch the powder from the
magazine and be ready to fire the cannon at the officer's command. On each side of the
cannon, three soldiers stood, to ram and sponge the cannon, and hold the ladle. The
second soldier on the left was tasked with providing 50 bullets.[203]
Before loading, the cannon would be cleaned with a wet sponge to extinguish any
smouldering material from the last shot. Fresh powder could be set off prematurely by
lingering ignition sources. The powder was added, followed by wadding of paper or hay,
and the ball was placed in and rammed down. After ramming, the cannon would be
aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet. At 45 degrees, the ball
had the utmost range: about ten times the gun's level range. Any angle above a
horizontal line was called random-shot. Wet sponges were used to cool the pieces
every ten or twelve rounds.[203]

Firing of a 6-pound cannon

During the Napoleonic Wars, a British gun team consisted of five gunners to aim it,
clean the bore with a damp sponge to quench any remaining embers before a fresh
charge was introduced, and another to load the gun with a bag of powder and then the
projectile. The fourth gunner pressed his thumb on the vent hole, to prevent a draught
that might fan a flame. The charge loaded, the fourth would prick the bagged
charge through the vent hole, and fill the vent with powder. On command, the fifth
gunner would fire the piece with a slow match.[204] Friction primers replaced slow match
ignition by the mid-19th century.[205]
When a cannon had to be abandoned such as in a retreat or surrender, the touch hole
of the cannon would be plugged flush with an iron spike, disabling the cannon (at least
until metal boring tools could be used to remove the plug). This was called "spiking the
cannon".
A gun was said to be honeycombed when the surface of the bore had cavities, or holes
in it,[206] caused either by corrosion or casting defects.
Legal considerations
In the United States, muzzleloading cannons are not subject to any regulations at the
federal level. According to the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms,
muzzleloading cannons made before 1899 (and replicas) that are unable to fire fixed
ammunition are considered antiques. They are not subject to the Gun Control Act
(GCA) of 1968 or National Firearms Act (NFA) of 1934.[207] Muzzleloading cannons may
be subject to state of local rules in some jurisdictions, however.

Deceptive use
Main articles: Quaker gun and Military deception
Historically, logs or poles have been used as decoys to mislead the enemy as to the
strength of an emplacement. The "Quaker Gun trick" was used by Colonel William
Washington's Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War; in 1780,
approximately 100 Loyalists surrendered to them, rather than face bombardment.
[208]
 During the American Civil War, Quaker guns were also used by the Confederates, to
compensate for their shortage of artillery. The decoy cannon were painted black at the
"muzzle", and positioned behind fortifications to delay Union attacks on those positions.
On occasion, real gun carriages were used to complete the deception.[209]

In popular culture
Cannon sounds have sometimes been used in classical pieces with a military theme.
One of the best known examples of such a piece is Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's 1812
Overture.[210] The overture is to be performed using an artillery section together with the
orchestra, resulting in noise levels high enough that musicians are required to wear ear
protection.[211] The cannon fire simulates Russian artillery bombardments of the Battle of
Borodino, a critical battle in Napoleon's invasion of Russia, whose defeat the piece
celebrates.[211] When the overture was first performed, the cannon were fired by an
electric current triggered by the conductor.[212] However, the overture was not recorded
with real cannon fire until Mercury Records and conductor Antal Doráti's 1958 recording
of the Minnesota Orchestra.[213] Cannon fire is also frequently used annually in
presentations of the 1812 on the American Independence Day, a tradition started
by Arthur Fiedler of the Boston Pops in 1974.[211][214]
The hard rock band AC/DC also used cannon in their song "For Those About to Rock
(We Salute You)",[215] and in live shows replica Napoleonic cannon
and pyrotechnics were used to perform the piece.[215] A recording of that song has
accompanied the firing of an authentic reproduction of a M1857 12-pounder
Napoleon during Columbus Blue Jackets goal celebrations at Nationwide Arena since
opening night of the 2007–08 season. The cannon is located behind the last row of
section 111 and the focal point of the team's alternate logo on its third jerseys.[216][217][218]
Cannons have been fired in touchdown celebrations by several American football teams
including the San Diego Chargers.[219] The Pittsburgh Steelers used one only during the
1962 campaign but discontinued it after Buddy Dial was startled as a result of
inadvertently running face-first into the cannon's smoky discharge in a 42–27 loss to
the Dallas Cowboys at Forbes Field on October 21.[220]

Restoration
Cannon recovered from the sea are often extensively damaged from exposure to salt
water; because of this, electrolytic reduction treatment is required to forestall the
process of corrosion.[221] The cannon is then washed in deionized water to remove
the electrolyte, and is treated in tannic acid, which prevents further rust and gives the
metal a bluish-black colour.[222][223] After this process, cannon on display may be protected
from oxygen and moisture by a wax sealant. A coat of polyurethane may also be
painted over the wax sealant, to prevent the wax-coated cannon from attracting dust in
outdoor displays.[223] In 2011, archaeologists say six cannon recovered from a river in
Panama that could have belonged to legendary pirate Henry Morgan are being studied
and could eventually be displayed after going through a restoration process.[224]

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  U.S. Patent 6,612 – Cannon patent
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