Xi Maths

Sets, Relations and
Chapter 1 Functions
“a set is many that allows itself to be thought of as a one”
Cantor
1.1 Introduction
The concepts of sets, relations and functions occupy a fundamental place in the mainstream of
mathematical thinking. As rightly stated by the Russian mathematician Luzin the concept of functions
did not arise suddenly. It underwent profound changes in time. Galileo (1564-1642) explicitly used
the dependency of one quantity on another in the study of planetary motions. Descartes (1596-
1650) clearly stated that an equation in two variables, geometrically represented by a curve, indicates
dependence between variable quantities. Leibnitz (1646-1716) used the word “function”, in a 1673
manuscript, to mean any quantity varying from point to point of a curve. Dirichlet (1805-1859),
a student of Gauss, was credited with the modern “formal” definition of function with notation
y = f (x). In the 20th century, this concept was extended to include all arbitrary correspondence
satisfying the uniqueness condition between sets and numerical or non-numerical values.
With the development of set theory, initiated by Cantor (1845-1918),
the notion of function continued to evolve. From the notion of correspon-
dence, mathematicians moved to the notion of relation. However even
now in the theory of computation, a function is not viewed as a relation
but as a computational rule. The modern definition of a function is given
in terms of relation so as to suit to develop artificial intelligence.
In the previous classes, we have studied and are well versed with the
real numbers and arithmetic operations on them. We also learnt about
sets of real numbers, Venn diagrams, Cartesian product of sets, basic
definitions of relations and functions. For better understanding, we recall
more about sets and Cartesian products of sets. In this chapter, we see a Cantor
new facelift to the mathematical notion of “Relations” and “Functions”. 1845 - 1918
Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter, the students are expected to
• list and work with many properties of sets and Cartesian product;
• know the concepts of constants, variables, intervals and neighbourhoods;
• understand about various types of relations; create relations of any required type;
• represent functions in different ways;
• work with elementary functions, types of functions, operations on functions including inverse
of a bijective function;
• identify the graphs of some special functions;
• visualize and sketch the graphs of some relatively complicated functions.
1
2 Sets, Relations and Functions
1.2 Sets
In the earlier classes, we have seen that a set is a collection of well-defined objects. As the theory of
sets is the building blocks of modern mathematics, one has to learn the concepts of sets carefully and
deeply. Now we look at the term “well-defined” a little more deeply. Consider the two statements:
(i) The collection of all beautiful flowers in the Ooty Rose Garden.
(ii) The collection of all old men in Tamilnadu.
The terms “beautiful flowers” and “old men” are not well-defined. We cannot define the term
“beautiful flower” in a sharp way as there is no concrete definition for beauty because the concept of
beauty varies from person to person, content to content and object to object. We should not consider
statements like “the collection of all beautiful flowers in the Ooty Rose Garden” as a set. Now, can
we say “the collection of all red flowers in the Ooty Rose Garden” a set? The answer is “yes”.
One may consider a person of age 60 as old and others may not agree. There is no specific concrete
definition for “old men”. The second statement can be made more sharply as
“the collection of all men in Tamilnadu of age greater than 70”.
Now, the above collection becomes a set because of definiteness in the age. Thus, the description of
a set should enable us to concretely decide whether a given particular object (element) is available in
the collection or not. So set is a distinguishable collection of objects.
We have also seen and learnt to use symbols like ∈, ⊂, ⊆, ∪ and ∩. Let us start with the question:
“If A and B are two sets, is it meaningful to write A ∈ B?”.
At the first sight one may hurry to say that this is always meaningless by telling, “the symbol ∈
should be used between an element and a set and it should not be used between two sets”. The first
part of the statement is true whereas the second part is not true. For example, if A = {1, 2} and
B = {1, {1, 2}, 3, 4}, then A ∈ B. In this section we shall discuss the meaning of such symbols more
deeply.
As we learnt in the earlier classes the set containing no elements is called an empty set or a void
set. It is usually denoted by ∅ or { }. By A ⊆ B, we mean every element of the set A is an element
of the set B. In this case, we say A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A. For any two sets A and
B, if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then the two sets are equal. For any set A, the empty set ∅ and the set A are
always subsets of A. These two subsets are called trivial subsets. Further, we say A is a proper subset
of B if A is a subset of B and A 6= B. That is, B contains all elements of A and at least one element
which is not in A. Note that, as every element of A is an element of A, we have A ⊆ A. Thus, any
set is a subset of itself. This subset is called an improper subset. In other words, for any set A, A is
the improper subset of A. It is known that, N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R, where N denotes the set of all
natural numbers or positive integers, W denotes the set of all non-negative integers, Z denotes the set
of all integers, Q denotes the set of all rational numbers and R denotes the set of all real numbers.
Note that, the set of all irrational numbers is a subset of R but not a subset of any other set mentioned
above.
We learnt that the union of two sets A and B is denoted by A ∪ B and is defined as
A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
and the intersection as

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
Two sets A and B are disjoint if they do not have any common element. That is, A and B are
disjoint if A ∩ B = ∅.
1.2 Sets 3
n
Let us see some more notations. We are familiar with notations like Σ ai . This in fact stands for
i=1
n n
a1 + a2 + · · · + an . Similarly we can use the notations ∪ Ai and ∩ Ai to denote A1 ∪ A2 ∪ · · · ∪ An
i=1 i=1
and A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An , respectively.
n n
Thus, ∪ Ai = {x : x ∈ Ai for some i} and ∩ Ai = {x : x ∈ Ai for each i}. These notations are
i=1 i=1
useful when we discuss more number of sets.
If A is a set, then the set of all subsets of A is called the power set of A and is usually denoted
as P(A). That is, P(A) = {B : B ⊆ A}. The number of elements in P(A) is 2n , where n is the
number of elements in A.
Now, to define the complement of a set, it is necessary to know about the concept of universal
set. Usually all sets under consideration in a mathematical process are assumed to be subsets of some
fixed set. This basic set is called the universal set. For example, depending on the situation, for the set
of prime numbers, the universal set can be any one of the sets containing the set of prime numbers.
Thus, one of the sets N, W, Z, Q, R may be taken as a universal set for the set of prime numbers,
depending on the requirement. Universal set is usually denoted by U .
To define the complement of a set, we have to fix the universal set. Let A be a subset of the
universal set U . The complement of A with respect to U is denoted as A0 or Ac and defined as
A0 = {x : x ∈ U and x ∈ / A}.
The set difference of the set A to the set B is denoted by either A − B or A r B and is defined as
A − B = {a : a ∈ A and a ∈
/ B}.
Note that,
(i) U − A = A0 (ii) A − A = ∅ (iii) ∅ − A = ∅ (iv) A − ∅ = A (v) A − U = ∅.
The symmetric difference between two sets A and B is denoted by A∆B and is defined as
A∆B = (A − B) ∪ (B − A). Actually the elements of A∆B are the elements of A ∪ B which
are not in A ∩ B. Thus A∆B = (A ∪ B) − (A ∩ B).
A set X is said to be a finite set if it has k elements for some k ∈ N. In this case, we say the
finite set X is of cardinality k and is denoted by n(X). A set is an infinite set if it is not finite. For
an infinite set A, the cardinality is infinity. If n(A) = 1, then it is called a singleton set. Note that
n(∅) = 0 and n({∅}) = 1.
1.2.1 Properties of Set Operations

We now list out some of the properties.
Commutative
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
Associative
(i) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).
Distributive
(i) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (ii) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Identity
(i) A ∪ ∅ = A (ii) A ∩ U = A.
Idempotent
(i) A ∪ A = A (ii) A ∩ A = A.
Absorption
(i) A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A (ii) A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A.
De Morgan Laws
(i) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0 (ii) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0
(iii) A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C) (iv) A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C).
On Symmetric Difference
(i) A∆B = B∆A (ii) (A∆B)∆C = A∆(B∆C)
(iii) A ∩ (B∆C) = (A ∩ B)∆(A ∩ C).
On Empty Set and Universal Set
(i) ∅0 = U (ii) U 0 = ∅
(iii) A ∪ A0 = U (iv) A ∩ A0 = ∅
(v) A ∪ U = U (vi) A ∩ U = A.
On Cardinality
(i) For any two finite sets A and B, n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).
(ii) If A and B are disjoint finite sets, then n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B).
(iii) For any three finite sets A, B and C,
n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
1.3 Cartesian Product

We know that the Cartesian product of sets is nothing but a set of ordered elements. In particular,
Cartesian product of two sets is a set of ordered pairs, while the Cartesian product of three sets is a
set of ordered triplets. Precisely, let A, B and C be three non-empty sets. Then the Cartesian product
of A with B is denoted by A × B. It is defined by
A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.
Similarly, the Cartesian product A × B × C is defined by
A × B × C = {(a, b, c) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B, c ∈ C}.
Thus A × A = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ A}.
Is it correct to say A × A = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}?
It is important that the elements of the Cartesian product are ordered and hence, for non-empty sets,
A × B 6= B × A, unless A = B.
That is, A × B = B × A only if A = B. We know that R denotes the set of real numbers and
R × R = {(x, y) : x, y ∈ R}.
R × R × R = {(x, y, z) : x, y, z ∈ R}.
Symbolically, R × R can be represented as R2 and R × R × R as R3 . Note that R × R is a set of

ordered pairs and R × R × R is a set of ordered triplets.
If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6} then
A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 2), (2, 4), (2, 6), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 6)}.
1.3 Cartesian Product 5
Here A × B is a subset of R × R. The number of elements in A × B is the product of the number

of elements in A and the number of elements in B, that is, n(A × B) = n(A)n(B), if A and B are
finite. Further n(A × B × C) = n(A)n(B)n(C), if A, B and C are finite.
It is easy to see that the following are the subsets of R × R.
(i) {(x, 2x)

√ : x ∈ R} (ii) {(x, x2 ) : x ∈ R}
(iii) {(x, √ x) : x is a non-negative real number} (iv) {(x2 , x) : x ∈ R}.
(v) {(x, − x) : x is a non-negative real number}
Example 1.1 Find the number of subsets of A if A = {x : x = 4n + 1, 2 ≤ n ≤ 5, n ∈ N}.

Solution:
Clearly A = {x : x = 4n + 1, n = 2, 3, 4, 5} = {9, 13, 17, 21}.
Hence n(A) = 4. This implies that n(P(A)) = 24 = 16.
Example 1.2 In a survey of 5000 persons in a town, it was found that 45% of the persons know
Language A, 25% know Language B, 10% know Language C, 5% know Languages A and B, 4%
know Languages B and C, and 4% know Languages A and C. If 3% of the persons know all the
three Languages, find the number of persons who knows only Language A.
Solution:
This problem can be solved either by property of cardinality or by Venn diagram.
Cardinality Given that n(A) = 45% of 5000 = 2250
Similarly, n(B) = 1250, n(C) = 500, n(A ∩ B) = 250, n(B ∩ C) = 200, n(C ∩ A) = 200 and
n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 150.
The number of persons who knows only Language A is
n(A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 ) = n{A ∩ (B ∪ C)0 } = n(A) − n{A ∩ (B ∪ C)}.

= n(A) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).
= 2250 − 250 − 200 + 150 = 1950.
Thus the required number of persons is 1950.

Venn Diagram By using Venn Diagram: We draw the Venn Diagram using percentage.
Figure 1.1
From Figure 1.1, the percentage of persons who knows only Language A is 39. Therefore, the
39
required number of persons is 5000 × 100 = 1950.
Example 1.3 Prove that
((A ∪ B 0 ∪ C) ∩ (A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 )) ∪ ((A ∪ B ∪ C 0 ) ∩ (B 0 ∩ C 0 )) = B 0 ∩ C 0 .
Solution:
We have A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 ⊆ A ⊆ A ∪ B 0 ∪ C and hence (A ∪ B 0 ∪ C) ∩ (A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 ) = A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 .
Also, B 0 ∩ C 0 ⊆ C 0 ⊆ A ∪ B ∪ C 0 and hence (A ∪ B ∪ C 0 ) ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 = B 0 ∩ C 0 .
Now as A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 ⊆ B 0 ∩ C 0 , we have
((A ∪ B 0 ∪ C) ∩ (A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 )) ∪ ((A ∪ B ∪ C 0 ) ∩ (B 0 ∩ C 0 )) = B 0 ∩ C 0 .
Note: Try to simplify the above expression using Venn diagram.
Example 1.4 If X = {1, 2, 3, . . . 10} and A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, find the number of sets B ⊆ X such
that A − B = {4}
Solution:
For every subset C of {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, let B = C ∪ {1, 2, 3, 5}. Then A − B = {4}. In other words,
for every subset C of {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, we have a unique set B so that A − B = {4}. So number of
sets B ⊆ X such that A − B = {4} and the number of subsets of {6, 7, 8, 9, 10} are the same. So
the number of sets B ⊆ X such that A − B = {4} is 25 = 32.
Example 1.5 If A and B are two sets so that n(B − A) = 2n(A − B) = 4n(A ∩ B) and if
n(A ∪ B) = 14, then find n(P(A)).
Solution:
To find n(P(A)), we need n(A).
Let n(A ∩ B) = k. Then n(A − B) = 2k and n(B − A) = 4k.
Now n(A ∪ B) = n(A − B) + n(B − A) + n(A ∩ B) = 7k.
It is given that n(A ∪ B) = 14. Thus 7k = 14 and hence k = 2.
So n(A − B) = 4 and n(B − A) = 8. As n(A) = n(A − B) + n(A ∩ B), we get n(A) = 6 and
hence n(P(A)) = 26 = 64.
Example 1.6 Two sets have m and k elements. If the total number of subsets of the first set is 112
more than that of the second set, find the values of m and k.
Solution:
Let A and B be the two sets with n(A) = m and n(B) = k. Since A contains more elements
than B, we have m > k. From the given conditions we see that 2m − 2k = 112. Thus we get,
2k (2m−k − 1) = 24 × 7.
Then the only possibility is k = 4 and 2m−k − 1 = 7. So m − k = 3 and hence m = 7.
1.3 Cartesian Product 7
Example 1.7 If n(A) = 10 and n(A ∩ B) = 3, find n((A ∩ B)0 ∩ A).

Solution:
(A ∩ B)0 ∩ A = (A0 ∪ B 0 ) ∩ A = (A0 ∩ A) ∪ (B 0 ∩ A) = ∅ ∪ (B 0 ∩ A) = (B 0 ∩ A) = A − B.
So n((A ∩ B)0 ∩ A) = n(A − B) = n(A) − n(A ∩ B) = 7.
Example 1.8 If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, find n((A ∪ B) × (A ∩ B) × (A∆B)).

Solution:
We have n(A ∪ B) = 6, n(A ∩ B) = 2 and n(A∆B) = 4.
So, n((A ∪ B) × (A ∩ B) × (A∆B)) = n(A ∪ B) × n(A ∩ B) × n(A∆B) = 6 × 2 × 4 = 48.
Example 1.9 If P(A) denotes the power set of A, then find n(P(P(P(∅)))).
Solution:
Since P(∅) contains 1 element, P(P(∅)) contains 21 elements and hence P(P(P(∅))) contains
22 elements. That is, 4 elements.
Exercise - 1.1
1. Write the following in roster form.
(i) {x ∈ N : x2 < 121 and x is a prime}.
(ii) the set of positive roots of the equation (x − 1)(x + 1)(x2 − 1) = 0.
(iii) {x ∈ N : 4x + 9 < 52}.
(iv) {x : x−4
x+2
= 3, x ∈ R − {−2}}.
2. Write the set {−1, 1} in set builder form.
3. State whether the following sets are finite or infinite.
(i) {x ∈ N : x is an even prime number}. (ii) {x ∈ N : x is an odd prime number}.
(iii) {x ∈ Z : x is even and less than 10}. (iv) {x ∈ R : x is a rational number}.
(v) {x ∈ N : x is a rational number}.
4. By taking suitable sets A, B, C, verify the following results:
(i) A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C).
(ii) A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C).
(iii) (A × B) ∩ (B × A) = (A ∩ B) × (B ∩ A).
(iv) C − (B − A) = (C ∩ A) ∪ (C ∩ B 0 ).
(v) (B − A) ∩ C = (B ∩ C) − A = B ∩ (C − A).
(vi) (B − A) ∪ C = (B ∪ C) − (A − C).
5. Justify the trueness of the statement:
“An element of a set can never be a subset of itself.”
6. If n(P(A)) = 1024, n(A ∪ B) = 15 and n(P(B)) = 32, then find n(A ∩ B).
7. If n(A ∩ B) = 3 and n(A ∪ B) = 10, then find n(P(A∆B)).
8. For a set A, A × A contains 16 elements and two of its elements are (1, 3) and (0, 2). Find the
elements of A.
9. Let A and B be two sets such that n(A) = 3 and n(B) = 2. If (x, 1), (y, 2), (z, 1) are in A × B,
find A and B, where x, y, z are distinct elements.
10. If A × A has 16 elements, S = {(a, b) ∈ A × A : a < b} ; (−1, 2) and (0, 1) are two elements of
S, then find the remaining elements of S.
1.4 Constants and Variables, Intervals and

Neighbourhoods
To continue our discussion, we need certain prerequisites namely, constants, variables, independent
variables, dependent variables, intervals and neighbourhoods.
1.4.1 Constants and Variables

A quantity that remains unaltered throughout a mathematical process is called a constant. A quantity
that varies in a mathematical process is called a variable. A variable is an independent variable when
it takes any arbitrary (independent) value not depending on any other variables, whereas if its value
depends on other variables, then it is called a dependent variable.
We know the area A of a triangle is given by A = 21 bh. Here 12 is a constant and A, b, h are
variables. Moreover b and h are independent variables and A is a dependent variable. We ought to note
that the terms dependent and independent are relative terms. For example in the equation x + y = 1,
x, y are variables and 1 is a constant. Which of x and y is dependent and which one is independent?
If we consider x as an independent variable, then y becomes a dependent whereas if we consider y as
an independent variable, then x becomes dependent.
Further consider the following examples:
(i) area of a rectangle A = `b.
(ii) area of a circle A = πr2 .
(iii) volume of a cuboid V = `bh.
From the above examples we can directly infer that b, h, `, r are independent variables; A and V are
dependent variables and π is a constant.
1.4.2 Intervals and Neigbourhoods

The system R of real numbers can be represented by the points on a line and a point on the line can
be related to a unique real number as in Figure 1.2. By this, we mean that any real number can be
identified as a point on the line. With this identification we call the line as the real line.
Figure 1.2
The value increases as we go right and decreases as we go left. If x lies to the left of y on the real
line then x < y. As there is no gap in a line, we have infinitely many real numbers between any two
real numbers.
Definition 1.1: A subset I of R is said to be an interval if
(i) I contains at least two elements and
(ii) a, b ∈ I and a < c < b then c ∈ I.
Geometrically, intervals correspond to rays and line segments on the real line.
Note that the set of all natural numbers, the set of all non-negative integers, set of all odd integers,
set of all even integers, set of all prime numbers are not intervals. Further observe that, between
1.4 Constants and Variables, Intervals and Neighbourhoods 9
any two real numbers there are infinitely many real numbers and hence the above examples are not
intervals.
Consider the following sets:
(i) The set of all real numbers greater than 0.
(ii) The set of all real numbers greater than 5 and less than 7.
(iii) The set of all real numbers x such that 1 ≤ x ≤ 3.
(iv) The set of all real numbers x such that 1 < x ≤ 2.
The above four sets are intervals. In particular (i) is an infinite interval and (ii), (iii) and (iv) are
finite intervals. The term “finite interval” does not mean that the interval contains only finitely many
real numbers, however both ends are finite numbers. Both finite and infinite intervals are infinite sets.
The intervals correspond to line segments are finite intervals whereas the intervals that correspond to
rays and the entire real line are infinite intervals.
A finite interval is said to be closed if it contains both of its end points and open if it
contains neither of its end points. Symbolically the above four intervals can be written as
(0, ∞), (5, 7), [1, 3], (1, 2]. Note that for symbolic form we used parentheses and square brackets
to denote intervals. ( ) parentheses indicate open interval and [ ] square brackets indicate closed
interval. The first two examples are open intervals, third one is a closed interval. Note that fourth
example is neither open nor closed, that is, one end open and other end closed.
In particular [1, 3] contains both 1 and 3 and in between real numbers. The interval (1, 3) does not
contain 1 and 3 but contains all in between the numbers. The interval (1, 2] does not contain 1 but
contains 2 and all in between numbers.
Note that ∞ is not a number. The symbols −∞ and ∞ are used to indicate the ends of real line.
Further, the intervals (a, b) and [a, b] are subsets of R.
Type of Intervals
There are many types of intervals. Let a, b ∈ R such that a < b. The following table describes various
types of intervals. It is not possible to draw a line if a point is removed. So we use an unfilled circle
“◦” to indicate that the point is removed and use a filled circle “•” to indicate that the point is included.
Interval N otation Set Diagramatic

Representation
b b
f inite (a, b) {x : a < x < b} a b
r r
[a, b] {x : a ≤ x ≤ b} a b
b r
(a, b] {x : a < x ≤ b} a b
r b
[a, b) {x : a ≤ x < b} a b
b -
inf inite (a, ∞) {x : a < x < ∞} a
r -
[a, ∞) {x : a ≤ x < ∞} a
b
(−∞, b) {x : −∞ < x < b} b
r
(−∞, b] {x : −∞ < x ≤ b} b
(−∞, ∞) {x : −∞ < x < ∞} -

or R or the set of real numbers
Try to write the following intervals in symbolic form.

(i) {x : x ∈ R, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0} (ii) {x : x ∈ R, 0 < x < 8}

(iii) {x : x ∈ R, −8 < x ≤ −2} (iv) {x : x ∈ R, −5 ≤ x ≤ 9}.
Neighbourhood
Neighbourhood of a point ‘a’ is any open interval containing ‘a’. In particular, if is a positive
number, usually very small, then the -neighbourhood of ‘a’ is the open interval (a − , a + ). The
set (a − , a + ) − {a} is called deleted neighbourhood of ‘a’ and it is denoted as 0 < |x − a| <
(See Figure 1.3).
Figure 1.3
1.5 Relations
We approach the concept of relations in different aspects using real life sense, Cryptography and
Geometry through Cartesian products of sets.
In our day to day life very often we come across questions like, “How is he related to you?”. Some
probable answers are,
(i) He is my father.
(ii) He is my teacher.
(iii) He is not related to me.
From this we see that the word relation connects a person with another person. Extending this
idea, in mathematics we consider relations as one which connects mathematical objects. Examples,
(i) A number m is related to a number n if m divides n in N.
(ii) A real number x is related to a real number y if x ≤ y.
(iii) A point p is related to a line L if p lies on L.
(iv) A student X is related to a school S if X is a student of S.
Illustration 1.1 (Cryptography): For centuries, people have used ciphers or codes, to keep
confidential information secure. Effective ciphers are essential to the military, to financial institutions
and to computer programmers. The study of the techniques used in creating coding and decoding
these ciphers is called cryptography.
Figure 1.4
One of the earliest methods of coding a message was a simple substitution. For example, each
letter in a message might be replaced by the letter that appears three places later in the alphabet.
1.5 Relations 11
Using this coding scheme, “LET US WIN” becomes “OHW XVZ LQ”. This scheme was used
by Julius Caesar and is called the Caesars cipher. To decode, replace each letter by the letter three
places before it. This concept is used often in Mental Ability Tests. The above can be represented as
an arrow diagram as given in Figure 1.4.
This can be viewed as the set of ordered pairs
{(L, O), (E, H), (T, W ), (U, X), (S, V ), (W, Z), (I, L), (N, Q)}
which is a subset of the Cartesian product C × D where C = {L, E, T, U, S, W, I, N } and
D = {O, H, W, X, V, Z, L, Q}.
Do you Know:
If “KDUGZRUN” means “HARDWORK”, then “DFKLHYHPHQW” becomes
“ACHIEVEMENT”
“Is it f (x) = x − 3?”.
Illustration 1.2 (Geometry): Consider the following three equations
(i) 2x − y = 0 (ii) x2 − y = 0 (iii) x − y 2 = 0
(i) 2x − y = 0
The equation 2x − y = 0 represents a straight line. Clearly the points, (1, 2), (3, 6) lie on
it whereas (1, 1), (3, 5), (4, 5) are not lying on the straight line. The analytical relation between
x and y is given by y = 2x. Here the values of y depends on the values of x. To denote
this dependence, we write y = f (x). The set of all points lie on the straight line is given as
{(x, 2x) : x ∈ R}. Clearly this is a subset of R × R. (See Figure 1.5.)
Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7
(ii) x2 − y = 0.
As we discussed earlier, the relation between x and y is y = x2 . The set of all points on
the curve is {(x, x2 ) : x ∈ R} (See Figure 1.6). Again this is a subset of the Cartesian product
R × R.
(iii) x − y 2 = 0 √
2
As above, the relation between
√ x and y
√ is y = x or y = ± x, x ≥ 0. The equation can
also be re-written
√ as y = + x√and y = − x. The set of all points on the curve is the union of
the sets {(x, x)} and {(x, − x)}, where x is a non-negative real number, are the subsets of
the Cartesian product R × R. (See Figure 1.7).
From the above examples we intuitively understand what a relation is. But in mathematics, we
have to give a rigorous definition for each and every technical term we are using. Now let us start
defining the term “relation” mathematically.
Definition of Relation
Let A = {p, q, r, s, t, u} be a set of students and let B = {X, Y, Z, W } be a set of schools. Let us
consider the following “relation”.
A student a ∈ A is related to a school S ∈ B if “a” is studying or studied in the school S.
Let us assume that p studied in X and now studying in W , q studied in X and now studying in Y ,
r studied in X and W , and now studying in Z, s has been studying in X from the beginning, t studied
in Z and now studying in no school, and u never studied in any of these four schools.
Though the relations are given explicitly, it is not possible to give a relation always in this way. So
let us try some other representations for expressing the same relation:
p p q q r r r s t
(i)
X W X Y X Z W X Z
(ii)
(iii) { (p, X), (p, W ), (q, X), (q, Y ), (r, X), (r, Z), (r, W ), (s, X), (t, Z) }
(iv) pRX, pRW, qRX, qRY, rRX, rRZ, rRW, sRX, tRZ.
Among these four representations of a relation, the third one seems to be more convenient and
comfortable to deal with a relation in terms of sets.
The set given in the third representation is a subset of the Cartesian product A × B. In Illustrations
1.1 and 1.2 also, we arrived at subsets of a Cartesian product.
Definition 1.2: Let A and B be any two non-empty sets. A relation R from A to B is defined as a
subset of the Cartesian product of A and B. Symbolically R ⊆ A × B.
A relation from A to B is different from a relation from B to A.
The set {a ∈ A : (a, b) ∈ R for some b ∈ B} is called the domain of the relation.
The set {b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ R for some a ∈ A} is called the range of the relation.
Thus the domain of the relation R is the set of all first coordinates of the ordered pairs and the
range of the relation R is the set of all second coordinates of the ordered pairs.
Illustration 1.3: Consider the diagram in Figure 1.8. Here letters of the alphabet are mapped onto
Figure 1.8
the natural numbers. A simple cipher is to assign a natural number to each alphabet. That is, a is
represented by 1, b is represented by 2, . . . , z is represented by 26. This correspondence can be
written as the set of ordered pairs {(a, 1), (b, 2), . . . (z, 26)}. This set of ordered pairs is a relation.
The domain of the relation is {a, b, . . . z} and the range is {1, 2, . . . 26}.
1.5 Relations 13
Now we recall that the relations discussed in Illustrations 1.1 and 1.2 also end up with subsets of
the cartesian product of two sets. So the term relation used in all discussions we had so far, fits with
the mathematical term relation defined in Definition 1.2.
The domain of the relation discussed in Illustration 1.1 is the set {L, E, T, U, S, W, I, N } and the
range is {O, H, W, X, V, Z, L, Q}. In Illustration 1.2, the domain and range of the relation discussed
for the equation 2x − y = 0 are R and R (See Figure 1.9); for the equation x2 − y = 0, the domain
is R and the range is [0, ∞) (See Figure 1.10); and in the case of the third equation x − y 2 = 0, the
domain is [0, ∞) and the range is R (See Figures 1.11 and 1.12).
Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10
Note that, the domain of a relation is a subset of the first set in the Cartesian product and the range
is a subset of second set. Usually we call the second set as co-domain of the relation. Thus, the range
of a relation is the collection of all elements in the co-domain which are related to some element in
the domain. Let us note that the range of a relation is a subset of the co-domain.
For any set A, ∅ and A × A are subsets of A × A. These two relations are called extreme relations.
The former relation is an empty relation and the later is an universal relation.
We will discuss more about domain, co-domain and the range in the next section namely,
“Functions”.
If R is a relation from A to B and if (x, y) ∈ R, then sometimes we write xRy (read this as “x is
related to y”) and if (x, y) ∈
/ R, then sometimes we write xRy (read this as “x is not related to y”).
Though the general definition of a relation is defined from one set to another set, relations defined
on a set are of more interest in mathematical point of view. That is, relations in which the domain and
the co-domain are the same are of more interest. So let us concentrate on relations defined on a set.
1.5.1 Type of Relations

Consider the following examples:
(i) Let S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 3)} on S.
(ii) Let S = {1, 2, 3, . . . 10} and define “m is related to n, if m divides n”.
(iii) Let C be the set of all circles in a plane and define “a circle C is related to a circle C 0 ”, if the
radius of C is equal to the radius of C 0 ”.
(iv) In the set S of all people define “a is related to b, if a is a brother of b”.
(v) Let S be the set of all people. Define the relation on S by the rule “mother of”.
In the second example, as every number divides itself, “a is related a for all a ∈ S”; the same is
true in the third relation also. In the first example “a is related a for all a ∈ S” is not true as 2 is not
related to 2.
It is easy to see that the property “if a is related to b, then b is related to a” is true in the third but
not in the second.
It is easy to see that the property “if a is related to b and b is related to c, then a is related to c” is
true in the second and third relations but not in the fifth.
These properties, together with some more properties are very much studied in mathematical
structures. Let us define them now.
Definition 1.3: Let S be any non-empty set. Let R be a relation on S. Then
• R is said to be reflexive if a is related to a for all a ∈ S.
• R is said to be symmetric if a is related to b implies that b is related to a.
• R is said to be transitive if “a is related to b and b is related to c” imply that a is related to c.
These three relations are called basic relations. Let us rewrite the definitions of these basic relations
in a different form:
Let S be any set. Let R be a relation on S. Then R is
• reflexive if “(a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ S”.
• symmetric if “(a, b) ∈ R ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R”.
• transitive if “(a, b), (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R”.
Definition 1.4: Let S be any set. A relation on S is said to be an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,
symmetric and transitive.
Let us consider the following two relations.
(1) In the set S1 of all people, define a relation R1 by the rule: “a is related to b, if a is a brother of b”.
(2) In the set S2 of all males, define a relation R2 by the rule: “a is related to b, if a is a brother of b”.
The rules that define the relations on S1 and S2 are the same. But the sets are not same. R1 is not
a symmetric relation on S1 whereas R2 is a symmetric relation on S2 . This shows that not only the
rule defining the relation is important, the set on which the relations are defined is also important.
So whenever one considers a relation, both the relation as well as the set on which the relation is
defined have to be given explicitly. Note that the relation {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2)} is reflexive if it
is defined on the set {1, 2, 3}; it is not reflexive if it is defined on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Illustration 1.4:
1. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3), (4, 4), (1, 2), (3, 1)}. As
(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) and (4, 4) are all in R, it is reflexive. Also for each pair (a, b) ∈ R the
pair (b, a) is also in R. So R is symmetric. As (2, 1), (1, 3) ∈ R and (2, 3) ∈ / R, we see that R is
not transitive. Thus R is not an equivalence relation.
2. Let P denote the set of all straight lines in a plane. Let R be the relation defined on P as `Rm if `
is parallel to m.
This relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Thus it is an equivalence relation.
3. Let A be the set consisting of children and elders of a family. Let R be the relation defined by aRb
if a is a sister of b.
1.5 Relations 15
This relation is to be looked into carefully. A woman is not a sister of herself. So it is not
reflexive. It is not symmetric also. Clearly it is not transitive. So it is not an equivalence relation.
(If we consider the same relation on a set consisting only of females, then it becomes symmetric;
even in this case it is not transitive).
4. On the set of natural numbers let R be the relation defined by xRy if x + 2y = 21. It is better to
write the relation explicitly. The relation R is the set
{(1, 10), (3, 9), (5, 8), (7, 7), (9, 6), (11, 5), (13, 4), (15, 3), (17, 2), (19, 1)}.
As (1, 1) ∈ / R it is not reflexive; as (1, 10) ∈ R and (10, 1) ∈ / R it is not symmetric.

As (3, 9) ∈ R, (9, 6) ∈ R but (3, 6) ∈ / R, the relation is not transitive.
5. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = ∅, where ∅ is the empty set.
As (1, 1) ∈/ R it is not reflexive. As we cannot find a pair (x, y) in R such that (y, x) ∈
/ R, the
relation is not ‘not symmetric’; so it is symmetric. Similarly it is transitive.
6. The universal relation is always an equivalence relation.
7. An empty relation can be considered as symmetric and transitive.
8. If a relation contains a single element, then the relation is transitive.
Let us discuss some more special relations now.
Example 1.10 Check the relation R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), . . . , (n, n)} defined on the set
S = {1, 2, 3, . . . n} for the three basic relations.
Solution:
As (a, a) ∈ R for all a ∈ S, R is reflexive.
There is no pair (a, b) in R such that (b, a) ∈/ R. In other words, for every pair (a, b) ∈ R, (b, a) is
also in R. Thus R is symmetric.
We cannot find two pairs (a, b) and (b, c) in R, such that (a, c) ∈ / R. Thus the statement “R is not
transitive” is not true; therefore, the statement “R is transitive” is true; hence R is transitive.
Since R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, this relation is an equivalence relation.
From the very beginning we have denoted all the relations by the same letter R. It is not necessary
to do so. We may use the Greek letter ρ (Read as rho) to denote relations. Equivalence relations are
mostly denoted by “ ∼00 .
If a relation is not of required type, then by inserting or deleting some pairs we can make it of the
required type. We do this in the following problem.
Example 1.11 Let S = {1, 2, 3} and ρ = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 2), (1, 3), (3, 1)}
(i) Is ρ reflexive? If not, state the reason and write the minimum set of ordered pairs to be
included to ρ so as to make it reflexive.
(ii) Is ρ symmetric? If not, state the reason, write minimum number of ordered pairs to be
included to ρ so as to make it symmetric and write minimum number of ordered pairs to
be deleted from ρ so as to make it symmetric.
(iii) Is ρ transitive? If not, state the reason, write minimum number of ordered pairs to be included
to ρ so as to make it transitive and write minimum number of ordered pairs to be deleted from
ρ so as to make it transitive.
(iv) Is ρ an equivalence relation? If not, write the minimum ordered pairs to be included to ρ so
as to make it an equivalence relation.
Solution:
(i) ρ is not reflexive because (3, 3) is not in ρ. As (1, 1) and (2, 2) are in ρ, it is enough to include
the pair (3, 3) to ρ so as to make it reflexive.
(ii) ρ is not symmetric because (1, 2) is in ρ, but (2, 1) is not in ρ. It is enough to include the pair
(2, 1) to ρ so as to make it symmetric.
It is enough to remove the pair (1, 2) from ρ so as to make it symmetric
(iii) ρ is not transitive because (3, 1) and (1, 3) are in ρ, but (3, 3) is not in ρ. To make it transitive
we have to include (3, 3) in ρ. Even after including (3, 3), the relation is not transitive because
(3, 1) and (1, 2) are in ρ, but (3, 2) is not in ρ. To make it transitive we have to include (3, 2)
also in ρ. Now it becomes transitive. So (3, 3) and (3, 2) are to be included into so as to make
ρ transitive.
But if we remove (3, 1) from ρ, then it becomes transitive.
(iv) We have seen that
• to make ρ reflexive, we have to include (3, 3);
• to make ρ symmetric, we have to include (2, 1);
• and to make ρ transitive, we have to include (3, 3) and (3, 2).
To make ρ as an equivalence relation we have to include all these pairs. So after including the
pairs the relation becomes {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2)}
But this relation is not symmetric because (3, 2) is in the relation and (2, 3) is not in the relation.
So we have to include (2, 3) also. Now the new relation becomes
{(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (2, 3)}
It can be seen that this relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive, and hence it is an equivalence
relation. Thus we have to include (3, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2) and (2, 3) to ρ so as to make it an equivalence
relation.
Now let us learn how to create relations having certain properties through the following example.
Example 1.12 Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3}. Construct relations on A of the following types:
(i) not reflexive, not symmetric, not transitive.
(ii) not reflexive, not symmetric, transitive.
(iii) not reflexive, symmetric, not transitive.
(iv) not reflexive, symmetric, transitive.
(v) reflexive, not symmetric, not transitive.
(vi) reflexive, not symmetric, transitive.
(vii) reflexive, symmetric, not transitive.
(viii) reflexive, symmetric, transitive.
Solution:
(i) Let us use the pair (1, 2) to make the relation “not symmetric” and consider the relation
{(1, 2)}. It is transitive. If we include (2, 3) and not include (1, 3), then the relation
is not transitive. So the relation {(1, 2), (2, 3)} is not reflexive, not symmetric and not
transitive.Similarly we can construct more examples.
(ii) Just now we have seen that the relation {(1, 2)} is transitive, not reflexive and not symmetric.
(iii) Let us start with the pair (1, 2). Since we need symmetricity, we have to include the pair (2, 1).
At this stage as (1, 1), (2, 2) are not here, the relation is not transitive. Thus {(1, 2), (2, 1)} is
not reflexive; it is symmetric; and it is not transitive.
1.5 Relations 17
(iv) If we include the pairs (1, 1) and (2, 2) to the relation discussed in (iii), it will become
transitive. Thus {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2)} is not reflexive; it is symmetric and it is transitive.
(v) For a relation on {0, 1, 2, 3} to be reflexive, it must have the pairs (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3).
Fortunately, it becomes symmetric and transitive. Therefore, as in (i) if we insert (1, 2) and
(2, 3) we get the required one. Thus {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3)} is reflexive; it
is not symmetric and it is not transitive.
(vi) Proceeding like this we get the relation {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2)} that is reflexive,
transitive and not symmetric.
(vii) As above we get the relation {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)} that is
reflexive, symmetric and not transitive.
(viii) We have the relation {(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Example 1.13 In the set Z of integers, define mRn if m − n is a multiple of 12. Prove that R is an
equivalence relation.
Solution:
As m − m = 0 and 0 = 0 × 12, we have 0 is a multiple of 12; hence mRm proving that R is
reflexive.
Let mRn. Then m − n = 12k for some integer k; thus n − m = 12(−k) and hence nRm. This
shows that R is symmetric.
Let mRn and nRp; then m − n = 12k and n − p = 12` for some integers k and `.
So m − p = 12(k + `) and hence mRp. This shows that R is transitive.
Thus R is an equivalence relation.
Theorem 1.1: The number of relations from a set containing m elements to a set containing n
2
elements is 2mn . In particular the number of relations on a set containing n elements is 2n .
Proof. Let A and B be sets containing m and n elements respectively. Then A × B contains mn
elements and A × B has 2mn subsets. Since every subset of A × B is a relation from A to B, there
are 2mn relations from a set containing m elements to a set containing n elements.
2
Taking A = B, we see that the number of relations on a set containing n elements is 2n .
Note:
2
(i) The number of reflexive relations on a set containing n elements is 2n −n .
(n2 +n)
(ii) The number of symmetric relations on a set containing n elements is 2 2 .
Definition 1.5: If R is a relation from A to B, then the relation R−1 defined from B to A by
R−1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) ∈ R}
is called the inverse of the relation R.

For example, if R = {(1, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a)}, then
R−1 = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (a, 3)}.
It is easy to see that the domain of R becomes the range of R−1 and the range of R becomes the
domain of R−1 .
Do you Know:
An equivalence relation on a set decomposes it into a disjoint union of its subsets
(equivalence classes). Such a decomposition is called a partition. This is explained in the
following example.
For a, b ∈ Z, aRb if and only if a − b = 3k, k ∈ Z is an equivalence relation on Z.
Z0 = {x ∈ Z : xR0} = {. . . , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .}

Z1 = {x ∈ Z : xR1} = {. . . , −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, . . .}
Z2 = {x ∈ Z : xR0} = {. . . , −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, . . .}
Thus Z = Z0 ∪ Z1 ∪ Z2 and all are disjoint subsets.

For a given partition S1 ∪ S2 ∪ · · · ∪ Sn of a set S into disjoint subsets, one can construct
an equivalence relation R on S by xRy if x, y ∈ Si for some i.
Equivalence relation is used in almost all branches of higher mathematics.
Exercise - 1.2
1. Discuss the following relations for reflexivity, symmetricity and transitivity:
(i) The relation R defined on the set of all positive integers by “mRn if m divides n”.
(ii) Let P denote the set of all straight lines in a plane. The relation R defined by “`Rm if ` is
perpendicular to m”.
(iii) Let A be the set consisting of all the members of a family. The relation R defined by “aRb
if a is not a sister of b”.
(iv) Let A be the set consisting of all the female members of a family. The relation R defined by
“aRb if a is not a sister of b”.
(v) On the set of natural numbers the relation R defined by “xRy if x + 2y = 1”.
2. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and R = {(a, a), (b, b), (a, c)}. Write down the minimum number of ordered
pairs to be included to R to make it
(i) reflexive (ii) symmetric (iii) transitive (iv) equivalence
3. Let A = {a, b, c} and R = {(a, a), (b, b), (a, c)}. Write down the minimum number of ordered
pairs to be included to R to make it
4. Let P be the set of all triangles in a plane and R be the relation defined on P as aRb if a is similar
to b. Prove that R is an equivalence relation.
5. On the set of natural numbers let R be the relation defined by aRb if 2a + 3b = 30. Write down
the relation by listing all the pairs. Check whether it is
6. Prove that the relation “friendship” is not an equivalence relation on the set of all people in
Chennai.
7. On the set of natural numbers let R be the relation defined by aRb if a + b ≤ 6. Write down the
relation by listing all the pairs. Check whether it is
8. Let A = {a, b, c}. What is the equivalence relation of smallest cardinality on A? What is the
equivalence relation of largest cardinality on A?
9. In the set Z of integers, define mRn if m − n is divisible by 7. Prove that R is an equivalence
relation.
1.6 Functions 19
1.6 Functions
Suppose that a particle is moving in the space. We assume the physical particle as a point. As time
varies, the particle changes its position. Mathematically at any time the point occupies a position in
the three dimensional space R3 . Let us assume that the time varies from 0 to 1. So the movement or
functioning of the particle decides the position of the particle at any given time t between 0 and 1. In
other words, for each t ∈ [0, 1], the functioning of the particle gives a point in R3 . Let us denote the
position of the particle at time t as f (t).
Let us see another simple example. We know that the equation 2x−y = 0 describes a straight line.
Here whenever x assumes a value, y assumes some value accordingly. The movement or functioning
of y is decided by that of x. Let us denote y by f (x). We may see many situation like this in nature. In
the study of natural phenomena, we find that it is necessary to consider the variation of one quantity
depending on the variation of another.
The relation of the time and the position of the particle, the relation of a point in the x-axis to
a point in the y-axis and many more such relations are studied for a very long period in the name
function. Before Cantor, the term function is defined as a rule which associates a variable with another
variable. After the development of the concept of sets, a function is defined as a rule that associates
for every element in a set A, a unique element in a set B. However the terms rule and associate are
not properly defined mathematical terminologies. In modern mathematics every term we use has to
be defined properly. So a definition for function is given using relations.
Suppose that we want to discuss a test written by a set of students. We shall see this as a relation.
Let A be the set of students appeared for an examination and let B = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . 100} be the
set of possible marks. We define a relation R as follows:
A student a is related to a mark b if a got b marks in the test.
We observe the following from this example:
• Every student got a mark. In other words, for every a ∈ A, there is an element b ∈ B such that
(a, b) ∈ R.
• A student cannot get two different marks in any test. In other words, for every a ∈ A, there
is definitely only one b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ R. This can be restated in a different way: If
(a, b), (a, c) ∈ R then b = c.
Relations having the above two properties form a very important class of relations, called functions.
Let us now have a rigorous definition of a function through relations.
Definition 1.6: Let A and B be two sets. A relation f, a subset of A × B is called a function, f from
A to B if it satisfies the following:
(i) for all a ∈ A, there is an element b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ f .
(ii) if (a, b) ∈ f and (a, c) ∈ f then b = c.
That is, a function is a relation in which each element in the domain is mapped to exactly one
element in the range.
A is called the domain of f and B is called the co-domain of f . If (a, b) is in f , then we write
f (a) = b; the element b is called the image of a and the element a is called a pre-image of b and f (a)
is known as the value of f at a. The set {b : (a, b) ∈ f for some a ∈ A} is called the range of the
function. If B is a subset of R, then we say that the function is a real-valued function.
Two functions f and g are said to be equal functions if their domains are same and f (a) = g(a)
for all a in the domain.
If f is a function with domain A and co-domain B, we write f : A → B (Read this asf is from A
to B or f be a function from A to B). We also say that f maps A into B. If f (a) = b, then we say f
maps a to b or a is mapped onto b by f , and so on.
The range of a function is the collection of all elements in the co-domain which have pre-images.
Clearly the range of a function is a subset of the co-domain. Further the first condition says that every
element in the domain must have an image; this is the reason for defining the domain of a relation R
from a set A to a set B as the set of all elements of A having pre-images and not as A (See the note
below Definition 1.2). The second condition says that an element in the domain cannot have two or
more images.
Naturally one may have the following doubts:
• In the definition, why we use the definite article “the” for image of a and the indefinite article “a”
for pre-image of b?
• We have a condition stating that every element in the domain must have an image; is there any
condition like “every element in the co-domain must have a pre-image”? If not, why?
• We have a condition stating that an element in the domain cannot have two or more images; is
there any condition like “an element in the co-domain cannot have two or more pre-images”? If
not, why?
As an element in the domain has exactly one image and an element in the co-domain can have more
than one pre-image according to the definition, we use the definite article “the” for image of a and the
indefinite article “a” for pre-image of b. There are no conditions as asked in the other two questions;
the reason behind it can be understood from the problem of students’ mark we considered above.
We observe that every function is a relation but a relation need not be a function.
Let f = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (d, 4)}.
Is f a function? This is a function from the set {a, b, c, d} to {1, 2, 4}. This is not a function
from {a, b, c, d, e} to {1, 2, 3, 4} because e has no image. This is not a function from {a, b, c, d} to
{1, 2, 3, 5} because the image of d is not in the co-domain; f is not a subset of {a, b, c, d}×{1, 2, 3, 5}.
So whenever we consider a function the domain and the co-domain must be stated explicitly.
The relation discussed in Illustration 1.1 is a function with domain {L, E, T, U, S, W, I, N } and
co-domain {O, H, W, X, V, Z, L, Q}. The relation discussed in Illustration 1.3 is again a function
with domain {a, b, . . . , z} and the co-domain {1, 2, 3, . . . , 26}.
In Illustration 1.2, we discussed three relations, namely
(i) y = 2x (ii) y = x2 (iii) y 2 = x.
Clearly (i) and (ii) are functions whereas (iii) is not a function, if the domain and the co-domain are
R. In (iii) for the same x, we have two y√values which contradict
√ the definition of the function. But if
we split into two relations, that is, y = x and y = − x then both become functions with domain
as non-negative real numbers and the co-domain as R.
1.6.1 Ways of Representing Functions
(a) Tabular Representation of a Function
When the elements of the domain are listed like x1 , x2 , x2 . . . xn , we can use this tabular
form.Here, the values of the arguments x1 , x2 , x2 . . . xn and the corresponding values of the function
y1 , y2 , y2 . . . yn are written out in a definite order.
x x1 x2 . . . xn
y y1 y2 . . . yn
(b) Graphical Representation of a Function

When the domain and the co-domain are subsets of R, many functions can be represented using a
graph with x-axis representing the domain and y-axis representing the co-domain in the (x, y)-plane.
We note that the first and second figures in Illustration 1.2 represent the functions f (x) = 2x and
f (x) = x2 respectively. Usually the variable x is treated as independent variable and y as a dependent
variable. The variable x is called the argument and f (x) is called the value.
1.6 Functions 21
(c) Analytical Representation of a Function

If the functional relation y = f (x) is such that f denotes an analytical expression, we say that the
function y of x is represented or defined analytically. Some examples of analytical expressions are
sin x + cos x √
x3 + 5, 2
, log x + 5 x.
x +1
That is, a series of symbols denoting certain mathematical operations that are performed in a definite
sequence on numbers, letters which designate constants or variable quantities.
Examples of functions defined analytically are
x−1 √
(i) y = (ii) y = 9 − x2 (iii) y = sin x + cos x (iv) A = πr2 .
x+1
One of the usages of writing functions analytically is finding domains naturally. That is, the set
of values of x for which the analytical expressions on the right-hand side has a definite value is the
natural domain of definition of a function represented analytically.
Thus, the natural domain of the function,
(i) y = x3 + 3 is (−∞, ∞) (ii) y = x4√− 2 is (−∞, ∞)
x−1 2
(iii) y = x+1 is R − {−1} (iv) y = + 4 − x is −2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
√ √
Now recall the domain of the functions (i) y = 2x, (ii) y = x2 , (iii) y = + x, (iv) y = − x
which are analytical in nature described earlier.
Sometimes we may come across piece-wise defined functions. For example, consider the function
f : R → R defined as 
 0 if −∞ < x ≤ −2
f (x) = 2x if −2 < x ≤ 3
 x2 if 3 < x ≤ ∞
Depending upon the value of x, we have to select the formula to be used to find the value of f at
any point x. To find the value off at any real number, first we have to find to which interval x belongs
to; then using the corresponding formula we can find the value of f at that point. To find f (6) we
know 3 ≤ 6 ≤ ∞ (or 6 ∈ [3, ∞)); so we use the formula f (x) = x2 and find f (6) = 36. Similarly
f (−1) = −2, f (−5) = 0 and so on.
If the function is defined from R or a subset of R then we can draw the graph of the function. For
example, if f : [0, 4] → R is defined by f (x) = x2 + 1, then we can plot the points (x, x2 + 1) for all
x ∈ [0, 4]. Then we will get a straight line joining (0, 1) and (4, 3). (See Figure 1.13)
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Consider another function f (x) = x2 + 4, x ≥ 0. The function will be given by its graph. (See
Figure 1.14)
Let x be a point in the domain. Let us draw a vertical line through the point x. Let it meet the curve
at P . The point at which the horizontal line drawn through P meets the y-axis is f (x). Similarly using
horizontal lines through a point y in the co-domain, we can find the pre-images of y
Can we say that any curve drawn on the plane be considered as a function from a subset of R to
R? No, we cannot. There is a simple test to find this.
Vertical Line Test

As we noted earlier, the vertical line through any point x in the domain meets the curve at some point,
then the y-coordinate of the point is f (x). If the vertical line through a point x in the domain meets
the curve at more than one point, we will get more than one value for f (x) for one x. This is not
allowed in a function. Further, if the vertical line through a point x in the domain does not meet the
curve, then there will be no image for x; this is also not possible in a function. So we can say,
“if the vertical line through a point x in the domain meets the curve at more than one point or
does not meet the curve, then the curve will not represent a function”.
Figure 1.15 Figure 1.16 Figure 1.17 Figure 1.18
The curve indicated in Figure 1.15 does not represent a function from [0, 4] to R because a vertical
line meets the curve at more than one point (see Figure 1.17). The curve indicated in Figure 1.16 does
not represent a function from [0, 4] to R because a vertical line drawn through x = 2.5 in [0, 4] does
not meet the curve (See Figure 1.18).
Testing whether a given curve represents a function or not by drawing vertical lines is called
vertical line test or simply vertical test.
The third curve y 2 = x in Illustration 1.2 fails the vertical line test and hence it is not a function
from R to R.
1.6.2 Some Elementary Functions

Some frequently used functions are known by names. Let us list some of them.
(i) Let Xbe any non-empty set. The function f : X → X defined by f (x) = x for all x ∈ X is
called the identity function on X (See Figure 1.19). It is denoted by IX or I.
(ii) Let X and Y be two sets. Let c be a fixed element of Y . The function f : X → Y defined by
f (x) = c for all x ∈ X is called a constant function (See Figure 1.20).
The value of a constant function is same for all values of x throughout the domain.
1.6 Functions 23
If X = R, then the graph of the identity function and a constant function are as in Figures
1.21 and 1.22. If X is any set, then the constant function defined by f (x) = 0 for all x is called
the zero function. So zero function is a particular case of constant function.
(iii) The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = |x|, where |x| is the modulus or absolute value of
x is called the modulus function or absolute value function. (See Figure 1.23.)
Let us recall that |x| is defined as

 −x if x < 0
−x if x ≤ 0 −x if x < 0
|x| = 0 if x = 0 or |x| = or |x| =
 x if x > 0 x if x > 0 x if x ≥ 0
x

|x|
if x 6= 0
(iv) The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = is called the signum function.
0 if x=0
This function is denoted by sgn. (See Figure 1.24)
(v) The function f : R → R defined by f (x) is the greatest integer less than or equal to x is called
the integral part function or the greatest integer function or the floor function. This function is
denoted by bxc. (See Figure 1.25.)
(vi) The function f : R → Rdefined by f (x) is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x is
called the smallest integer function or the ceil function (See Figure 1.26.). This function is
denoted by d·e; that is f (x) is denoted by dxe.
The functions (v) and (vi) are also called step functions.
Let us note that b1 51 c = 1, b7.23c = 7, b−2 12 c = −3 (not −2), b6c = 6 and b−4c = −4.
Let us note that d1 51 e = 2, d7.23e = 8, d−2 12 e = −2 (not −3), d6e = 6 and d−4e = −4.
One may note the relations among the names of these functions, the symbols denoting the functions
and the commonly used words ceiling and floor of a room and their graphs are given in Figures 1.25
and 1.26.
1.6.3 Types of Functions

Though functions can be classified into various types according to the need, we are going to
concentrate on two basic types: one-to-one functions and onto functions.
Let us look at the two simple functions given in Figure 1.27 and Figure 1.28. In the first function
two elements of the domain, b and c, are mapped into the same element y, whereas it is not the case
in the Figure 1.28. Functions like the second one are examples of one-to-one functions.
Let us look at the two functions given in Figures 1.28 and 1.29. In Figure 1.28 the element z in the
co-domain has no pre-image, whereas it is not the case in Figure 1.29. Functions like in Figure 1.29
are example of onto functions. Now we define one-to-one and onto functions.
Definition 1.7: A function f : A → B is said to be one-to-one if x, y ∈ A, x 6= y ⇒ f (x) 6= f (y)
[or equivalently f (x) = f (y) ⇒ x = y]. A function f : A → B is said to be onto, if for each b ∈ B
there exists at least one element a ∈ A such that f (a) = b. That is, the range of f is B.
Another name for one-to-one function is injective function; onto function is surjective function.
A function f : A → B is said to be bijective if it is both one-to-one and onto.
To prove a function f : A → B to be one-to-one, it is enough to prove any one of the following:
if x 6= y, then f (x) 6= f (y), or equivalently if f (x) = f (y), then x = y.
It is easy to observe that every identity function is one-to-one function as well as onto. A constant
function is not onto unless the co-domain contains only one element. The following statements are
some important simple results.
Let A and B be two sets with m and n elements.
(i) There is no one-to-one function from A to B if m > n.
(ii) If there is an one-to-one function from A to B then m ≤ n.
(iii) There is no onto function from A to B if m < n.
(iv) If there is an onto function from A to B then m ≥ n.
(v) There is a bijection from A to B, if and only if, m = n.
1.6 Functions 25
(vi) There is no bijection from A to B if and only if, m 6= n.

Note: A function which is not onto is called into function. That is, the range of the function is a
proper subset of its co-domain. Let us see some illustrations.
(1) X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b, c, d, e}and f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, e), (4, b)}.
This function is one-to-one but not onto.
(2) X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b} and f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, a), (4, a)}.
This function is not one-to-one; it is not onto.
(3) X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a} and f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, a), (4, a)}.
This function is not one-to-one but it is onto. It seems that this function is same as the previous
one. The co-domain of the function is very important when deciding whether the function is onto
or not.
(4) X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b, c, d, e} and f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, b), (4, b)}.
This function is neither one-to-one nor onto.
(5) X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b, c, d} and f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, d), (4, b)}.
This function is both one-to-one and onto.
(6) X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b, c, d, e} and f = {(1, a), (2, c), (3, e)}.
This is not at all a function, only a relation.
(7) Let X be a finite set with k elements. Then, we have a bisection from X to {1, 2, . . . k}.
Let us consider functions defined on some known sets through a formula rule.
Example 1.14 Check whether the following functions are one-to-one and onto.
(i) f : N → N defined by f (n) = n + 2.
(ii) f : N ∪ {−1, 0} → N defined by f (n) = n + 2.
Solution:
(i) If f (n) = f (m), then n + 2 = m + 2 and hence m = n. Thus f is one-to-one. As 1 has no

pre-image, this function is not onto. (See Figure 1.30)
(ii) As above, this function is one-to-one. If m is in the co-domain, then m − 2 is in the domain
and f (m − 2) = (m − 2) + 2 = m; thus m has a pre-image and hence this function is onto.
(See Figure 1.31)
Note: It seems that the second function (ii) is same as the first function (i). But the domains are
different. From this we see that the domain of the function is also important in deciding whether the
function is onto or not. The co-domain has no role in deciding whether the function is one-to-one or
not. But it is important to decide whether the function is onto or not.
Example 1.15 Check the following functions for one-to-oneness and ontoness.
f : N → N defined by f (n) = n2 .
Solution:
(i) f (m) = f (n) ⇒ m2 = n2 ⇒ m = n since m, n ∈ N. Thus f is one-to-one. But, non-perfect

square elements in the co-domain do not have pre-images and hence not onto.
(ii) Two different elements in the domain have same images and hence f is not one-to-one.
Clearly the range of f is a proper subset of R. Thus it is not onto.
Now, we recall Illustration 1.1. In this illustration the function f : C → D is defined by

f (L) = O, f (E) = H, f (T ) = W, f (U ) = X, f (S) = V, f (W ) = Z, f (I) = L, f (N ) = Q
where C = {L, E, T, U, S, W, I, N } and D = {O, H, W, X, V, Z, L, Q}, is an one-to-one and onto
function.
In Illustration 1.3, the function f : A → N defined by f (a) = 1, f (b) = 2, . . . , f (z) = 26, where
A = {a, b, . . . z}. This function is one-to-one. If we take N as co-domain, the function is not onto.
Instead of N if we take the co-domain as {1, 2, 3 . . . , 26} then it becomes onto.
Example 1.16 Check whether the following for one-to-oneness and ontoness.
(i) f : R → R defined by f (x) = x1 .
(ii) f : R − {0} → R defined by f (x) = x1 .
Solution:
(i) This is not at all a function because f (x) is not defined for x = 0.
(ii) This function is one-to-one (verify) but not onto because 0 has no pre-image.
Note: If we consider R − {0} as the co-domain for the second, then f will become a bijection.
x
Example 1.17 If f : R − {−1, 1} → R is defined by f (x) = x2 −1
, verify whether f is one-to-one
or not.
Solution:
We start with the assumption f (x) = f (y). Then,
= y2y−1
x
x2 −1
⇒ x(y 2 − 1) = y(x2 − 1)
⇒ xy 2 − x − yx2 + y = 0
⇒ (y − x)(xy + 1) = 0
This implies that x = y or xy = −1. So if we select two numbers x and y so that xy = −1, then
f (x) = f (y). (2, − 21 ), (7, − 17 ), (−2, 21 ) are some among the infinitely many possible pairs. Thus
f (2) = f ( −1
2
) = 23 . That is, f (x) = f (y) does not imply x = y. Hence it is not one-to-one.
1.6 Functions 27
Example 1.18 If f : R → R is defined as f (x) = 2x2 − 1, find the pre-images of 17, 4 and −2.
Solution:
To find the pre-image of 17, we solve the equation 2x2 − 1 = 17. The two solutions
q of thisq equation,
3 and −3 are the pre-images of 17 under f . The equation 2x − 1 = 4 yields 2 and − 52 as the
2 5
two pre-images of 4. To find the pre-image of −2, we solve the equation 2x2 − 1 = −2. This shows
that x2 = − 12 which has no solution in R because square of a number cannot be negative and hence
−2 has no pre-image under f .
Example 1.19 If f : [−2, 2] → B is given by f (x) = 2x3 , then find B so that f is onto.
Solution:
The minimum value is f (−2) and its maximum value is f (2) which are equal to −16 and 16
respectively. So B is [−16, 16].
Note: As f (x) = 2x3 is an increasing function on [−2, 2], the minimum value is attained at the
left end and the maximum value is attained at the right end. (For more about increasing / decreasing
functions one may refer later chapters.)
Example 1.20 Check whether the function f (x) = x|x| defined on [−2, 2] is one-to-one or not. If
it is one-to-one, find a suitable co-domain so that the function becomes a bijection.
Solution:
Let x, y ∈ [−2, 2] such that f (x) = f (y). If y = 0, then x = 0. So let y 6= 0 and hence x 6= 0. Now
|y| |y|
x|x| = y|y| since f (x) = f (y). This implies that xy = |x| . Since |x| > 0, xy > 0; thus x and y are
either both positive or both negative and hence x2 = y 2 .
So if f (x) = f (y), we must have x2 = y 2 . Also x and y are either both negative or both
positive. This is possible only if x = y. Thus f is one-to-one. When x < 0, f (x) = −x2 and when
x ≥ 0, f (x) = x2 . So the range is [−4, 4]. So f becomes a bijection from [−2, 2] to [−4, 4].
Note: f (x) = x|x| is also an increasing function.
Horizontal Test
Similar to the vertical line test we have a test called horizontal test to check whether a function is
one-to-one, onto or not. Let a function be given as a curve in the plane. If the horizontal line through
a point y in the co-domain meets the curve at some points, then the x-coordinate of all the points give
pre-images for y.
(i) If the horizontal line through a point y in the co-domain does not meet the curve, then there will
be no pre-image for y and hence the function is not onto.
(ii) If the horizontal line through at least one point meets the curve at more than one point, then the
function is not one-to-one.
(iii) If for all y in the range the horizontal line through y meets the curve at only one point, then the
function is one-to-one.
So we may say, the function represented by a curve is one-to-one if and only if for all y in the
range, the horizontal line through the point y meets the curve at exactly one point.
The function represented by a curve is onto if and only if for all y in the co-domain, the horizontal
line through the point y meets the curve at least one point.
The curve given in Figure 1.32 represents a function from [0, 4] which is not onto if the co-domain
contains [1, 3]. The curve given in Figure 1.33 represents a one-to-one function from [0, 4] to R and
the curve given in Figure 1.34 represents a function from [0, 4] to R which is not one-to-one.
Testing whether a given curve represents a one-to-one function, onto function or not by drawing
horizontal lines is called horizontal line test or simply horizontal test.
Further by seeing the diagrams in Illustration 1.2 and Figure 1.5 to Figure 1.7, the function
i. f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x is an one-to-one and onto function.
ii. f : R → R defined by f (x) = x2 is neither
√ one-to-one nor onto.
iii. f : [0, ∞) → R defined by f (x) = + x is√an one-to-one but not onto function.
iv. f : [0, ∞) → [0, ∞) defined by f (x) √ = + x is an one-to-one and onto function.
v. f : [0, ∞) → R defined by f (x) = − x is one-to-one
√ but not onto function.
vi. f : [0, ∞) → (−∞, 0] defined by f (x) = − x is one-to-one and onto function.
Example√ 1.21 Find the largest possible domain for the real valued function f defined by
f (x) = x2 − 5x + 6.
Solution:
As we are finding the square root of x2 − 5x + 6, we must have x2 − 5x + 6 ≥ 0 for all x in the
domain. For this, follow the given procedure.
Solving x2 − 5x + 6 = 0, we get x = 2 and 3. Now draw the number line as in Figure 1.35.
Figure 1.35
Now we have three intervals. (−∞, 2), (2, 3) and (3, ∞)

(i) Take any point in (−∞, 2), say x = 1. Clearly x2 − 5x + 6 is positive.
(ii) Take any point in (2, 3), say x = 2.5. Clearly x2 − 5x + 6 is negative.
(iii) Take any point in (3, ∞), say x = 4. Clearly x2 − 5x + 6 is positive.
For all x, in the intervals (−∞,
√ 2) and (3, ∞), x2 − 5x + 6 is positive. At x = 2, 3 the value of
x2 − 5x + 6 is zero. Thus,
√ x2 − 5x + 6 is defined for (−∞, 2] ∪ [3, ∞).
2
Hence the domain of x − 5x + 6 is (−∞, 2] ∪ [3, ∞).
1.6 Functions 29
1
Example 1.22 Find the domain of f (x) = 1−2 cos x
.
Solution:
The function is defined for all x ∈ R except 1 − 2 cos x = 0. That is, except cos x = 12 . That is
except x = 2nπ ± π3 , n ∈ Z. Hence the domain is R − {2nπ ± π3 }, n ∈ Z
1
Example 1.23 Find the range of the function f (x) = 1−3 cos x
.
Solution:
Clearly,
−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
⇒ 3 ≥ −3 cos x ≥ −3
⇒ −3 ≤ −3 cos x ≤ 3
⇒ 1−3 ≤ 1 − 3 cos x ≤ 1+3
Thus we get −2 ≤ 1 − 3 cos x and 1 − 3 cos x ≤ 4.

By taking reciprocals, we get 1−31cos x ≤ − 21 and 1−31cos x ≥ 14 .
Hence the range of f is (−∞, − 12 ] ∪ [ 14 , ∞).
√
2
Example 1.24 Find the largest possible domain for the real valued function given by f (x) = √9−x .
x2 −1
Solution:
If x < −3 or x > 3, then x2 will be greater than 9 and hence 9 − x2 will become negative which
has no square root in R. So x must lie on the interval [−3, 3].
Also if x ≥ −1 and x ≤ 1, then x2 − 1 will become negative or zero. If it is negative, x2 − 1
has no square root in R. If it is zero, f is not defined. So x must lie outside [−1, 1]. That is, x must
lie on (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞). Combining these two conditions, the largest possible domain forf is
[−3, 3] ∩ ((−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)). That is, [−3, −1) ∪ (1, 3].
Note: Draw the number line and plot the intervals to get the required domain interval.
1.6.4 Operations on Functions

Composition
Let there be two functions f and g as given in the Figure 1.36 and Figure 1.37. Let us note that the

co-domain of f and the domain of g are the same. Let us cut off Figure 1.37 of g and paste it on the
Figure 1.36 of f so that the domain Y of g is pasted on co-domain Y of f . (See Figure 1.38.)
Figure 1.38
Now we can define a function h : X → Z in a natural way. To find the image of a under h, we
first see the image of a under f ; it is x; then we see the image of this x under g; this is r. That is,
h(a) = r. Similarly, we declare h(b) = q and h(c) = q. In this way we can define a new function h.
This h is called the composition of f with g.
Definition 1.8: Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z be two functions. Then the function h : X → Z
defined as h(x) = g(f (x)) for every x ∈ X is called the composition of f with g. It is denoted by
g ◦ f (Read this as f composite with g). (See Figures 1.38 and 1.39.)
Figure 1.39
We can note that the range of f need not be Y . If f : X → Y1 , g : Y2 → Z and Y1 ⊆ Y2 , then

also we can define g ◦ f ; we can take Y2 as the co-domain of f and use the same definition. So we can
define g ◦ f if and only if the range of f is contained in the domain of g.
Example 1.25 Let f = {(1, 2), (3, 4), (2, 2)} and g = {(2, 1), (3, 1), (4, 2)}. Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g.
Solution:
To check whether compositions can be defined, let us find the domain and range of these functions.
Domain of f = {1, 2, 3}, Range of f = {2, 4}, Domain of g = {2, 3, 4} and Range of g =
{1, 2}. Since the range of f is contained in the domain of g we can define g ◦ f ; so as to find the
image of 1 under g ◦ f , we first find the image of 1 under f and then its image under g. The image
of 1 under f is 2 and its image under g is 1. So (g ◦ f )(1) = g(f (1)) = g(2) = 1.
Similarly we find that (g ◦ f )(2) = 1 and (g ◦ f )(3) = 2. So g ◦ f = {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2)}.
Similarly f ◦ g = {(2, 2), (3, 2), (4, 2)}.
Example 1.26 Let f = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 5)} and g = {(4, 1), (5, 2), (6, 4)}. Find g ◦ f . Can you
find f ◦ g?
1.6 Functions 31
Solution:
Clearly, g ◦ f = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 2)}. But f ◦ g is not defined because the range of g = {1, 2, 4} is
not contained in the domain of f = {1, 2, 3}.
Example 1.27 Let f and g be the two functions from R to R defined by f (x) = 3x − 4 and
g(x) = x2 + 3. Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g.
Solution:
We have,
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(3x − 4) = (3x − 4)2 + 3 = 9x2 − 24x + 19.
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 3) = 3(x2 + 3) − 4 = 3x2 + 5.
Note: Here we have f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f . Thus the operation “composition of functions” is in general not
commutative.
Theorem 1.2: Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. If f and g are one-to-one, then g ◦ f
is one-to-one.
Proof. Let x 6= y in A. Since f is one-to-one, f (x) 6= f (y). Since g is one-to-one, g(f (x)) 6= g(f (y)).
That is, x 6= y ⇒ (g ◦ f )(x) 6= (f ◦ g)(y). Hence g ◦ f is one-to-one.
Example 1.28 Show that the statement,

“if f and g ◦ f are one-to-one, then g is one-to-one” is not true.
Solution:
To claim a statement is not true we have to prove by giving one counter example. Consider the
diagram given in Picture 1.40.
Figure 1.40
Clearly f and g ◦ f are one-to-one. But g is not one-to-one. Thus from the above diagram it
shows that the statement is not true.
Example 1.29 Let f, g : R → R be defined as f (x) = 2x − |x| and g(x) = 2x + |x|. Find f ◦ g.
Solution:
We know
−x if x≤0
|x| =
x if x>0
So
2x − (−x) if x≤0
f (x) =
2x − x if x>0
Thus
3x if x≤0
f (x) =
x if x>0
Also
2x + (−x) if x≤0
g(x) =
2x + x if x>0
Thus
x if x≤0
g(x) =
3x if x>0
Let x ≤ 0. Then
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(3x) = 3x.
The last equality is taken because 3x ≤ 0 whenever x ≤ 0.

Let x > 0. Then
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(x) = 3x.
Thus (g ◦ f )(x) = 3x for all x.
1.6.5 Inverse of a Function

Let there be a bijection f : X → Y as given in the Figure 1.41.
Figure 1.41
If we look this function in a mirror, we get a function from Y to X. Let us call that function as g.
Then g is a function from Y to X defined by g(x) = b, g(y) = c, g(z) = a.
This function g is an example for the inverse of f . Now we define the inverse of a function.
Definition 1.9: Let f : X → Y be a bijection. The function g : Y → X defined by g(y) = x if
f (x) = y, is called the inverse of f and is denoted by f −1 .
If a function f has an inverse, then we say that f is invertible. There is a nice relationship between
composition of functions and inverse.
1.6 Functions 33
Let f : X → Y be a bijection and g : Y → X be its inverse. Then g ◦f = IX and f ◦g = IY where

IX and IY are identity functions on X and Y respectively. Moreover, if f : X → Y and g : Y → X
are functions such that g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY , then both f and g are bijections and they are
inverses to each other; that isf −1 = g and g −1 = f .
Using the discussions above, the terms invertible and inverse can be defined in some other way as
follows:
Definition 1.10: A function f : X → Y is said to be invertible if there exists a function g : Y → X
such that g ◦ f = IX and f ◦ g = IY where IX and IY are identity functions on X and Y respectively.
In this case, g is called the inverse of f and g is denoted by f −1 .
We may use this concept to prove some functions are bijective.
If f is a bijection, then f −1 (y) is nothing but the pre-image of y under f . Let us note that the
inverses are defined only for bijections. If f is not one-to-one , then there exists a and b such that
a 6= b and f (a) = f (b). Let this value be y. Then we cannot define f −1 (y) because both a and b are
pre-images of y under f , as f −1 cannot assume two different values for y. If f is not onto, then there
will be a y in Y without a pre-image. In this case also we cannot assign any value to f −1 (y).
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and f = {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (4, 3)}. Then the range of f is
{1, 2, 3, 4}; the inverse of f is {(1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 4), (4, 2)}.
Working Rule to Find the Inverse of Functions from R to R:

Let f : R → R be the given function.
i. write y = f (x);
ii. write x in terms of y;
iii. write f −1 (y) = the expression in y.
iv. replace y as x.
Example 1.30 If f : R → R is defined by f (x) = 2x − 3 prove that f is a bijection and find its
inverse.
Solution:
Method 1:
One-to-one : Let f (x) = f (y). Then 2x−3 = 2y −3; this implies that x = y. That is, f (x) = f (y)
implies that x = y. Thus f is one-to-one.
onto : Let y ∈ R. Let x = y+3 2
. Then f (x) = 2( y+32
) − 3 = y. Thus f is onto. This also can
be proved by saying the following statement. The range of f is R (how?) which is equal to the
co-domain and hence f is onto.
y+3 y+3
inverse Let y = 2x − 3. Then y + 3 = 2x and hence x = . Thus f −1 (y) = . By
2 2
x+3
replacing y as x, we get f −1 (x) = .
2
Method 2:
y+3 y+3
Let y = 2x − 3. Then x = . Let g(y) = .
2 2
Now
(2x − 3) + 3
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = g(2x − 3) = = x.
2

y+3 y+3
(f ◦ g)(y) = f (g(y)) = f =2 − 3 = y.
2 2
Thus, g ◦ f = IX andf ◦ g = IY
This implies that f and g are bijections and inverses to each other. Hence f is a bijection and
y+3 x+3
f −1 (y) = . Replacing y by x we get, f −1 (x) = .
2 2
1.6.6 Algebra of Functions

A function whose co-domain is R or the subset of real numbers R is called a real valued function. We
can discuss many more operations on functions if it is real valued.
Let f and g be two real valued functions. Can we define addition of f and g? Naturally we expect
the sum of two functions to be a function. The value of f + g at a point x should be related to the
values of f and g at x. So to define f + g at a point x, we must know both f (x) and g(x). In other
words x must be in the domain of f as well as in the domain of g. And the natural way of defining
f + g at x is f (x) + g(x). So if we impose a condition that the domains of f and g to be the same,
then we can define f + g. In the same way we can define subtraction, multiplication and many more
algebraic operations available on the set R of the real numbers.
Definition 1.11: Let X be any set. Let f and g be real valued functions defined on X. Define, for all
x∈X
• (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x).
• (f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x).
• (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).
• ( fg )(x) = fg(x)
(x)
, where g(x) 6= 0.
• (cf )(x) = cf (x), where c is a real constant.
• (−f )(x) = −f (x).
Note that the domain may be any set, not necessarily a set of numbers. For example if X is a set
of students of a class, f and g functions representing the marks obtained by the students in two tests,
then the function f + g represent the total marks of the students in the two tests. It is easy to see that
the operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division defined above satisfy the following
properties.
• (f + g) + h = f + (g + h)
• f +g =g+f
• 0 + f = f + 0, where 0 is the zero function defined by 0(x) = 0 for all x.
• f + (−f ) = (−f ) + f = 0
• f (g + h) = f g + f h
• (c1 + c2 )f = c1 f + c2 f where c1 and c2 are real constants.
We can list many more properties of these operations. The proofs are simple; however let us prove
only one to show a way in which these properties can be proved.
Let us prove f (g + h) = f g + f h. To prove f (g + h) = f g + f h we have to prove that (f (g +
h))(x) = (f g + f h)(x) for all x in the domain.
Theorem 1.3: If f and g are real-valued functions, then f (g + h) = f g + f h.
Proof. Let X be any set and f and g are real-valued functions defined on X. Let x ∈ X.
(f (g + h))(x) = f (x)(g + h)(x) (by the definition of product)

= f (x)[g(x) + h(x)] (by the definition of addition)
= f (x)g(x) + f (x)h(x) (by the distributivity of reals)
= (f g)(x) + (f h)(x) (by the definition of product)
= (f g + f h)(x) (by the definition of addition)
Thus (f (g + h))(x) = (f g + f h)(x) for all x ∈ X; hence f (g + h) = f g + f h.

1.6 Functions 35
1.6.7 Some Special Functions

Now let us see some special functions.
(i) The function f : R → R defined by
f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + a2 xn−2 + . . . + an−1 x + an ,
where ai are constants, is called a polynomial function. Since the right hand side of the equality
defining the function is a polynomial, this function is called a polynomial function.
(ii) The function f : R → R defined by f (x) = ax + b where a 6= 0 and b are constants, is called a
linear function. A function which is not linear is called a non-linear function.
Clearly a linear function is a polynomial function. The graph of this function is a straight
line; a straight line is called a linear curve; so this function is called a linear function. (one may
come across different definitions for linear functions in higher study of mathematics.)
(iii) Let a be a non-negative constant. Consider the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = ax .
If a = 0, x 6= 0 then the function becomes the zero function and if a = 1, then function
f : R → R defined by f (x) = ax is the constant function f (x) = 1.
When a > 1, the function f (x) = ax is called an exponential function. Moreover, any
function having x in the “power” is called as an exponential function.
Note: e is a special irrational number lies between 2 and 3. We will study more about e in the
subsequent chapters.
(iv) Let a > 1 be a constant. The function f : (0, ∞) → R defined by f (x) = loga x is called a
logarithmic function. In fact, the inverse of an exponential function f (x) = ax on a suitable
domain is called a logarithmic function.
Figure 1.44
(v) The real valued function f defined by f (x) = p(x)

q(x)
on a suitable domain, where p(x) and q(x)
are polynomials, q(x) 6= 0, is called a rational function. In fact, the domain of these function
are the sets obtained from R by removing the real numbers at which q(x) = 0.
(vi) If f is a real valued function such that f (x) 6= 0, then the real valued function g defined by
1
g(x) = f (x) on a suitable domain is called the reciprocal function of f . The domain of g is the
set obtained from R by removing the real numbers at which f (x) = 0. For example, the largest
1
possible domain of f (x) = x−1 is R − {1}.
Let us see two more categories of functions.
Definition 1.12: A function f : R → R is said to be an odd function if f (−x) = −f (x) for all ∈ R.
It is said to be an even function if f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ R.
The function defined by f (x) = x, f (x) = 2x and f (x) = x3 + 2x are some examples for odd
functions. The functions defined by f (x) = x2 , f (x) = 3, f (x) = x4 + x2 and f (x) = |x| are some
examples for even functions. Note that the function f (x) = x + x2 is neither even nor odd.
We can prove the following results.
(i) The sum of two odd functions is an odd function.
(ii) The sum of two even functions is an even function
(iii) The product of two odd functions is an even function.
(iv) The product of two even functions is an even function.
(v) The product of an odd function and an even function is an odd function.
(vi) The only function which is both odd and even function is the zero function.
(vii) The product of a positive constant and an even function is an even function.
(viii) The product of a negative constant and an even function is also an even function.
(ix) The product of a constant and an odd function is an odd function.
(x) There are functions which are neither odd nor even.
Let us prove one of the above properties. The other properties can be proved similarly.
Theorem 1.4: The product of an odd function and an even function is an odd function.
Proof. Let f be an odd function and g be an even function. Let h = f g. Now
h(−x) = (f g)(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = −f (x)g(x) (as f is odd and g is even)
= −h(x)
Thus h is an odd function. This shows that f g is an odd function.
Note: If one function is not odd then don’t think that the function is an even function. There are
plenty of functions which are neither even nor odd.
Exercise - 1.3
1. Suppose that 120 students are studying in 4 sections of eleventh standard in a school. Let A denote
the set of students and B denote the set of the sections. Define a relation from A to B as “x related
to y if the student x belongs to the section y”. Is this relation a function? What can you say about
the inverse relation? Explain your answer.
1.6 Functions 37
2. Write the values of f at −4, 1, −2, 7, 0 if



 −x + 4 if − ∞ < x ≤ −3
 x+4 if − 3 < x < −2


2
f (x) = x − x if − 2 ≤ x < 1
x − x2 if 1 ≤ x < 7




 0 otherwise
3. Write the values of f at −3, 5, 2, −1, 0 if



 x2 + x − 5 if x ∈ (−∞, 0)
 2
x + 3x − 2 if x ∈ (3, ∞)
f (x) =
 x2 if x ∈ (0, 2)
 x2 − 3

otherwise
4. State whether the following relations are functions or not. If it is a function check for one-to-
oneness and ontoness. If it is not a function, state why?
(i) If A = {a, b, c} and f = {(a, c), (b, c), (c, b)}; (f : A → A).
(ii) If X = {x, y, z} and f = {(x, y), (x, z), (z, x)}; (f : X → X).
5. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {a, b, c, d}. Give a function from A → B for each of the following:
(i) neither one-to-one nor onto. (ii) not one-to-one but onto.
(iii) one-to-one but not onto. (iv) one-to-one and onto.
6. Find the domain of 1−21sin x . √
2
7. Find the largest possible domain of the real valued function f (x) = √4−xx2 −9
.
1
8. Find the range of the function 2 cos x−1 .
9. Show that the relation xy = −2 is a function for a suitable domain. Find the domain and the range
of the function.
10. If f, g : R → R are defined by f (x) = |x| + x and g(x) = |x| − x, find g ◦ f and f ◦ g.
11. If f, g, h are real valued functions defined on R, then prove that (f + g) ◦ h = f ◦ h + g ◦ h. What
can you say about f ◦ (g + h)? Justify your answer.
12. Iff : R → R is defined by f (x) = 3x − 5, prove that f is a bijection and find its inverse.
13. The weight of the muscles of a man is a function of his body weight x and can be expressed as
W (x) = 0.35x. Determine the domain of this function.
14. The distance of an object falling is a function of time t and can be expressed as s(t) = −16t2 .
Graph the function and determine if it is one-to-one.
15. The total cost of airfare on a given route is comprised of the base cost C and the fuel surcharge S
in rupee. Both C and S are functions of the mileage m; C(m) = 0.4m + 50 and S(m) = 0.03m.
Determine a function for the total cost of a ticket in terms of the mileage and find the airfare for
flying 1600 miles.
16. A salesperson whose annual earnings can be represented by the function A(x) = 30, 000 + 0.04x,
where x is the rupee value of the merchandise he sells. His son is also in sales and his earnings
are represented by the function S(x) = 25, 000 + 0.05x. Find (A + S)(x) and determine the total
family income if they each sell Rupees 1, 50, 00, 000 worth of merchandise.
17. The function for exchanging American dollars for Singapore Dollar on a given day is f (x) =
1.23x, where x represents the number of American dollars. On the same day the function for
exchanging Singapore Dollar to Indian Rupee is g(y) = 50.50y, where y represents the number
of Singapore dollars. Write a function which will give the exchange rate of American dollars in
terms of Indian rupee.
18. The owner of a small restaurant can prepare a particular meal at a cost of Rupees 100. He estimates
that if the menu price of the meal is x rupees, then the number of customers who will order that
meal at that price in an evening is given by the function D(x) = 200 − x. Express his day revenue,
total cost and profit on this meal as functions of x.
19. The formula for converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius temperatures is y = 5x 9
− 160
9
. Find the
inverse of this function and determine whether the inverse is also a function.
20. A simple cipher takes a number and codes it, using the function f (x) = 3x−4. Find the inverse of
this function, determine whether the inverse is also a function and verify the symmetrical property
about the line y = x (by drawing the lines).
1.7 Graphing Functions using Transformations

“A picture is worth a thousand words” is a well known proverb. To know about a function well, its
graph will help us more than its analytical expression. To draw graphs quickly without plotting many
points is an invaluable skill. Familiarity with shapes of some basic functions will help to graph other
complicated functions. Understanding and usage of symmetry and transformations will then enable to
strengthen graphing abilities. This section is not simply a data base of graphs, we learn some methods
to graph certain functions.
Suppose that we want to draw or sketch the curve of the function y = 2 sin(x − 1) + 3. At the very
first sight it looks that it is very difficult to draw the curve representing this function. But it will be
very easy to draw after understanding the content of this section.
If we know a half of a graph is the mirror image of the other half with respective to a line, or a
graph can be obtained just by moving a known graph in some direction, then we can draw the new one
using the known one. Moreover if we know that a graph can be obtained by enlarging or shrinking a
known one, then also we can draw the new one using the known ones.
The following type of transformations play very important roles in graphing.
(i) Reflection
(ii) translation
(iii) dilations.
In the case of reflections and translations, they produce graphs congruent to the original graph; that
is, the size and the shape of the graph does not change, but in dilation, it produce graphs with shapes
related to those of the original graph.
Reflection
The reflection of the graph of a function with respect to a line ` is the graph that is symmetric to
it with respect to `. A reflection is the mirror image of the graph where line ` is the mirror of the
reflection. (See Figure 1.47.)
Figure 1.47
1.7 Graphing Functions using Transformations 39
Here f 0 is the mirror image of f with respect to `. Every point of f has a corresponding image in
0
f . Some useful reflections of y = f (x) are
(i) The graph y = −f (x) is the reflection of the graph of f about the x-axis.
(ii) The graph y = f (−x) is the reflection of the graph of f about the y-axis.
(iii) The graph of y = f −1 (x) is the reflection of the graph of f in y = x.
Illustration 1.5: Consider the functions:
(i) y = x2 (ii) y = −x2 .
Figure 1.48
For the curve f (x) = x2 , −f (x) = −x2 . Hence it is the reflection of y = x2 about x-axis. (See
Figure 1.48.)
Illustration 1.6: Consider the positive branches of
y 2 = x and y 2 = −x.
Figure 1.49
√ √ √
For the curve f (x)√= x, we have f (−x) = −x and hence f (−x) = −x where x < 0, is the
reflection of f (x) = x about y-axis. (See Figure 1.49.)
(i) y = ex (ii) y = loge x.
We know that, y = ex is the inverse function of y = loge x and hence y = ex is the reflection of
y = loge x about y = x. (See Figure 1.50.)
Figure 1.50
Translation
A translation of a graph is a vertical or horizontal shift of the graph that produces congruent graphs.
y = f (x + c), c > 0 causes the shift to the left.
y = f (x − c), c > 0 causes the shift to the right.
The graph of
y = f (x) + d, d > 0 causes the shift to the upward.
y = f (x) − d, d > 0 causes the shift to the downward.
(i) f (x) = |x| (ii) f (x) = |x − 1| (iii) f (x) = |x + 1|
Figure 1.51
f (x) = |x − 1| causes the graph of the function f (x) = |x| shifts to the right for one unit.
f (x) = |x + 1| causes the graph of the function f (x) = |x| shifts to the left for one unit. (See
Figure 1.51.)
(i) f (x) = |x| (ii) f (x) = |x| − 1 (iii) f (x) = |x| + 1
Figure 1.52
f (x) = |x| − 1 causes the graph of the functionf (x) = |x| shifts to the downward for one unit.
f (x) = |x| + 1 causes the graph of the function f (x) = |x| shifts to the upward for one unit. (See
Figure 1.52.)
Dilation
dilation is also a transformation which causes the curve stretches (expands) or compresses (contracts).
Multiplying a function by a positive constant vertically stretches or compresses its graph; that is, the
graph moves away from x-axis or towards x-axis.
If the positive constant is greater than one, the graph moves away from the x-axis. If the positive
constant is less than one, the graph moves towards the x-axis.
(i) f (x) = x2 (ii) f (x) = 12 x2 (iii) f (x) = 2x2
Figure 1.53
f (x) = 21 x2 causes the graph of the function f (x) = x2 stretches towards the x-axis since the
multiplying factor is 21 which is less than one.
f (x) = 2x2 causes the graph of the function f (x) = x2 compresses towards the y− axis that is,
moves away from the x−axis since the multiplying factor is 2 which is greater than one. (See Figure
1.53.)
(i) f (x) = x2 (ii) f (x) = x2 + 1 (iii) f (x) = (x + 1)2 .
Figure 1.54
f (x) = x2 + 1 causes the graph of the function f (x) = x2 shifts to the upward for one unit.
f (x) = (x + 1)2 causes the graph of the function f (x) = x2 shifts to the left for one unit. (See
Figure 1.54.)
Illustration 1.12: Compare and contrast the graphs y = x2 − 1, y = 4(x2 − 1) and y = (4x)2 − 1
The graphs Figures 1.55 and 1.56 look identical until we compare the scales on the y-axis. The
scale in Figure 1.56 is four times as large, reflecting the multiplication of the original function by 4
(Figure 1.55). The effect looks different when the functions are plotted on the same scale as in Figure
1.57.
The graph of y = (4x)2 − 1 is shown in Figure 1.58. Can you spot the difference between Figure
1.55 and Figure 1.58? In this case, x-scale has now changed, by the same factor of 4 as in the function
Figure 1.57
(Figure 1.58). To see this, note that substituting x = 14 into (4x)2 − 1 produces 12 − 1, exactly the
same as substituting x = 1 into the original function (Figure 1.55). When plotted on the same set of
axes (as in Figure 1.59) the parabola y = (4x)2 − 1 looks thinner. Here, the x-intercepts are different,
but y-intercepts are the same.
Illustration 1.13: By using the same concept applied in Illustration 1.12, graphs of y = sin x and
y = sin 2x, and also their combined graphs are given Figures 1.60, 1.61 and 1.62. The minimum
and maximum values of sin x and sin 2x are the same. But they have different x-intercepts. The x-
intercepts for y = sin x are ±nπ and for y = sin 2x are ± 21 nπ, n ∈ Z.
In the beginning of the section we talked about drawing the graph of y = 2 sin(x − 1) + 3. Now
we are well equipped to draw the curve and even we can draw more complicated curve.
Illustration 1.14: Let us now draw the graph of y = 2 sin(x − 1) + 3.
It is clear that the curve can be obtained from that of y = sin x using translation and dilation.
So first we draw y = sin x. From that it is easy to draw the curve y = sin(x − 1); then draw
y = 2 sin(x − 1) and finally y = 2 sin(x − 1) + 3. (See Figures 1.63 to 1.66.)
Exercise - 1.4
1. For the curve y = x3 given in Figure 1.67, draw
(i) y = −x3 (ii) y = x3 + 1 (iii) y = x3 − 1 (iv) y = (x + 1)3 with the same scale.
Figure 1.67
1
2. For the curve y = x( 3 ) given in Figure 1.68, draw
1 1 1 1
(i) y = −x( 3 ) (ii) y = x( 3 ) + 1 (iii) y = x( 3 ) − 1 (iv) y = (x + 1)( 3 )
Figure 1.68
√
3. Graph the functions f (x) = x3 and g(x) = 3 x on the same coordinate plane. Find f ◦ g and
graph it on the plane as well. Explain your results.
4. Write the steps to obtain the graph of the function y = 3(x − 1)2 + 5 from the graph y = x2 .
5. From the curve y = sin x, graph the functions
(i) y = sin(−x) (ii) y = − sin(−x) (iii) y = sin( π2 + x) which is cos x (iv) y = sin( π2 − x)
which is also cos x (refer trigonometry)
6. From the curve y = x, draw (i) y = −x (ii) y = 2x (iii) y = x + 1 (iv) y = 21 x + 1 (v)
2x + y + 3 = 0.
7. From the curve y = |x|, draw (i) y = |x − 1| + 1 (ii) y = |x + 1| − 1 (iii) y = |x + 2| − 3.
8. From the curve y = sin x, draw y = sin |x| (Hint: sin(−x) = − sin x.)
Activities
Balls and Runs
What a Celebration! What a Relation!! What a Function!!!
Source: Times of India
1. Interpret the above data as,

(i) a relation
(ii) a function
(iii) an onto function
can you make the data as an one-to-one function? If not, why?
2. Identify the curves in Figure 1.69 and the corresponding equations for the base curve y = x2
(graph with dotted line) by seeing the scale.
Figure 1.69
Exercise - 1.5
Choose the correct or the most suitable answer.
1. If A = {(x, y) : y = ex , x ∈ R} and B = {(x, y) : y = e−x , x ∈ R} then n(A ∩ B) is
(1) Infinity (2) 0 (3) 1 (4) 2
2. If A = {(x, y) : y = sin x, x ∈ R} and B = {(x, y) : y = cos x, x ∈ R} then A ∩ B contains

(1) no element (2) infinitely many elements
(3) only one element (4) cannot be determined.
3. The relation R defined on a set A = {0, −1, 1, 2} by xRy if |x2 + y 2 | ≤ 2, then which one of the
following is true?
(1) R = {(0, 0), (0, −1), (0, 1), (−1, 0), (−1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 0)}
(2) R−1 = {(0, 0), (0, −1), (0, 1), (−1, 0), (1, 0)}
(3) Domain of R is {0, −1, 1, 2}
(4) Range of R is {0, −1, 1}
4. If f (x) = |x − 2| +
 |x + 2|, x ∈ R, then
 −2x if x ∈ (−∞, −2]
(1) f (x) = 4 if x ∈ (−2, 2]
 2x if x ∈ (2, ∞)

 2x if x ∈ (−∞, −2]
(2) f (x) = 4x if x ∈ (−2, 2]
 −2x if x ∈ (2, ∞)

 −2x if x ∈ (−∞, −2]
(3) f (x) = −4x if x ∈ (−2, 2]
 2x if x ∈ (2, ∞)

 −2x if x ∈ (−∞, −2]
(4) f (x) = 2x if x ∈ (−2, 2]
2x if x ∈ (2, ∞)

5. Let R be the set of all real numbers. Consider the following subsets of the plane R × R:
S = {(x, y) : y = x + 1 and 0 < x < 2} and T = {(x, y) : x − y is an integer }
Then which of the following is true?
(1) T is an equivalence relation but S is not an equivalence relation.
(2) Neither S nor T is an equivalence relation
(3) Both S and T are equivalence relation
(4) S is an equivalence relation but T is not an equivalence relation.
6. Let A and B be subsets of the universal set N, the set of natural numbers. Then A0 ∪ [(A ∩ B) ∪ B 0 ]
is
(1) A (2) A0 (3) B (4) N
7. The number of students who take both the subjects Mathematics and Chemistry is 70. This
represents 10% of the enrollment in Mathematics and 14% of the enrollment in Chemistry. The
number of students take at least one of these two subjects, is
(1) 1120 (2) 1130 (3) 1100 (4) insufficient data
8. If n((A × B) ∩ (A × C)) = 8 and n(B ∩ C) = 2, then n(A) is

(1) 6 (2) 4 (3) 8 (4) 16
9. If n(A) = 2 and n(B ∪ C) = 3, then n[(A × B) ∪ (A × C)] is

(1) 23 (2) 32 (3) 6 (4) 5
10. If two sets A and B have 17 elements in common, then the number of elements common to the
set A × B and B × A is
(1) 217 (2) 172 (3) 34 (4) insufficient data
11. For non-empty sets A and B, if A ⊂ B then (A × B) ∩ (B × A) is equal to

(1) A∩B (2) A×A (3) B×B (4) none of these.
12. The number of relations on a set containing 3 elements is

(1) 9 (2) 81 (3) 512 (4) 1024
13. Let R be the universal relation on a set X with more than one element. Then R is
(1) not reflexive (2) not symmetric (3) transitive (4) none of the above
14. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (3, 3), (2, 1), (3, 1), (1, 4), (4, 1)}. Then
R is
(1) reflexive (2) symmetric (3) transitive (4) equivalence
1
15. The range of the function 1−2 sin x
is
(1) (−∞, −1) ∪ ( 31 , ∞) (2) (−1, 13 ) (3) [−1, 13 ] (4) (−∞, −1] ∪ [ 31 , ∞).
16. The range of the function f (x) = |bxc − x|, x ∈ R is

(1) [0, 1] (2) [0, ∞) (3) [0, 1) (4) (0, 1)
17. The rule f (x) = x2 is a bijection if the domain and the co-domain are given by
(1) R, R (2) R, (0, ∞) (3) (0, ∞), R (4) [0, ∞), [0, ∞)
18. The number of constant functions from a set containing m elements to a set containing n elements
is
(1) mn (2) m (3) n (4) m + n
19. The function f : [0, 2π] → [−1, 1] defined by f (x) = sin x is

(1) one-to-one (2) onto (3) bijection (4) cannot be defined
20. If the function f : [−3, 3] → S defined by f (x) = x2 is onto, then S is

(1) [−9, 9] (2) R (3) [−3, 3] (4) [0, 9]
21. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {a, b, c, d} and f = {(1, a), (4, b), (2, c), (3, d), (2, d)}. Then f is
(1) an one-to-one function (2) an onto function
(3) a function whichis not one-to-one (4) not a function
 x if x < 1
2
22. The inverse of f (x) = x if 1 ≤ x ≤ 4 is
 8√x if x > 4

 x√ if x < 1
−1 x if 1 ≤ x ≤ 16
(1) f (x) =
 x2
if x > 16
 64
 −x
√ if x < 1
(2) f −1 (x) = x if 1 ≤ x ≤ 16
 x2
if x > 16
 642
 √x if x < 1
−1 x if 1 ≤ x ≤ 16
(3) f (x) =
 x2
if x > 16
 64
 2x
√ if x < 1
(4) f −1 (x) = x if 1 ≤ x ≤ 16
 x2
8
if x > 16
23. Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 1 − |x|. Then the range of f is
(1) R (2) (1, ∞) (3) (−1, ∞) (4) (−∞, 1]
24. The function f : R → R is defined by f (x) = sin x + cos x is

(1) an odd function
(2) neither an odd function nor an even function
(3) an even function
(4) both odd function and even function.
25. The function f : R → R is defined by
(x2 + cos x)(1 + x4 )

f (x) = 3
+ e−|x|
(x − sin x)(2x − x )
is
(1) an odd function (2) neither an odd function nor an even function
(3) an even function (4) both odd function and even function.
Summary
In this chapter we have acquired the knowledge of
• Set
– Subset, super set, trivial subset, proper subset, improper subset
– Empty set, power set, universal set, singleton set, finite set, infinite set
– Cardinality of a set
– Union, Intersection, Complement, Set Difference, Symmetric Difference
– Properties and De Morgan Laws
– Cartesian Product
• Intervals
– Constants, dependent and independent variables
– Open, Closed, finite and infinite intervals and neighbourhoods;
• Relations
– Domain and range of relation
– Extreme relations (empty and universal)
– Inverse of a relation
– Reflexive, Symmetric, Transitive, Equivalence Relations
• Functions
– Definition, domain, co-domain, range, image, pre-image,
– Tabular, graphical, analytical and piecewise representations,
– Identity function, constant function, zero function, modulus function, signum function,
greatest integer function, smallest integer function,
– Injective, surjective and bijective functions,
– Vertical test and Horizontal test,
– Composition of functions, inverse of a function,
– Addition and multiplication of real valued functions,
– Polynomial function, linear function, exponential function, logarithmic function, rational
function, reciprocal function,
– Odd and Even functions.
• Graphing functions
– Reflection, translation, dilation
– Drawing graph of some seems to be complicated functions.
Basic Algebra
Chapter 2
I see it but I don’t believe it.
Richard Dedekind
2.1 Introduction
Algebra is a branch of mathematics in which one expresses relations among quantities by using
symbols to represent these quantities. The symbols are called the variables. In this class we shall allow
the variables to represent real numbers only. One can carry out manipulations and computations using
variables just as one does with numbers. That is, one may substitute real numbers for the variables in
the expression and the resulting value will also be a real number. Once a quantity or a mathematical
statement is expressed in terms of variables, it is possible to substitute specific numerical values for
those variables. This makes algebra a very powerful tool. For this reason the subject of algebra has
very wide application, not only within mathematics, but also in other disciplines and in real life. The
notion of real numbers is fundamental to the whole of mathematics. The real number system was well
understood only in the nineteenth century. The need for extending
√ the rational numbers arose quite
early in the history of mathematics. Pythagoreans knew that 2 was not a rational number. Certain
constructions involving irrational numbers can be found in Shulbha Sutras, which date back to around
800 BC. Aryabhata (476-550) had found approximations to π.
Indian mathematicians like Brahmagupta (598-670) and Bhaskaracharya
(1114-1185) had made contributions to the understanding of the real
numbers system and algebra. In his work Brahmagupta had solved
the general quadratic equation for both positive and negative roots.
Bhaskaracharya solved quadratic equations with more than one unknown
and found negative and irrational solutions. The most important real
number zero was the contribution by Indians.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) introduced the term “real” to describe
roots of a polynomial distinguishing them from imaginary ones. A rig-
orous construction of real number system was due to Richard Dedekind
(1831-1916). Richard Dedekind
(1831-1916)
Learning Objectives
On completion of this chapter, the students are expected to know
• the concept of real numbers and their properties.
• the absolute value, polynomials, exponents, radicals, logarithms and functions of one
variables involving these concepts.
• how to solve equations, inequalities involving above mentioned functions.
• how to solve linear inequalities involving two variables and representing the solutions
graphically in the cartesian plane.
1
2 Basic Algebra
2.2 Real Number System

First we shall recall how the real number system was developed. We start with natural numbers N.
2.2.1 Rational Numbers

Note that N = {1, 2, 3, . . . } is enough for counting objects. In order to deal with loss or debts,
we enlarged N to the set of all integers, Z = {. . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . . .} , which consists of
the natural numbers, zero, and the negatives of natural numbers. We call {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · } as the set
of whole numbers and denote it by W. Note that it differs from N by just one element, namely,
zero. Now imagine dividing a cake into five equal parts, which is equivalent to finding a solution
of 5x = 1. But this equation cannot be solved within Z. Hence we have enlarged Z to the set
m
Q = n | m, n ∈ Z, n 6= 0 of ratios; so we call each x ∈ Q as a rational number. Some examples
of rational numbers are
−7 22
−5, , 0, , 7, 12.
3 7
We have seen in earlier classes that rational numbers are precisely the set of terminating or infinite
periodic decimals. For example,
25 2
−5.0, −2.333 · · · , = 0.252525 · · · , = 0.66666 · · · , 7.14527836231231231 · · ·
99 3
are rational numbers.
2.2.2 The Number Line

Let us recall “The Number Line”. It is a horizontal line with the origin, to represent 0, and another
point marked to the right of 0 to represent 1. The distance from 0 to 1 defines one unit of length. Now
put 2 one unit to the right of 1. Similarly we put any positive rational number x to the right of 0 and
x units away. Also, we put a negative rational number −r, r > 0, to the left of 0 by r units. Note that
x+y
for any x, y ∈ Q if x < y, then x is to the left of y; also x < < y and hence between any two
2
distinct rational numbers there is another rational number between them.
Question:
Have we filled the whole line with rational numbers?
The answer to the above question is “No” as the following consideration demonstrates.√Consider
a square whose side has length 1 unit. Then by Pythagoras theorem its diagonal has length 2 units.
Figure 2.1
2.2 Real Number System 3
2.2.3 Irrational Numbers

√
Theorem 2.1: 2 is not a rational number.
√ √
Proof. Suppose that 2 is a rational number. Let 2 = m n
, where m and n are positive integers with
no common factors greater than 1. Then, we have m = 2n2 , which implies that m2 is even and hence
2
m is even.
Let m = 2k. Then, we have 2n2 = 4k 2 which gives n2 = 2k 2 .
Thus, n is also even.
It follows, that m and n are even numbers having a common factor 2.
Thus, we√arrived at a contradiction.
Hence, 2 is an irrational number.
Remark:
(i) Note that in the above proof we have assumed the contrary of what we wanted to prove and
arrived at a contradiction. This method of proof is called ‘proof by contradiction’.
(ii) There are points on the number line that are not represented by rational numbers.
(iii) We call those numbers on the number line that do not correspond to rational numbers as
irrational numbers. The set of all irrational numbers is denoted by Q0 (For number line see
Figure 1.2.)
Every real number is either a rational number or an irrational number, but not both. Thus,
R = Q ∪ Q0 and Q ∩ Q0 = ∅.
As we already knew that every terminating or infinite periodic decimal is a rational number, we
see that the decimal representation of an irrational number will neither be terminating nor infinite
periodic. The set R of real numbers can be visualized as the set of points on the number line such that
if x < y, then x lies to left of y.
Picture 2.2 demonstrates how the square roots of 2 and 3 can be identified on a number line.
Figure 2.2
We notice that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
As we have already observed, irrational numbers occur in real life situations. Over 2000 years ago
people in the Orient and Egypt observed that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is the same
for any circle. This constant was proved to be an irrational number by Johann Heinrich Lambert in
1767. The value of π rounded off to nine decimal places is equal to 3.141592654. The values 22 7
and
3.14, used in calculations, such as area of a circle or volume of a sphere, are only approximate values
for π.
4 Basic Algebra
Note: The number π, which is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, is an irrational
number.
Now let us recall the properties of the real number system which is the foundation for mathematics.
2.2.4 Properties of Real Numbers

(i) For any a, b ∈ R, a + b ∈ R and ab ∈ R.
[Sum of two real numbers is again a real number and multiplication of two real numbers is
again a real number.]
(ii) For any a, b, c ∈ R, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and a(bc) = (ab)c.
[While adding (or multiplying) finite number of real numbers, we can add (or multiply) by
grouping them in any order.]
(iii) For all a ∈ R, a + 0 = a and a(1) = a.
(iv) For every a ∈ R, a + (−a) = 0 and for every b ∈ R − {0}, b 1b = 1.

(v) For any a, b ∈ R, a + b = b + a and ab = ba.
(vi) For a, b, c ∈ R, a(b + c) = ab + ac.
(vii) For a, b ∈ R, a < b if and only if b − a > 0.
(viii) For any a ∈ R, a2 ≥ 0.
(ix) For any a, b ∈ R, only one of the following holds: a = b or a < b or a > b.
(x) If a, b ∈ R and a < b, then a + c < b + c for all c ∈ R.
(xi) If a, b ∈ R and a < b, then ax < bx for all x > 0.
(xii) If a, b ∈ R and a < b, then ay > by for all y < 0.
Exercise - 2.1
√
1. Classify each element of { 7, −1 4
, 0, 3.14, 4, 22
7
} as a member of
(i) N √ (ii) Q (iii) R − Q (iv) Z.
2. Prove that 3 is an irrational number.
√
(Hint: Follow the method that we have used to prove 2 6∈ Q.)
3. Are there two distinct irrational numbers such that their difference is a rational number? Justify.
4. Find two irrational numbers such that their sum is a rational number. Can you find two irrational
numbers whose product is a rational number.
1
5. Find a positive number smaller than 1000 . Justify.
2
2.3 Absolute Value

2.3.1 Definition and Properties
As we have observed that there is an order preserving one-to-one correspondence between elements
of R and points on the number line. Note that for each x ∈ R, x and −x are equal distance from the
origin. The distance of the number a ∈ R from 0 on the number line is called the absolute value of
that number a and is denoted by |a|. Thus, for any x ∈ R, we have

x if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x if x < 0.
and hence | · | defines a function known as absolute value function, from R onto [0, ∞) and the graph
of this function is discussed in Chapter 1.
2.3 Absolute Value 5
Note:
(i) For any x ∈ R, we have |x| = | − x| and thus, |x| = |y| if and only if x = y or x = −y.
(ii) |x − a| = r if and only if r ≥ 0 and x − a = r or x − a = −r.
2.3.2 Equations Involving Absolute Value

Note that a real number a is said to be a solution of an equation or an inequality, if the statement
obtained after replacing the variable by a is true.
Next we shall learn solving equations involving absolute value.
Example 2.1 Solve |2x − 17| = 3 for x.

Solution:
|2x − 17| = 3. Then, we have 2x − 17 = ±3 which implies x = 10 or x = 7.
Example 2.2 Solve 3|x − 2| + 7 = 19 for x.

Solution:
3|x − 2| + 7 = 19. So that we have, |x − 2| = 19−7
3
= 4.
Thus, we have either x − 2 = 4 or x − 2 = −4.
Therefore the solutions are x = −2 and x = 6.
Example 2.3 Solve |2x − 3| = |x − 5|.

Solution:
We know that |u| = |v| if and only if u = v or u = −v.
Therefore, |2x − 3| = |x − 5| implies 2x − 3 = x − 5 or 2x − 3 = 5 − x.
8
Solving these two equations, we get x = −2 and x = .
3
8
Hence, both x = −2 and x = are solutions.
3
2.3.3 Some Results For Absolute Value

(i) If x, y ∈ R, |y + x| = |x − y|, then xy = 0.
(ii) For any x, y ∈ R, |xy| = |x||y|.
(iii) xy = |x| , for all x, y ∈ R and y 6= 0.

|y|
(iv) For any x, y ∈ R, |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.
2.3.4 Inequalities Involving Absolute Value

Here we shall learn to solve inequalities involving absolute values. First we analyze very simple
inequalities such as (i) |x| < r and (ii) |x| > r.
(i) Let us prove that |x| < r if and only if −r < x < r. Note that r > 0 as |x| ≥ 0.
There are two possibilities to consider depending on the sign of x.
Case (1). If x ≥ 0, then |x| = x, so |x| < r implies x < r.
Case (2). If x < 0, then |x| = −x, so |x| < r implies −x < r that is, x > −r.
6 Basic Algebra
Therefore we have, |x| < r if and only if −r < x < r, that is x ∈ (−r, r).
(ii) Let us prove that |x| > r if and only if x < −r or x > r.
Consider |x| > r. If r < 0, then every x ∈ R satisfies the inequality.
For r ≥ 0, there are two possibilities to consider.
Case (1). If x ≥ 0, then |x| = x > r.
Case (2). If x < 0, then |x| = −x > r, that is, x < −r.
So we have |x| > r, if and only if x < −r or x > r, that is, x ∈ (−∞, −r) ∪ (r, ∞).
Remark:
(i) For any a ∈ R, |x − a| ≤ r if and only if −r ≤ x − a ≤ r if and only if x ∈ [a − r, a + r].
(ii) For any a ∈ R, |x − a| ≥ r is equivalent to x − a ≤ −r or x − a ≥ r if and only if
x ∈ (−∞, a − r] ∪ [a + r, ∞).
Example 2.4 Solve |x − 9| < 2 for x.

Solution:
|x − 9| < 2 implies −2 < x − 9 < 2. Thus, 7 < x < 11.

2
Example 2.5 Solve > 1, x 6= 4.
x − 4
Solution:
From the given inequality, we have that 2 > |x − 4|.
That is, −2 < x − 4 < 2 and x 6= 4.
Adding 4 throughout the inequality, we obtain 2 < x < 6 and x 6= 4.
So the solution set is (2, 4) ∪ (4, 6).
Exercise - 2.2
1. Solve for x:
(i) |3 − x| < 7. (ii) |4x − 5|
≥−2. (iii) 3 − 43 x ≤ 14 .
(iv) |x| − 10 < −3. (v) x − 14 < 12 x − 34 .
1
2. Solve |2x−1| < 6 and express the solution using the interval notation.
3. Solve −3|x| + 5 ≤ −2 and graph the solution set in a number line.
4. Solve 2|x + 1| − 6 ≤ 7 and graph the solution set in a number line.
5. Solve 51 |10x − 2| < 1.
6. Solve |5x − 12| < −2.
2.4 Linear Inequalities

Recall that a function of the form f (x) = ax + b, a, b ∈ R are constants, is called a linear function,
because its graph is a straight line. Here a is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept. If a 6= 0,
then x-intercept x = −ba
is obtained by solving f (x) = ax + b = 0.
But there are situations where we need to consider linear inequalities.
2.4 Linear Inequalities 7
For example to describe a statement like “ A tower is not taller than fifty feet.”
If x denotes the height of the tower in feet, then the above statement can be expressed as x ≤ 50.
Example 2.6 Our monthly electricity bill contains a basic charge, which does not change with
number of units used, and a charge that depends only on how many units we use. Let us say
Electricity Board charges Rs.110 as basic charge and charges Rs. 4 for each unit we use. If a person
wants to keep his electricity bill below Rs.250, then what should be his electricity usage?
Solution:
Let x denote the number of units used. Note that x ≥ 0. Then, his electricity bill is Rs. 110 + 4x.
The person wants his bill to be below Rs.250. Let us solve the inequality 110 + 4x < 250. Thus,
4x < 140; which gives 0 ≤ x < 35.
The person should keep his usage below 35 units in order to keep his bill below Rs.250.
Example 2.7 Solve 3x − 5 ≤ x + 1 for x.

Solution:
We have 3x − 5 ≤ x + 1; which is equivalent to 2x ≤ 6. Hence we have x ≤ 3; the solution set is
(−∞, 3].
Note: We can also solve the above inequality graphically.

Let us consider the graphs of f (x) = 3x − 5 and g(x) = x + 1 (See Figure 2.3). Now, find all the
x-values for which the graph of f is below the graph of g.
Figure 2.3
Example 2.8 Solve the following system of linear inequalities.

3x − 9 ≥ 0, 4x − 10 ≤ 6.
Solution:
Note that 3x − 9 ≥ 0 implies 3x ≥ 9, by multiplying both sides by 1/3 we get x ≥ 3. Similarly,
4x − 10 ≤ 6 implies 4x ≤ 16 and hence x ≤ 4.
So the solution set of 3x − 9 ≥ 0, 4x − 10 ≤ 6 is the intersection of [3, ∞) and (−∞, 4]. Clearly,
the intersection of these intervals give [3, 4].
8 Basic Algebra
Example 2.9 A girl A is reading a book having 446 pages and she has already finished reading 271
pages. She wants to finish reading this book within a week. What is the minimum number of pages
she should read per day to complete reading the book within a week?
Solution:
Let x denote the number of pages the girl should read per day. Then we need our x to satisfy
7x + 271 ≥ 446. Hence x ≥ 25; which implies that she should read at least 25 pages per day.
In all the above examples observe that each inequality has more than one solution. Inequalities in
general give rise to a range of solutions.
Exercise - 2.3
1. Represent the following inequalities in the interval notation:
(i) x ≥ −1 and x < 4 (ii) x ≤ 5 and x ≥ −3
(iii) x < −1 or x < 3 (iv) −2x > 0 or 3x − 4 < 11.
2. Solve 23x < 100 when (i) x is a natural number, (ii) x is an integer.
3. Solve −2x ≥ 9 when (i) x is a real number, (ii) x is an integer, (iii) x is a natural number.
4. Solve:
3(x − 2) 5(2 − x)
(i) ≤ .
5 3
5−x x
(ii) < − 4.
3 2
5. To secure A grade one must obtain an average of 90 marks or more in 5 subjects each of maximum
100 marks. If one scored 84, 87, 95, 91 in first four subjects, what is the minimum mark one scored
in the fifth subject to get A grade in the course?
6. A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12 percent solution of acid. How many litres of a 30 percent
acid solution must be added to it so that the acid content in the resulting mixture will be more than
15 percent but less than 18 percent?
7. Find all pairs of consecutive odd natural numbers both of which are larger than 10 and their sum
is less than 40.
8. A model rocket is launched from the ground. The height h reached by the rocket after t seconds
from lift off is given by h(t) = −5t2 + 100t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 20. At what times the rocket is 495 feet
above the ground?
9. A Plumber can be paid according to the following schemes: In the first scheme he will be paid
rupees 500 plus rupees 70 per hour, and in the second scheme he will paid rupees 120 per hour. If
he works x hours to complete the job, then for what value of x does the first scheme give better
wages?
10. A and B are working on similar jobs but their annual salaries differ by more than Rs 6000. If B
earns rupees 27000 per month, then what are the possibilities of A’s salary per month?
11. Forensic Scientists use h = 61.4 + 2.3F to predict the height h in centimetres for a female whose
thigh bone (femur) measures F cm. If the height of the female lies between 160 to 170 cm, then
find the range of values for the length of the thigh bone?
2.5 Quadratic Functions

In earlier classes we have learnt that for any z ∈ R and n ∈ N, z n = z · z · z · · · z (n-times).
2.5 Quadratic Functions 9
A function of the form P (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R are constants and a 6= 0, is called
a quadratic function. If P (t) = 0 for some t ∈ R, then we say t is a zero of P (x).
2.5.1 Quadratic Formula

Is it possible to write the general quadratic function P (x) = ax2 + bx + c in the form a(x − k)2 + d?
The answer is yes. We can do this by the method called ‘‘completing the square.” We shall rewrite
the function P (x) as follows:
P (x) = ax2 + bx + c

2 b c
= a x + 2x +
2a a
2 !
2
b b b c
= a x2 + 2x + − 2+
2a 2a 4a a
2
b2

b
= a x+ −a 2 +c
2a 4a
2 2 !
b b b
= a x+ + a −b +c .
2a 2a 2a
2
b b
Thus, P (x) = a x + +P . (1)
2a 2a
Now, to find the x- intercepts of the curve described

by P (x),
2 let us solve for P (x) = 0.
b b

Considering P (x) = 0 from (1) it follows that a x + + P 2a = 0.
2a
b 2 b

a x+ 2a
= −P 2a
2
= − (b −4ac)
4a
b 2 2 −4ac
= b 4a

x + 2a 2 .
√ √ b
b2 −4ac b 2 −4ac
So x = 2a
− 2a
or x = − b 2a − .
√ 2a
−b± b2 −4ac
Hence, x = 2a
; which is called the quadratic formula.
√
Remark: (i) Note√that u is defined as a real number only for u ≥ 0.
(ii) when we write u, we mean only the nonnegative root.
Note that P (x) = 0 has two distinct real solutions if b2 − 4ac > 0, the roots are real and equal if
b − 4ac = 0, and no real root if b2 − 4ac < 0.
2
Thus the curve intersects x-axis in two places if b2 − 4ac > 0, touches x-axis at only one point if
b − 4ac = 0, and does not intersect x-axis at any point if b2 − 4ac < 0.
2
That is why D = b2 −4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic function P (x) = ax2 +bx+c.
Note:
(i) If α and β are roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, then α + β = −ba
and αβ = ac .
(ii) If the discriminant b − 4ac is negative, then the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, has no
2
real roots. In this case, we have complex roots given by

√ √
−b + i 4ac − b2 −b − i 4ac − b2
α= , β= , where i2 = −1,
2a 2a
which we will study in Higher Secondary Second year.

10 Basic Algebra
Figure 2.4
(iii) For example, let us look at the graph of y = x2 − 4x + 5. (See Figure 2.4.) Since the graph does
not intersect the x−axis, x2 − 4x + 5 = 0 has no real roots.
(iv) We have the following table describing the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation and the
sign of the discriminant D = b2 − 4ac.
Discriminant Nature of roots Parabola

Positive real and distinct intersects x-axis at two points
Zero real and equal touches x-axis at one point
Negative no real roots does not meet x-axis
1 1
Example 2.10 If a and b are the roots of the equation x2 − px + q = 0, find the value of + .
a b
Solution:
Given that a and b are the roots of x2 − px + q = 0. Then, a + b = p and ab = q. Thus,
1 1 a+b p
+ = = .
a b ab q
Example 2.11 Find the complete set of values of a for which the quadratic x2 − ax + a + 2 = 0
has equal roots.
Solution:
The quadratic equation x2 − ax + a + 2 = 0 has equal roots.
So, its discriminant
√ = b2 − 4ac =
is zero. Thus, D √ 2
√ a − 4a − 8 = 0.
4± 48
So, a = 2 which gives a = 2 + 12, 2 − 12.
Example 2.12 Find the number of solutions of x2 + |x − 1| = 1.

Solution:
Case (1). For x ≥ 1, |x − 1| = x − 1.

Then the given equation reduces to x2 +x−2 = 0. Factoring we get (x+2)(x−1) = 0,
which implies x = −2 or 1. As x ≥ 1, we obtain x = 1.
Case (2). For x < 1, |x − 1| = 1 − x
Then the given equation becomes x2 + 1 − x = 1. Thus we have x(x − 1) = 0 which
implies x = 0 or x = 1. As x < 1, we have to choose x = 0.
2.5 Quadratic Functions 11
Thus, the solution set is {0, 1}. Hence, the equation has two solutions.
Exercise - 2.4
1. Construct a quadratic equation with roots 7 and −3.√
2. A quadratic polynomial has one of its zeros 1 + 5 and it satisfies p(1) = 2. Find the quadratic
polynomial. √
3. If α and β are the roots of the quadratic equation x2 + 2x + 3 = 0, form a quadratic polynomial
with zeroes α1 , β1 .
4. If one root of k(x − 1)2 = 5x − 7 is double the other root, show that k = 2 or −25.
5. If the difference of the roots of the equation 2x2 − (a + 1)x + a − 1 = 0 is equal to their product,
then prove that a = 2.
6. Find the condition that one of the roots of ax2 + bx + c may be (i) negative of the other, (ii)
thrice the other, (iii) reciprocal of the other.
7. If the equations x2 − ax + b = 0 and x2 − ex + f = 0 have one root in common and if the second
equation has equal roots, then prove that ae = 2(b + f ).
8. Discuss the nature of roots of (i) −x2 + 3x + 1 = 0, (ii) 4x2 − x − 2 = 0, (iii) 9x2 + 5x = 0.
9. Without sketching the graphs, find whether the graphs of the following functions will intersect the
x-axis and if so in how many points.
(i) y = x2 + x + 2, (ii) y = x2 − 3x − 7, (iii) y = x2 + 6x + 9.
10. Write f (x) = x2 + 5x + 4 in completed square form.
2.5.2 Quadratic Inequalities

Here we shall learn to solve the quadratic inequalities ax2 + bx + c < 0 or ax2 + bx + c > 0.
Steps to Solve Quadratic Inequalities:
(i) First solve ax2 + bx + c = 0.

(ii) If there are no real solutions, then one of the above inequality holds for all x ∈ R
(iii) If there are real solutions, which are called critical points, then label those points on the number
line.
(iv) Note that these critical points divide the number line into disjoint intervals. (It is possible that
there may be only one critical point.)
(v) Choose one representative number from each interval.
(vi) Substitute that these representative numbers in the inequality.
(vii) Identify the intervals where the inequality is satisfied.
Example 2.13 Solve 3x2 + 5x − 2 ≤ 0.

Solution:
On factorizing the quadratic polynomial we get 3(x+2)(x− 13 ) ≤ 0. Draw the number line. Mark the
critical points −2 and 31 where the factors vanish. On each sub-interval check the sign of (x+2)(x−
1
3
). To do this pick an arbitrary point anywhere in the interval. Whatever sign the resulting value has,
the polynomial has the same sign throughout the whole corresponding interval. (Otherwise, there
12 Basic Algebra
would be another critical point within the interval). This process is easily organized in the following
table.
Figure 2.5
Interval Sign of (x + 2) Sign of (x − 1/3) Sign of 3x2 + 5x − 2

(−∞, −2) - - +
(−2, 1/3) + - -
(1/3, ∞) + + +
You can see the inequality is satisfied in [−2, 1/3].

√
Example 2.14 Solve x + 14 < x + 2.
Solution: √
The function x + 14 is defined for x + 14 ≥ 0. Therefore x ≥ −14, x + 2 > 0 implies x ≥ −2.
(x + 14) < (x + 2)2 gives x2 + 3x − 10 > 0.
Hence, (x + 5)(x − 2) > 0. Dividing the number line with the critical points x = −5 and x = 2.
Substituting a reference point in the sub-interval we get the solution set to be x < −5 and x > 2.
Since x ≥ −2, we have the solution to be x > 2.
√
Example 2.15 Solve the equation 6 − 4x − x2 = x + 4.
Solution:
The given equation is equivalent to the system
(x + 4) ≥ 0 and 6 − 4x − x2 = (x + 4)2 .
This implies x ≥ −4 and x2 + 6x + 5 = 0. Thus, x = −1, −5.
But only x = −1 satisfies both the conditions. Hence, x = −1.
Exercise - 2.5
1. Solve 2x2 + x − 15 ≤ 0.
2.6 Polynomial Functions 13
2. Solve −x2 + 3x − 2 ≥ 0.
2.6 Polynomial Functions

So far we have understood about linear functions and quadratic functions. Now we shall generalize
these ideas. We call an expression of the form an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , where ai ∈ R, i =
0, 1, 2, · · · , n, is called a polynomial in the variable x. Here n is a non-negative integer. When an 6= 0,
we say that the polynomial has degree n. The numbers a0 , a1 , . . . , an ∈ R are called the coefficients
of the polynomial. The number a0 is called the constant term and an is called the leading coefficient
(when it is non-zero). It is clear that:
√
(i) 100x7 − πx5 + 20 2x2 √ + 7x + 1.22 is a polynomial of degree 7.
(ii) (17x − 3)(x + 3)(2x − π)(x + 2.3) is √a polynomial of degree 4.
2 3 5
(iii) (x + x + 1)(x + 2x + 2)(x − 5x + 3) is a polynomial of degree 10.
One may substitute specific values for x, say x = c and obtain an cn + an−1 cn−1 + · · · + a1 c + a0 .
A function of the form P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 is called a polynomial function which is
defined from R to R. We shall treat polynomial and polynomial function as one and the same.
A polynomial with degree 1 is called a linear polynomial. A polynomial with degree 2 is called
a quadratic polynomial. A cubic polynomial is one that has degree three. Likewise, degree 4 and
degree 5 polynomials are called quartic and quintic polynomials respectively. Note that any constant
a 6= 0 is a polynomial of degree zero!
Two polynomials f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 , an 6= 0 and g(x) = bm xm + bm−1 xm−1 +
· · · + b0 , bm 6= 0 are equal if and only if f (x) = g(x) for all x ∈ R. It can be proved that f (x) = g(x)
if and only if n = m and ak = bk , k = 0, 1, 2, · · · n. Given two polynomials, one can form their
sum and product. For example if P (x) = 2x3 + 7x2 − 5 and Q(x) = x4 − 2x3 + x2 + x + 1, then
P (x) + Q(x) = x4 + 8x2 + x − 6 (by adding the corresponding coefficients of the like powers of x)
and P (x)Q(x) = 2x7 + 3x6 − 12x5 + 4x4 + 19x3 + 2x2 − 5x − 5 by multiplying each term of P (x)
by every term of Q(x). It is easy to see that the degree of P (x)Q(x) is the sum of the degrees of P (x)
and Q(x), whereas the degree of P (x) + Q(x) is at most the maximum of degrees of P (x) and Q(x).
Here is an example of the graph of a cubic polynomial function.
Figure 2.6
Suppose that f (x) and g(x) are polynomials where g(x) is not zero. The quotient fg(x)(x)
is called a
rational function, which is defined for all x ∈ R such that g(x) 6= 0. In general, a rational function
need not be a polynomial.
14 Basic Algebra
2.6.1 Division Algorithm

Given two polynomials f (x) and g(x), where g(x) is not a zero polynomial, there exist two
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that f (x) = q(x)g(x) + r(x) where degree of r(x) < degree of g(x).
Here, q(x) is called the quotient polynomial, and r(x) is called the remainder polynomial. If r(x) is
the zero polynomial, then q(x), g(x) are factors of f (x) and f (x) = q(x)g(x).
These terminologies are similar to terminologies used in division done with integers.
If g(x) = x − a, then the remainder r(x) should have degree zero and hence r(x) is a constant. To
determine the constant, write f (x) = (x − a)q(x) + c. Substituting x = a we get c = f (a).
Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial f (x) is divided by x−a, then the remainder is f (a). Thus the remainder c = f (a) = 0
if and only if x − a is a factor for f (x).
Definition 2.1: A real number a is said to be a zero of the polynomial f (x) if f (a) = 0. If x = a is
a zero of f (x), then x − a is a factor for f (x).
In general, if we can express f (x) as f (x) = (x − a)k .g(x) where g(a) 6= 0, then the value of k,
which depends on a, cannot exceed the degree of f (x). The value k is called the multiplicity of the
zero a.
Note:
(i) A polynomial function of degree n can have at most n distinct real zeros. It is also possible that
a polynomial function like P (x) = x2 + 1 has no real zeros at all.
√
(ii) Suppose that P (x) is a polynomial function having rational coefficients. If a + b p where
√
a, b ∈ Q, p a prime, is a zero of P (x), then its conjugate a − b p is also a zero.
Two important problems relating to polynomials are
(i) Finding zeros of a given polynomial function; and hence factoring the polynomial into linear
factors and
(ii) Constructing polynomials with the given zeros and/or satisfying some additional conditions.
To address the problem of finding zeros of a polynomial function, some well known algebraic
identities are useful. What is an identity?
An equation is said to be an identity if that equation remains valid for all values in its domain. An
equation is called conditional equation if it is true only for some (not all) of values in its domain. Let
us recall the following identities.
2.6.2 Important Identities

For all x, a, b ∈ R we have
1. (x + a)3 = (x + a)2 (x + a) = x3 + 3x2 a + 3xa2 + a3 = x3 + 3xa(x + a) + a3
2. (x − b)3 = x3 − 3x2 b + 3xb2 − b3 = x3 − 3xb(x − b) + b3 taking a = −b in (1)
3. x3 + a3 = (x + a)(x2 − xa + a2 )
4. x3 − b3 = (x − b)(x2 + xb + b2 ) taking a = −b in (3)
n n n−1
5. x − a = (x − a)(x + x a + · · · + xn−k−1 ak + · · · + an−1 ), n ∈ N
n−2
n n n−1
6. x + b = (x + b)(x − xn−2 b + · · · + xn−k−1 (−b)k + · · · + (−b)n−1 ), n ∈ N
Exercise - 2.6
1. Find the zeros of the polynomial function f (x) = 4x2 − 25.
2. If x = −2 is one root of x3 − x2 − 17x = 22, then find the other roots of equation.
3. Find the real roots of x4 = 16.
2.6 Polynomial Functions 15
4. Solve (2x + 1)2 − (3x + 2)2 = 0.
Method of Undetermined Coefficients
Now let us focus on constructing polynomials with the given information using the method of
undetermined coefficients. That is, we shall determine coefficients of the required polynomial using
the given conditions. The main idea here is that two polynomials are equal if and only if the
coefficients of same powers of the variables in the two polynomials are equal.
Example 2.16 Find a quadratic polynomial f (x) such that, f (0) = 1, f (−2) = 0 and f (1) = 0.
Solution:
Let f (x) = ax2 + bx + c be the polynomial satisfying the given conditions.
f (0) = a02 + b0 + c = 1, implies that c = 1. Now the other two conditions f (−2) = 0, f (1) = 0
give 4a − 2b + c = 0 and a + b + c = 0.
1
Using c = 1, we get 4a−2b = −1 and a+b = −1. Solving these two equations we get a = b = −
2
1 2 1
and thus, we have f (x) = − x − x + 1.
2 2
Note: The above problem can also be solved in another way. x = −2, x = 1 are zeros of f (x). Thus,
f (x) = d(x + 2)(x − 1) for some constant d.
Now using f (0) = 1 gives −2d = 1, hence d = − 21 . So, f (x) = − 12 (x+2)(x−1) = − 12 x2 − 12 x+1.
√
Example 2.17 Construct a cubic polynomial function having zeros at x = 25 , 1 + 3 such that
f (0) = −8.
Solution: √ √
Given that 52 and 1 + 3 are zeros
√ of f (x). Thus,
√ 1 − 3 is also a zero of f (x).
Let f (x) = a(x − 25 )[(x − (1 + 3))][x − (1 − 3)] = a(x − 25 )[(x − 1)2 − 3].
Using f (0) = −8, we have, − 52 a (−2) = −8 which give a = −10.
Thus the required polynomial is f (x) = (−10)(x − 25 )[x2 − 2x − 2] = −10x3 + 24x2 + 12x − 8.
Example 2.18 Prove that ap + q = 0 if f (x) = x3 − 3px + 2q is divisible by g(x) = x2 + 2ax + a2 .

Solution:
Note that the degree of f (x) is 3 and the leading coefficient is 1. Since g(x) divides f (x), we have
f (x) = (x + b)g(x), for some b ∈ R. Thus, x3 − 3px + 2q = (x + b)(x2 + 2ax + a2 ).
Equating like coefficients on both sides, we have 2a + b = 0, a2 + 2ab = −3p and 2q = ba2 .
Thus, b = −2a, p = a2 , and q = −a3 .
Now, q = −a3 = −a(a2 ) = −ap, which gives ap + q = 0.
Example 2.19 Use the method of undetermined coefficients to find the sum of
1 + 2 + 3 + · · · (n − 1) + n, n ∈ N
16 Basic Algebra
Solution:
Let S(n) = n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + · · · + 2 + 1
= n + (n − 1) + (n − 2) + · · · + [n − (n − 2)] + [n − (n − 1)]

n−1 n−2 n − (n − 2) n − (n − 1)
= n 1+ + + ··· + +
n 2 n n
n−1 n−2
≤ n[1 + 1 + · · · + 1] since < 1, < 1, · · ·
n n
Thus, S(n) ≤ n2 .
Let S(n) = a + bn + cn2 , where a, b, c, ∈ R.

Now, S(n + 1) − S(n) = n+1
a + b(n + 1) + c(n + 1)2 − [a + bn + cn2 ] = n+1
b + 2cn + c = n+1
Thus, b + c = 1 and 2c = 1 (Equating like coefficients) which give b = 21 ; c = 1

2
Now, S(1) = 1 a + b + c = 1 which gives a = 0
Hence, S(n) = 21 n + 12 n2 = n(n+1)
2
, n ∈ N.
Example 2.20 Find the roots of the polynomial equation (x − 1)3 (x + 1)2 (x + 5) = 0 and state
their multiplicity.
Solution:
Let f (x) = (x − 1)3 (x + 1)2 (x + 5) = 0. Clearly, we have x = 1, −1, −5.
Hence, the roots are 1 with multiplicity 3, −1 with multiplicity 2 and −5 with multiplicity 1.
Note: When the root has multiplicity 1, it is called a simple root.
√
Example 2.21 Solve x = x + 20 for x ∈ R.
Solution: √
Observe that √x + 20 is defined only if x + 20 ≥ 0.
By definition, x + 20 ≥ 0 is positive. So, x is positive.
Now squaring we get x2 = x + 20. x2 − x − 20 = 0 (x − 5)(x + 4) = 0, which gives x = 5, x = −4
Since, x is positive, the required solution is x = 5.
Example 2.22 The equations x2 − 6x + a = 0 and x2 − bx + 6 = 0 have one root in common. The
other root of the first and the second equations are integers in the ratio 4 : 3. Find the common root.
Solution:
Let α be the common root.
Let α, 4β be the roots of x2 − 6x + a = 0.
Let α, 3β be the roots of x2 − bx + 6 = 0.
2.7 Rational Functions 17
Then, 4αβ = a and 3αβ = 6 which give αβ = 2 and a = 8.

The roots of x2 − 6x + 8 = 0 are 2, 4.
If α = 2, then β = 1
If α = 4, then β = 21 which is not an integer.
Hence, the common root is 2.
Example 2.23 Find the values of p for which the difference between the roots of the equation
x2 + px + 8 = 0 is 2.
Solution:
Let α and β be the roots of the equation x2 + px + 8 = 0.
Then, α + β = −p, αβ = 8 and |α − β| = 2.
Now, (α + β)2 − 4αβ = (α − β)2 , which gives p2 − 32 = 4. Thus, p = ±6.
Exercise - 2.7
1. Factorize: x4 + 1. (Hint: Try completing the square.)
2. If x2 + x + 1 is a factor of the polynomial 3x3 + 8x2 + 8x + a, then find the value of a.
2.7 Rational Functions

A rational expression of x is defined as the ratio of two polynomials in x, say P (x) and Q(x) where
2x + 1 x4 + 1 x2 + x
Q(x) 6= 0. Examples of rational expressions are 2 , 2 and 2 .
x +x+1 x +1 x − 5x + 6
If the degree of the numerator P (x) is equal to or larger than that of the denominator Q(x), then
we can write P (x) = f (x)Q(x) + r(x) where r(x) = 0 or the degree of r(x) is less than that of Q(x).
P (x) r(x)
So Q(x) = f (x) + Q(x) .
2.7.1 Rational Inequalities
x+1
Example 2.24 Solve < 3.
x+3
Solution:
x+1
Subtracting 3 from both sides we get − 3 < 0.
x+3
x + 1 − 3(x + 3)
< 0
x+3
−2x − 8
< 0
x+3
x+4
> 0
x+3
Thus, x + 4 and x + 3 are both positive or both negative.
18 Basic Algebra
So let us find out the signs of x + 3 and x + 4 as follows

x+4
x x+3 x+4
x+3
x < −4 − − +
−4 < x < −3 − + −
x > −3 + + +
x = −4 − 0 0
So the solution set is given by (−∞, −4) ∪ (−3, ∞).
Note: The above type of rational inequality problem can also be solved by plotting the signs of
various factors on the intervals of the number line.
Exercise - 2.8
x3 (x − 1)
1. Find all values of x for which > 0.
(x − 2)
2x − 3
2. Find all values of x that satisfies the inequality < 0.
(x − 2)(x − 4)
x2 − 4
3. Solve ≤ 0.
x2 − 2x − 15
x−2 5
4. Solve ≥ .
x+4 x+3
2.7.2 Partial Fractions
f (x)
A rational expression is called a proper fraction if the degree of f (x) is less than degree of g(x).
g(x)
Where g(x) can be factored into linear factors and quadratic factors without real zeros. Now fg(x) (x)
can
be expressed in simpler terms, namely, as a sum of expressions of the form
A1 A2 Ak
(i) (x−a) + (x−a)2 + · · · + (x−a)k if x − a divides g(x) and
(B1 x+C1 ) (B2 x+C2 ) (Bk x+Ck ) 2 2
(ii) (x2 +ax+b) + (x2 +ax+b)2 + · · · + (x2 +ax+b)k if x + ax + b has no real zeros and (x + ax + b)
divides g(x).
The resulting expression of fg(x)
(x)
is is called the partial fraction decomposition. Such a decomposition
is unique for a given rational function.
This method is useful in doing Integral calculus. So let us discuss some examples.
x
Example 2.25 Resolve into partial fractions: .
(x + 3)(x − 4)
Solution:
x A B
Let = + where A and B are constants.
(x + 3)(x − 4) x + 3 x − 4
x
Then, = A(x−4)+B(x+3)
(x+3)(x−4)
, which gives x = A(x − 4) + B(x + 3).
(x + 3)(x − 4)
When x = 4, we have B = 74 .
When x = −3, we have A = 73
x 3 4
Hence, = + .
(x + 3)(x − 4) 7(x + 3) 7(x − 4)
2.7 Rational Functions 19
Note: The above procedure can be carried out if the denominator has all its zeros in R which are all
distinct.
2x
(x2 + 1)(x − 1)
Solution:
In this case, note that the denominator has a factor x2 + 1 which does not have real zeros.
Let
2x A Bx + C
= +
(x2 + 1)(x − 1) (x − 1) x2 + 1
where A, B, C are constants.
We have,
2x = A(x2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x − 1)
. When x = 1, we get A = 1.
When x = 0, we have A − C = 0 and hence A = C = 1.
When x = −1, we have 2A − 2(C − B) = −2, which gives B = −1.
Thus,
2x 1 1−x
2
= + 2
(x + 1)(x − 1) (x − 1) x + 1
We now illustrate the situation when denominator has a real zeros with multiplicity more than one.
x+1
x2 (x
− 1)
Solution:
x+1 A B C
Let 2 = + 2+ .
x (x − 1) x x x−1
Then, x + 1 = Ax(x − 1) + B(x − 1) + Cx2 .
When x = 0, we have B = −1 and when x = 1, we get C = 2.
x+1 −2
When x = −1, we have 2A − 2B + C = 0 which gives A = −2. Thus, = x
− x12 +
x2 (x − 1)
2
.
x−1
Exercise - 2.9
Resolve the following rational expressions into partial fractions.
1 3x+1 x x
1. x2 −a 2 2. (x−2)(x+1) 3. (x2 +1)(x−1)(x+2) 4. (x−1)3
2
(x − 1) 2 +x+1 x3 +2x+1
5. x41−1 6. 3
7. xx2 −5x+6 8. x2 +5x+6
1
x 2+ x 2
9. (x+1)x +12
2 (x−2) 10. x36x+x−x+1
2 +x+1 11. 2xx2 +5x−11
+2x−3
12. 7+x
(1+x)(1+x2 )
x3 −1
13. x2 +x+1 .
20 Basic Algebra
2.7.3 Graphical Representation of Linear Inequalities

A straight line ax + by = c divides the Cartesian plane into two parts. Each part is an half plane. A
vertical line x = c will divide the plane in left and right half planes and a horizontal line y = k will
divide the plane into upper and lower half planes.
A point in the cartesian plane which is not on the line ax + by = c will lie in exactly one of the two
half planes determined by the line and satisfies one of the inequalities ax + by < c or ax + by > c.
To identify the half plane represented by ax + by < c, choose a point P in any one of the half
planes and substitute the coordinates of P in the inequality.
If the inequality is satisfied, then the required half plane is the one that contains P ; otherwise the
required half plane is the one that does not contain P . When c 6= 0, it is most convenient to take P to
be the origin.
Example 2.28 Shade the region given by the inequality x ≥ 2.

Solution: y
First we consider equation x = 2. It is a line 4
parallel to y axis at a distance of 2 units from

it. This line divides the cartesian plane into two 3
parts. Substituting (0, 0) in the equality we get

0 ≥ 2 which is false. Hence the region which 2
does not contain the origin is represented by

the inequality x ≥ 2. The shaded region is the 1
x≤2
required solution set of the given inequality. Since
x ≥ 2, the points on the line x = 2 are also 0 x
solutions. -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
Example 2.29 Shade the region given by the linear inequality x + 2y > 3.
Proof. The line x + 2y = 3 divides the cartesian y
plane into two half planes. To find the half plane 4
represented by x + 2y > 3 substitute a point in

one of the half planes in the inequality and check 3
whether it is satisfied. Let us substitute (0, 0) in

the inequality. We get 0 > 3 which is false. 2
Hence, the region given by x + 2y > 3 is the half

plane which does not contain the origin. 1
x+
2y
≥
0 3
x
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
2.8 Exponents and Radicals 21
Example 2.30 Solve the linear inequalities and exhibit the solution set graphically:
x + y ≥ 3, 2x − y ≤ 5, −x + 2y ≤ 3.
Solution:
Observe that a straight line can be drawn if we identify any two points on it. For example, (3, 0) and
(0, 3) can be easily identified as two points on the straight line x + y = 3.
Draw the three straight lines x + y = 3; 2x − y = 5 and −x + 2y = 3.
Now (0, 0) does not satisfy x+y ≥ 3. Thus, the half plane bounded by x+y = 3, not containing
the origin, is the solution set of x + y ≥ 3.
x2
Similarly, the half-plane bounded by 2x−y ≤ 5
4
containing the origin represents the solution set of
the 2x − y ≤ 5.
3 3
The region represented by −x + 2y ≤ 3 is +
2y
≤
−x
the half space bounded by the straight line the line
5
2
y≤
−x + 2y = 3 that contains the origin.
−
The region common to the above three half
2x
x
1 +
planes represents the solution set of the given y
≥
3
linear inequalities.
0 x1
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
Exercise - 2.10
Determine the region in the plane determined by the inequalities:
(1) x ≤ 3y, x ≥ y.
(2) y ≥ 2x, −2x + 3y ≤ 6.
(3) 3x + 5y ≥ 45, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
(4) 2x + 3y ≤ 35, y ≥ 2, x ≥ 5.
(5) 2x + 3y ≤ 6, x + 4y ≤ 4, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
(6) x − 2y ≥ 0, 2x − y ≤ −2, x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0.
(7) 2x + y ≥ 8, x + 2y ≥ 8, x + y ≤ 6.
2.8 Exponents and Radicals

First we shall consider exponents.
22 Basic Algebra
2.8.1 Exponents
Let n ∈ N, a ∈ R. Then an = a · a · · · a (n times). If m is a negative integer and the real number
1
a 6= 0, then am = −m .
a a
Note that for any a 6= 0, we have = a1−1 = a0 = 1. It is also easy to see the following
a
properties.
Properties of Exponents
(i) For m, n ∈ Z and a 6= 0, we have am an = am+n .
am
(ii) For m, n ∈ Z and a 6= 0, we have n = am−n .
a
2.8.2 Radicals
Question:
For a 6= 0 and r ∈ Q, is it possible to define ar ?
1
First let us consider the case when r = , n ∈ N. Suppose there is a real number y ∈ R such that
1
n
y = a n . Then we must have y n = a.
This problem is basically to finding inverse function of y = xn . In order to understand better let
us consider the graphs of the following functions:
(i) f (x) = x2n , n ∈ N (ii) g(x) = x2n+1 , n ∈ N
From these two figures it is clear that the function g : R → R given by g(x) = x2n+1 , n ∈ N is
one-to-one and onto and hence its inverse function from R onto R exists. But f : R → [0, ∞) given
by f (x) = x2n , n ∈ N is onto but not one-to-one. However, f is one-to-one and onto if we restrict
its domain to [0, ∞). This is helpful in understanding nth root of a real number. So we have two cases;
Cases 1 When n is even.

In this case y n = a is not meaningful when a < 0. So no such y exists when a < 0.
Assume that a > 0. If y is a solution to xn = a, then −y is also solution to xn = a.
Cases 2 When n is odd.
In this case no such problem arises as in Case 1. For y ∈ R, there is a unique x ∈ R such that
y = xn .
Based on the above observation we define radicals as follow.
Definition 2.2: (i) For n ∈ N, n even, and b > 0, there is a unique a > 0 such that an = b.
(ii) For n ∈ N, n odd, b ∈ R, there is a unique a ∈ R√ such that an = b. In both cases a is called the
n
nth root of b or radical and is denoted by b1/n or b
Note:
(i) If n = 2, then nth root is called the square root; if n = 3, then it is called cube
√ root.
2 2
(ii) Observe that the equation x = a , has two solutions x = a, x = −a; but a2 = |a|.
(iii) Properties of exponents given above are still valid for radicals provided each of the individual
terms are defined.
(iv) Note that for n ∈ N and a 6= 0 we have

n 1/n |a| if n is even ,
(a ) =
a if n is odd .
p 1
For examples, 4 (−2)4 = 161/4 = 2, 3431/3 = 7 and (−1000) 3 = −10.
m m
For any rational r = , m ∈ Z, n ∈ N, with gcd(m, n) = 1 and for a > 0 we define ar = a n =
n
(a1/n )m .
For example, 493/2 = (491/2 )3 = 73 = 343. But (−49)3/2 has no meaning in real number system
because there is no real number x such that x2 = −49.
√ x, y ≥ 0 we havep
It is clear that, for (x1/2 y −3 )1/2 = x1/4 /y 3/2 .
Also, note that x2 − 10x + 25 = (x − 5)2 = |x − 5|.
2.8.3 Exponential Function

Observe that for any a > 0 and x ∈ R, ax can be defined. If a = 1, we define 1x = 1. So we shall
consider ax , x ∈ R for 0 < a 6= 1. Here ax is called exponential function with base a. Note that
1
ax may not be defined if a < 0 and x = for even m ∈ N. This is why we restrict to a > 0. Also,
x m
a > 0 for all x ∈ R. It does also satisfy the following:
Properties of Exponential Function

For a, b > 0 and a 6= 1 6= b
(i) ax+y = ax ay for all x, y ∈ R,
ax
(ii) y = ax−y for all x, y ∈ R,
a
(iii) (ax )y = axy for all x, y ∈ R,
(iv) (ab)x = ax bx for all x ∈ R,
(v) ax = 1 if and only if x = 0.
1. Let us consider f (x) = ax , x ∈ R where a = 2.
Now f (x) = 2x , x ∈ R. Let us show that f is one-to-one and onto.
2u
Suppose f (u) = f (v) for some u, v ∈ R. Then, we have 2u = 2v , which implies that v = 1,
2
⇒ 2u−v = 1.
So, u − v = 0 and hence u = v. Thus f is a one-to-one function.
Figure 2.7: f (x) = 2x 1

Figure 2.8: f (x) =
2x
24 Basic Algebra
From the graph it is clear that values of f (x) = 2x increase as x values increase and the range
of f is (0, ∞). So as 20 = 1, we have 2x > 1 for all x > 0 and 2x < 1 for all x < 0. Observe that
f : R → (0, ∞) is onto. x
1 1 1
2. Let us consider a = . Let g(x) = = x , x ∈ R.
2 2 2 x
1
From the graph it is clear that the values of g(x) = decrease as x values increase and
2
g(R) = (0, ∞). Also, g(0) = 1 we have g(x) > 1 for all x < 0 and g(x) < 1 for all x > 0.
Remark: Exactly same arguments as above would show that an exponential function f (x) = ax , for
any base 0 < a 6= 1, is one-to-one and onto with domain R and codomain (0, ∞).
A Special Exponential Function

Among all exponential functions, f (x) = ex , x ∈ R is the most important one as it has applications in
many areas like mathematics, science and economics. Then what is this e? The following illustration
from compounding interest problem leads to the constant e.
Illustration
2.8.3.1 Compound Interest
interest rate
Recall that if P is the principal, r = , n is the number of compounding periods in a year
100
r nt
and t is the number of years, then A = P 1 + gives the total amount after t years. If n = 4,
n
then it is compounded quarterly (the interest is added to the existing principal for three months in a
year). If n = 12, then compounded monthly, n = 365 means compounded daily. We can compound
every hour, every minute etc. We know that if P and r are fixed and the number of compounding
periods in a year increases, then the totalamountalso increases. Let us consider the case with P = 1,
n
1
r = 1 and t = 1. Then, we have An = 1 + . We want to understand how big it gets as n gets
n
really large. Let us make a table with different values of n = 10, 100, 10000, 100000, 100000000.
n 10 100 10000 100000 100000000

An 2.593742460 2.704813829 2.718145927 2.718268237 2.718281815
We notice that as n gets really large, An values seem to be getting closer to 2.718281815..... Actually
An values approach a real number e, an irrational number which is called Euler constant. 2.718281815
is an approximation to e. So the compound interest formula becomes A = P ert , where r is the interest
rate and P is the principal and t is the number of years. This is called Continuous Compounding.
Example 2.31√ (i) Simplify: (x1/2 y −3 )1/2 ; where x, y ≥ 0.

(ii) Simplify: x2 − 10x + 25.
Solution:
(i) Since x, y ≥ 0,√wehave (x1/2 y −3 )1/2 1/4 3/2
p = x /y .
(ii) Observe that x2 − 10x + 25 = (x − 5)2 = |x − 5|.
Note:
(i) (x1/4 )4 = x but (y 4 )1/4 = |y|.
Observe that x1/4 is defined only when x is positive. But y 4 is defined even when y < 0.
Now (y 4 )1/4 is a positive number whose fourth power equals y 4 . So it has to be |y|.
(ii) (x8 .y 4 )1/4 = x2 |y|.

(iii) Let u, v, b be rational numbers where b is positive.
Let us suppose√ they are not
√ squares of rational numbers.
Then u + v b, u − √ v b are called
√ conjugates.
Observe that (u + v b)(u − v b) =√ u2 − bv 2 is now rational.
Thus, if an expression such as u + v b appears in the denominator√ we can multiply both
the numerator and denominator by its conjugate, namely, u − v b, to get a rational number in
the denominator.
√ √ √ √
(iv) Using
√ (u√ a − v b)(u a + v b) = u2 a − v 2 b, it is possible to simply expressions when
u a + v b occurs in the denominator.
√
5
Example 2.32 Rationalize the denominator of √ √ .
( 6 + 2)
Solution: √ √
Multiplying
√
both numerator
√ √ √ and
√ denominator
√ by ( 6 − 2),we get
5( 6− 2) ( 30− 10)
√ 5√ = ( 6+ 2)( 6− 2) =
√ √ √ √ .
( 6+ 2) 4
√
Example 2.33 Find the square root of 7 − 4 3.
Solution:
p √ √
Let 7 − 4 3 = a + b 3 where a, b are √rationals. √
Squaring on both sides, we get 7 − 4 3 = a2 + 3b2 + 2ab 3. So, a2 + 3b2 = 7 and 2ab = −4.
Therefore a = −2/b.
From a2 + 3b2 = 7, we get (−2/b)
√
2
+ 3b2 = 7, which gives 4/b2 + 3b2 = 7 or 3b4 − 7b2 + 4 = 0.
(7± 49−48)
Solving for b2 we get b2 = 6
, which gives b2 = 1 or b2 = 43 .
2
Thus, b = ±1 or b = ± √3 .
Since bpis rational,
√ we have b = p ±1 and √ hence the corresponding
√ values of a are ∓2.
Since 7 − 4 3 > 0, we have 7 − 4 3 = 2 − 3.
√
Note: It is√ not always possible to express square roots of u + v b where
√ u, v are rationals, in √
the
form x + y b with x, y rationals. For example, the square root of 1 + 2 is not of the form a + b 2
with a, b rationals.
Exercise - 2.11
1. Simplify:
−2
2 −3 −2
−6 1 27 3
(a) (125) , (b) 16 , (c) (−1000)
3 4 3 , (d) (3 ) ,3 (e) −1 .
27 3
−1 3
2. Evaluate (256)−1/2 4 .
3. If (x1/2 + x−1/2 )2 = 9/2, then find the value of (x1/2 − x−1/2 ) for x > 1.
4. Simplify and hence find the value of n: 32n 92 3−n /33n = 27.
5. Find the radius of the spherical tank whose volume is 32π/3 units.
6. Solve (1 − x)1/4 + (15 1/4
√ + x) = 2.
1/3
7. Solve (x + 1) = x − 3.
26 Basic Algebra
√
7+ 6
8. Simplify by rationalising the denominator. √ .
3− 2
1 1 1 1 1
9. Simplify √ −√ √ +√ √ −√ √ +√ .
5− 8 8− 7 7− 6 6− 5 5−1
√ √ x2 + 1
10. If x = 2 + 3 find 2 .
x − 2√
11. Find the square root of 7 + 2 10.
2.9 Logarithm
We have seen that, with a base 0 < a 6= 1, the exponential function f (x) = ax is defined on R having
range (0, ∞). We also observed that f (x) is a bijection, hence it has an inverse. We call this inverse
function as logarithmic function and is denoted by loga (.). Let us discuss this function further. Note
that if f (x) takes x to y = ax , then loga (.) takes y to x. That is, for 0 < a 6= 1, we have
y = ax is equivalent to loga y = x.
For example, since 34 = 81 we have log3 (81) = 4. In other words, with fixed a, given a real
number y, logarithm finds the exponent x satisfying ax = y. This is useful in addressing practical
problems like, “how long will it take for certain investment to reach a fixed amount?” Logarithm is
also very useful in multiplying very small or big numbers.
Note: (i) Note that exponential function ax is defined for all x ∈ R and ax > 0 and so loga (·)
defined only for positive real numbers.
(ii) Also, a0 = 1 for any base a and hence loga (1) = 0 for any base a.
2.9.1 Properties of Logarithm

(i) aloga x = x for all x ∈ (0, ∞) and loga (ay ) = y for all y ∈ R.
(ii) For any x, y > 0, loga (xy) = loga x + loga y. (Product Rule)

x
(iii) For any x, y > 0, loga = loga x − loga y. (Quotient Rule)
y
(iv) For any x > 0 and r ∈ R, loga xr = r loga x. (Power Rule)
loga x
(v) For any x > 0, with a and b as bases, logb x = . (Change of base formula.)
loga b
Proof. Since exponential function with base a and logarithm function with base a are inverse of each
other,
(i) follows by using the definitions.
(ii) For x, y > 0 let loga x = u, loga y = v, and loga (xy) = w. Rewriting these in the exponential
form we obtain au = x, av = y, and, aw = xy. So, aw = xy = au av = au+v ; thus w = u + v.
Thus, we obtain loga (xy) = loga x + loga y.
x x
(iii) Let loga x = u, loga y = v, and loga = w. Then au = x, av = y and aw = . Hence,
y y
w x au u−v
a = = v = a ; which implies w = u − v.
y a
x
Thus, we obtain loga = loga x − loga y.
y
(iv) Let loga x = u. Then au = x and therefore, xr = (au )r = aru . Thus, loga xr = nu = r loga x.
(v) Let logb x = v. We have bv = x. Taking logarithm with base a on both sides we get loga bv =
loga x.
2.9 Logarithm 27
On the other hand loga bv = v loga b by the Power rule. Therefore, v loga b = loga x. Hence logb x =
loga x
, b > 0. This completes the proof.
loga b
Remark: (i) If a = 10, then the corresponding logarithmic function log10 x is called the common
logarithm.
(ii) If a = e,(an irrational number, approximately equal to 2.718), then the corresponding
logarithmic function loge x is called the natural logarithm. It is denoted by ln x. These above
particular cases of logarithmic functions are used very much in other sciences and engineering.
Particularly, the natural logarithm occurs very naturally. When we write log x we mean loge x.
(iii) If a = 2, then the corresponding logarithmic function log2 x called the binary logarithm, which
is used in computer science.
50
(iv) Observe that loga 35 = loga (7 ∗ 5) = loga 7 + loga 5; loga = loga 50 − loga 3.
3
log10 50
loga 22x = x loga 22; log5 50 = .
log10 5
(v) Observe the graph of the logarithmic and exponential functions.
Figure 2.9
√
Example 2.34 Find the logarithm of 1728 to the base 2 3.
Solution:
Let log2√3 1728 =
√ x.x √ 6
6 3 6
Then we have
√ (2 3)√ = 1728 = 2 3 = 2 ( 3) .
Hence, (2 3)x = (2 3)6 .
Therefore x = 6. That is, log2√3 1728 = 6.
Example 2.35 If the logarithm of 324 to base a is 4, then find a.

Solution:
We are given log√
a 324 = 4, which gives√
a4 = 324 = 34 ( 2)4 . Therefore a = 3 2.
75 5 32
Example 2.36 Prove log − 2 log + log = log 2.
16 9 243
28 Basic Algebra
Solution:
Using the properties of logarithm, we have
75 5 32
log − 2 log + log = log 75 − log 16 − 2 log 5 + 2 log 9 + log 32 − log 243. (By product
16 9 243
rule.)
= log 3 + log 25 − log 16 − log 25 + log 81 + log 16 + log 2 − log 81 − log 3
= log 2.
7
Example 2.37 If log2 x + log4 x + log16 x = , find the value of x.
2
Solution:
Note that x > 0.
7 1 1 1 7
log2 x + log4 x + log16 x = becomes + + = . (change of base rule)
2 logx 2 logx 4 logx 16 2
1 1 1 7 7 7
Thus + + = where a = logx 2. That is = .
a 2a 4a 2 4a 2
1
1 1
Thus, a = and so, logx 2 = which gives x 2 = 2.
2 2
Thus, x = 22 = 4.
Example 2.38 Solve xlog3 x = 9.

Solution:
Let log3 x = y.
2
Then x = 3y and so, 3y = 9. √ √ √ √
Thus, y 2 = 2, which implies y = 2, − 2. Hence, x = 3 2 , 3− 2.
Example 2.39 Compute log3 5 log25 27.

Solution:
log3 5 log25 27 = log3 5 log25 33 .
= log3 5 × 3 log25 3 (by exponent rule)
= 3 log25 5 = log3 25 = 2 log3 5 = 32 .
5 5
Example 2.40 Given that log10 2 = 0.30103, log10 3 = 0.47712 (approximately), find the number
of digits in 28 .312 .
Solution:
Suppose that N = 28 312 has n + 1 digits. Then N can be written as 10n × b where 1 ≤ b < 10.
Taking logarithm to the base 10, we get
log N = log(10n b) = n log 10 + log b = n + log b.
On the other hand,
log N = log 28 312 = 8 log 2 + 12 log 3 = 8 × 0.30103 + 12 × 0.47712 = 8.13368.
Thus, we get n + log b = 8.13368. Since 1 ≤ b < 10 the number of digits is 9.
2.10 Application of Algebra in Real Life 29
Exercise - 2.12
1. Let b > 0 and b 6= 1. Express y = bx in logarithmic form. Also state the domain and range of the
logarithmic function.
2. Compute log9 27 − log27 9 .
3. Solve log8 x + log4 x + log2 x = 11.
4. Solve log4 28x = 2log2 8 .
a+b 1
5. If a2 + b2 = 7ab, show that log = (log a + log b).
3 2
a2 b2 c2
6. Prove log + log + log = 0.
bc ca ab
16 25 81
7. Prove that log 2 + 16 log + 12 log + 7 log = 1.
15 24 80
8. Prove loga2 a logb2 b logc2 c = 18.
n(n + 1)
9. Prove log a + log a2 + log a3 + · · · + log an = log a.
2
log x log y log z
10. If = = , then prove that xyz = 1.
y−z z−x x−y
11. Solve log2 x − 3 log 1 x = 6.
2
12. Solve log5−x (x2 − 6x + 65) = 2.
2.10 Application of Algebra in Real Life

Algebra is used in many aspects of life. Financial planning is an area in daily life where algebra is
used. Algebra concepts are used to calculate interest rates by bankers and as well as for calculating
loan repayments. They are used to predict growth of money. Physical fitness is another area where
calculations are made to determine the right amount of food intake for an individual taking into
consideration such as the height, body mass of the person etc. Doctors use algebra in measuring
drug dosage depending on age and weight of an individual. Architects depend on algebra to design
buildings while civil engineers use it to design roads, bridges and tunnels. Algebra is needed to
convert items to scale so that the structures designed have the correct proportions. It is used to
programme computers and phones . Let us see some examples. Because of the extra-ordinary range
of sensitivity of the human ear ( a range of over 1000 million millions to one), it is useful to use
logarithmic scale to measure sound intensity over this range. The unit of measure decibel is named
after the inventor of the telephone Alexander Graham Bell.
If we know the population in the world today, the growth, which is rapid, can be measured by
approximating to an exponential function. The radioactive carbon-14 is an organism which decays
according to an exponential formula.
30 Basic Algebra
Exercise - 2.13
1. If |x + 2| ≤ 9, then x belongs to
(1) (−∞, −7) (2) [−11, 7] (3) (−∞, −7) ∪ [11, ∞) (4) (−11, 7)
2. Given that x, y and b are real numbers x < y, b ≥ 0, then

x y
(1) xb < yb (2) xb > yb (3) xb ≤ yb (4) b
≥ b
|x − 2|
3. If ≥ 0, then x belongs to
x−2
(1) [2, ∞) (2) (2, ∞) (3) (−∞, 2) (4) (−2, ∞)
4. The solution of 5x − 1 < 24 and 5x + 1 > −24 is

(1) (4, 5) (2) (−5, −4) (3) (−5, 5) (4) (−5, 4)
5. The solution set of the following inequality |x − 1| ≥ |x − 3| is

(1) [0, 2] (2) (2, ∞) (3) (0, 2) (4) (−∞, 2)
6. The value of log√2 512 is

(1) 16 (2) 18 (3) 9 (4) 12
7. The value of log3 181 is

(1) −2 (2) −8 (3) −4 (4) −9
8. If log√x 0.25 = 4, then the value of x is

(1) 0.5 (2) 2.5 (3) 1.5 (4) 1.25
9. The value of loga b logb c logc a is

(1) 2 (2) 1 (3) 3 (4) 4
10. If 3 is the logarithm of 343, then the base is

(1) 5 (2) 7 (3) 6 (4) 9
11. Find a so that the sum and product of the roots of the equation
2x2 + (a − 3)x + 3a − 5 = 0 are equal is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 0 (4) 4
12. If a and b are the roots of the equation x2 − kx + 16 = 0 and satisfy a2 + b2 = 32, then the value
of k is
2.10 Application of Algebra in Real Life 31
(1) 10 (2) −8 (3) −8.8 (4) 6
13. The number of solutions of x2 + |x − 1| = 1 is

(1) 1 (2) 0 (3) 2 (4) 3
14. The equation whose roots are numerically equal but opposite in sign to the roots of
3x2 − 5x − 7 = 0 is
(1) 3x2 − 5x − 7 = 0 (2) 3x2 + 5x − 7 = 0 (3) 3x2 − 5x + 7 = 0 (4) 3x2 + x − 7
15. If 8 and 2 are the roots of x2 + ax + c = 0 and 3, 3 are the roots of x2 + dx + b = 0, then the roots
of the equation x2 + ax + b = 0 are
(1) 1, 2 (2) −1, 1 (3) 9, 1 (4) −1, 2
16. If a and b are the real roots of the equation x2 − kx + c = 0, then the distance between the points
(a, 0) and (b, 0) is
√ √ √ √
(1) k 2 − 4c (2) 4k 2 − c (3) 4c − k 2 (4) k − 8c
kx 2 1
17. If = + , then the value of k is
(x + 2)(x − 1) x+2 x−1
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
1−2x A B
18. If3+2x−x2
= 3−x
+ x+1
, then the value of A + B is
(1) −12
(2) −2
3
(3) 1
2
(4) 2
3
19. The number of real roots of (x + 3)4 + (x + 5)4 = 16 is

(1) 4 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 0
20. The value of log3 11 log11 13 log13 15 log15 27 log27 81 is

(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4
Summary
√
• π and p, where p is a prime number, are some irrational numbers.
• |x − a| = r if and only if r ≥ 0 and x − a = ±r.
• |x − a| ≤ r if and only if −r ≤ x − a ≤ r or a − r ≤ x ≤ a + r.
• |x − a| > r implies x < a − r and x > a + r (or) x ∈ (−∞, a − r) ∪ (a + r, ∞)
• inequalities, in general, have more than one solution.

32 Basic Algebra
• The nature of roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is determined by the discriminant D = b2 − 4ac.
• A real number a is a zero of a polynomial function f (x) if and only if (x − a) is a factor of f (x).
f (x)
• If degree of f (x) is less than the degree of g(x), then g(x)
can be written as sum of its partial
fractions.
• In general exponential functions and logarithmic functions are inverse functions to each other.
Chapter 3 Trigonometry
“When I trace at my pleasure the windings to and fro of the heavenly bodies,
I no longer touch the earth with my feet”
Ptolemy
3.1 Introduction
Trigonometry is primarily a branch of Mathematics that studies relationship
involving sides and angles of triangles. The word trigonometry stems from
the Greek word trigonon which means triangle and metron which means to
measure. So, literally trigonometry is the study of measuring triangles. Greek
mathematicians used trigonometric ratios to determine unknown distances.
The Egyptians on the other hand used a primitive form of trigonometry for
building Pyramids in second millinium BC. Aristarchus (310-250 BC) used
trigonometry to determine the distances of Moon and Sun.
Eratosthenes (276-195 BC) was the first person to calculate the earth’s Ptolemy of Alexandaria (AD 90-168)
circumference, which he did by applying a measuring system using stadia, a
standard unit of measurement during that period. The general principles of Trigonometry were
formulated by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus (190-120 BC) and he is credited as the founder
of trigonometry. His ideas were used by Ptolemy of Alexandria (AD 100-170) leading to the
development of Ptolemy theory of Astronomy. The most significant development of Trigonometry
in ancient times was in India. Indian Mathematican and Astronomer Aryabhata (AD 476-550)
defined sine, cosine, versine (1−cosine), inverse sine and he gave mathematical results in the form
of 108 verses which included a formula for the area of a triangle. Mathematicians Brahmagupta
(598 AD), Bhaskara I (600 AD) and Bhaskara II (1114 AD) are other Ancient Indians who had
contributed significantly to develop Trigonometry. Trigonometry was developed as a separate branch
of Mathematics through the works of Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748) and Leonhard Euler (1707-
1783). Euler established the fundamental results connecting trigonometric functions and complex
exponential. Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) made important contribution to the study of trigonometric
series. His invention of Fourier series has wide range of applications especially in vibration analysis,
electrical engineering, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing and quantum mechanics.
In modern times, trigonometric functions are developed as mathematical functions of angular
magnitudes, through the medium of which many kinds of geometrical and algebraic investigations
are carried out in every branch of Mathematics and applications. Our GPS system in cars and mobile
phones is based on trigonometric calculations. Advanced medical scanning procedures such as CT
and MRI, used in detecting tumors, involve sine and cosine functions.
1
2 Trigonometry
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students are expected to know
• the limitations of right triangle trigonometric ratios as they involve acute angles.
• the necessity for the study of radian measure of an angle and its advantage over degree
measure.
• how unit circle is used to define trigonometric functions of real numbers.
• various trigonometric identities, their relationships and applications.
• the principal solution and general solution of a trigonometric equation.
• how to solve trigonometric equations.
• law of sines, law of cosines in triangles and their applications in real life situations.
• how to solve an oblique triangle using law of sines and law of cosines.
• application of Herons formula and how to compute area of a triangle without finding its
altitude.
• the existence of inverse trigonometric functions and their domains and ranges.
Let us recapture the basics of trigonometric ratios using acute angles and their properties, which
were discussed in earlier classes.
3.2 A recall of basic results

In earlier classes, we have learnt trigonometric ratios using a right triangle and proved trigonometric
identities for an acute angle. One wonders, how the distance between planets, heights of Mountains,
distance between far off objects like Earth and Sun, heights of tall buildings, the speed of supersonic
jets are measured or calculated. Interestingly, such distances or heights are calculated applying
the trigonometric ratios which were derived for acute angles. Our aim is to develop trigonometric
functions defined for any real number and use them in all branches of mathematics, in particular, in
calculus. First, let us recall the definition of angle and degree measure of an angle.
3.2.1 Angles
The angle AOB is a measure formed by two rays OA
B
and OB sharing the common point O as shown in the
ide
Figure 3.1. The common point O is called the vertex of

lS
the angle. If we rotate the ray OA towards OB with vertex

ina
rm
O as the centre of rotation and if the ray OA coincide

Te
with ray OB, then OA and OB respectively are called the

initial side and the terminal side of the angle produced. Angle
An anticlockwise rotation generates a positive angle (angle O Initial Side A
Vertex
with positive sign), while a clockwise rotation generates a
negative angle (angle with negative sign). Figure 3.1
Note: One full anticlockwise (or clockwise) rotation of
OA back to itself is called one complete rotation or revolution.
3.2.2 Different Systems of measurement of angle

There are three different systems for measuring angles.
(i) Sexagesimal system
The Sexagesimal system is the most prevalent system of measurement where a right angle
is divided into 90 equal parts called Degrees. Each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called
Minutes, and each minute into 60 equal parts called Seconds.
3.2 A recall of basic results 3
The symbols 1◦ , 10 and 100 are used to denote a degree, a minute and a second respectively.
(ii) Centesimal system
In the Centesimal system , the right angle is divided into 100 equal parts, called Grades;
each grade is subdivided into 100 Minutes, and each minute is subdivided into 100 Seconds.
The symbol 1g is used to denote a grade.
(iii) Circular system
In the circular system , the radian measure of an angle is introduced using arc lengths
in a circle of radius r. Circular system is used in all branches of Mathematics and in other
applications in Science. The symbol 1c is used to denote 1 radian measure.
3.2.3 Degree Measure
The degree is a unit of measurement of angles and is represented by the symbol ◦ . In degrees, we
split up one complete rotation into 360 equal parts and each part is one degree, denoted by 1◦ . Thus,
1◦ is 1/360 of one complete rotation. To measure a fraction of an angle and also for accuracy of
measurement of angles, minutes and seconds are introduced. One minute (10 ) corresponds to 1/60
of a degree and in turn a second (100 ) corresponds to 1/60 of a minute (or) 1/3600 of a degree.
We shall classify a pair of angles in the following way for better understanding and usages.
(i) Two angles that have the exact same measure are called congruent angles.
(ii) Two angles that have their measures adding to 90◦ are called complementary angles.
(iii) Two angles that have their measures adding to 180◦ are called supplementary angles.
(iv) Two angles between 0◦ and 360◦ are conjugate if their sum equals 360◦ .
Note:
(i) The concept of degrees, minutes and seconds, is analogous to the system of time measurement
where we think of a degree representing one hour.
(ii) Observe that
59.0854◦ = 59◦ + 0.0854◦
600
◦ ◦
0.0854 = .0854 × ◦ = 5.1240
1
5.1240 = 50 + 0.1240
6000
0.1240 = 0.1240 × 0 = 7.4400
1
Thus, 59.0854◦ = 59◦ 50 7.4400
(iii) Also notice that

34◦ 510 3500 = 34.8597◦
and 90◦ − 36◦ 180 4700 = 53◦ 410 1300
3.2.4 Angles in Standard Position

90° An angle is said to be in standard position if its
y
vertex is at the origin and its initial side is along the
Q II QI
positive x-axis. An angle is said to be in the first
90° < θ < 180° 0° < θ < 90°
quadrant, if in the standard position, its terminal
180° 0° side falls in the first quadrant. Similarly, we can
xʹ O x
180° < θ < 270° 270° < θ < 360° define for the other three quadrants. Angles in
Q III Q IV standard position having their terminal sides along
yʹ the x-axis or y-axis are called quadrantal angels.
270° Thus, 0◦ , 90◦ , 180◦ , 270◦ and 360◦ are quadrantal
Figure 3.2 angles.
Note: The degree measurement of a quadrantal angle is a multiple of 90◦ .
4 Trigonometry
3.2.5 Coterminal angles

One complete rotation of a ray in the anticlockwise direc- e
y id
tion results in an angle measuring of 360◦ . By continuing l S
a
the anticlockwise rotation, angles larger than 360◦ can be in
r m
produced. If we rotate in clockwise direction, negative Te 405°
angles are produced. Angles 57◦ , 417◦ and −303◦ have
the same initial side and terminal side but with different 45° Initial Side
amount of rotations, such angles are called coterminal -315° x
angles. Thus, angles in standard position that have the
same terminal sides are coterminal angles . Hence, if α and
β are coterminal angles, then β = α + k(360◦ ), k is an
integer. The measurements of coterminal angles differ by
an integral multiple of 360◦ .
For example, 417◦ and −303◦ are coterminal because
417◦ − (−303◦ ) = 720◦ = 2 (360◦ ). Figure 3.3
Note:
(i) Observe that 45◦ , −315◦ and 405◦ lie in the first quadrant.
(ii) The following pairs of angles are coterminal angles (30◦ , 390◦ ); (280◦ , 1000◦ ) and
(−85◦ , 275◦ ).
3.2.6 Basic Trigonometric ratios using a right triangle

We know that six ratios can be formed using the three lengths a, b, c A
hy
opposite side
of sides of a right triangle ABC. Interestingly, these ratios lead to the
po
definitions of six basic trigonometric functions. ten
c use
First, let us recall the trigonometric ratios which are defined with b
reference to a right triangle.
a θ
opposite side adjacent side B adjacent side C
sin θ = ; cos θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse
Figure 3.4
With the help of sin θ and cos θ, the remaining trigonometric
ratios tan θ, cot θ, cosec θ and sec θ are determined by using the relations
sin θ 1 1 cos θ
tan θ = , cosec θ = , sec θ = , cot θ = .
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ
3.2.7 Exact values of trigonometric functions of widely used angles
Let us list out the values of trigonometric functions at known angles.
θ 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦

√
1 1 3
sin θ 0 √ 1
√2 2 2
3 1 1
cos θ 1 √ 0
2 2 2
1 √
tan θ 0 √ 1 3 undefined
3
Note:
(i) The values given above are all exact.
(ii) We observe that sin 30◦ and cos 60◦ are equal whereas sin 60◦ and cos 30◦ are also equal.
3.2 A recall of basic results 5
(iii) The value of reciprocal ratios namely cosecant, secant and cotangent can be obtained using the
above table.
(iv) The result cos 90◦ = 0 does not allow us to define tan 90◦ and sec 90◦ .
(v) Similarly sin 0◦ = 0 does not permit us to define cosec 0◦ and cot 0◦ .
3.2.8 Basic Trigonometric Identities

A trigonometric identity represents a relationship that is always true for all admissible values in the
1
domain. For example sec θ = is true for all admissible values of θ. Hence, this is an identity.
cos θ
However, sin θ = 2 is not an identity, since the relation fails when θ = 60◦ . Identities enable us to
1
simplify complicated expressions. They are the basic tools of trigonometry which are being used in
solving trigonometric equations. The most important part of working with identities, is to manipulate
them with the help of a variety of techniques from algebra.
Let us recall the fundamental identities (Pythogorean identities ) of trigonometry, namely,
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1
cosec2 θ − cot2 θ = 1
Note:
(i) sin2 θ is the commonly used notation for (sin θ)2 , likewise for other trigonometric ratios.
(ii) sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1 is meaningless when θ = 90◦ . But still it is an identity and true for all
values of θ for which sec θ and tan θ are defined. Thus, an identity is an equation that is true for
all values of its domain values.
(iii) When we write sin θ , we understand that the expression is valid for all values of θ for
1 + cos θ
which 1 + cos θ 6= 0.
tan θ + sec θ − 1 1 + sin θ

Example 3.1 Prove that = .
tan θ − sec θ + 1 cos θ
Solution:
tan θ + sec θ − sec2 θ − tan2 θ

tan θ + sec θ − 1
=
tan θ − sec θ + 1 tan θ − sec θ + 1
(tan θ + sec θ) [1 − (sec θ − tan θ)]
=
tan θ − sec θ + 1
1 + sin θ
= tan θ + sec θ = .
cos θ
Example 3.2 Prove that (sec A − cosecA) (1 + tan A + cot A) = tan A sec A − cot A cosecA.
Solution:

1 1 sin A cos A
L.H.S. = − 1+ +
cos A sin A cos A sin A
sin3 A − cos3 A
= ...(i)
sin2 A cos2 A
sin A cos A sin3 A − cos3 A
R.H.S. = − = ...(ii)
cos2 A sin2 A sin2 cos2 A
From (i) and (ii), we get the required result.
6 Trigonometry
Example 3.3 Eliminate θ from a cos θ = b and c sin θ = d, where a, b, c, d are constants.
Solution:
Squaring and adding ac cos θ = bc and ac sin θ = ad, we get
a2 c 2 = b 2 c 2 + a2 d 2 .
Exercise - 3.1
1. Identify the quadrant in which an angle of each given measure lies
(i) 25◦ (ii) 825◦ (iii) −55◦ (iv) 328◦ (v) −230◦
2. For each given angle, find a coterminal angle with measure of θ such that 0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦
(i) 395◦ (ii) 525◦ (iii) 1150◦ (iv) −270◦(v) −450◦
√
3. If a cos θ − b sin θ = c, show that a sin θ + b cos θ = ± a2 + b2 − c2 .
2
6 6 4 − 3 (m2 − 1)
4. If sin θ + cos θ = m, show that cos θ + sin θ = , where m2 ≤ 2.
4
cos4 α sin4 α
5. If + = 1, prove that
cos2 β sin2 β
cos4 β sin4 β
(i) sin4 α + sin4 β = 2 sin2 α sin2 β (ii) + = 1.
cos2 α sin2 α
2 sin α 1 − cos α + sin α
6. If y = , then prove that = y.
1 + cos α + sin α 1 + sin α
π
If x = ∞
P 2n
P∞ 2n
P∞ 2n 2n
7. n=0 cos θ, y = n=0 sin θ and z = n=0 cos θ sin θ, 0 < θ < , then show that
2
xyz = x + y + z.
1
[Hint: Use the formula 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . = , where |x| < 1].
1−x 3/2
8. If tan2 θ = 1 − k 2 , show that sec θ + tan3 θ cosec θ = 2 − k 2 . Also, find the values of k for
which this result holds.
9. If sec θ + tan θ = p, obtain the values of sec θ, tan θ and sin θ in terms of p.
2 2
10. If cot θ (1 + sin θ) = 4m and cot θ (1 − sin θ) = 4n, then prove that m2 − n = mn.
3 3 2 2 2 2

11. If cosec θ − sin θ = a and sec θ − cos θ = b , then prove that a b a + b = 1.
12. Eliminate θ from the equations a sec θ − c tan θ = b and b sec θ + d tan θ = c.
3.3 Radian Measure

Initially right triangles were used to define trigonometric ratios and angles were measured in degrees.
But right triangles have limitations as they involve only acute angles. In degrees a full rotation
corresponds to 360◦ where the choice of 360 dates back thousands of years to the Babylonians.
They might have chosen 360 based on the number of days in a year. But it does have the nice
property of breaking into smaller angles like 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 90◦ and 180◦ . In 17th century, application
of trigonometry was extended to Physics and Chemistry where it required trigonometric functions
whose domains were sets of real numbers rather than angles. This was accomplished by using
correspondence between an angle and length of the arc on a unit circle. Such a measure of angle
is termed as radian measure . For theoretical applications, the radian is the most common system
of angle measurement. Radians are common unit of measurement in many technical fields, including
3.3 Radian Measure 7
calculus. The most important irrational number π plays a vital role in radian measures of angles. Let
us introduce the radian measure of an angle.
Definition 3.1:
The radian measure of an angle is the ratio of the arc length it y
subtends, to the radius of the circle in which it is the central angle.
Consider a circle of radius r. Let s be the arc length s
θ= rs
subtending an angle θ at the centre. x
arc length s O r
Then, θ= = radians. Hence, s = rθ.
radius r
Figure 3.5
Note:
(i) All circles are similar. Thus, for a given central angle in any circle, the ratio of the intercepted
arc length to the radius is always constant.
(ii) When s = r, we have an angle of 1 radian. Thus, one radian is the angle made at the centre of
a circle by an arc with length equal to the radius of the circle.
(iii) Since the lengths s and r have same unit, θ is unitless and thus, we do not use any notation to
denote radians.
(iv) θ = 1 radian measure, if s = r
θ = 2 radian measure, if s = 2r
Thus, in general θ = k radian measure, if s = kr.
Hence, radian measure of an angle tells us how many radius lengths, we need to sweep out
along the circle to subtend the angle θ.
(v) Radian angle measurement can be related to the edge of the unit circle. In radian system, we
measure an angle by measuring the distance travelled along the edge of the unit circle to where
the terminal side of the angle intercepts the unit circle .
3.3.1 Relationship between Degree and Radian Measures

We have degree and radian units to measure angles. One measuring unit is better than another if it can
be defined in a simpler and more intuitive way. For example, in measuring temperature, Celsius unit
is better than Fahrenheit as Celsius was defined using 0◦ and 100◦ for freezing and boiling points of
water. Radian measure is better for conversion and calculations. Radian measure is more convenient
for analysis whereas degree measure of an angle is more convenient to communicate the concept
between people. Greek Mathematicians observed the relation of π which arises from circumference
of a circle and thus, π plays a crucial role in radian measure.
In unit circle, a full rotation corresponds to 360◦ whereas, a full rotation is related to 2π radians,
the circumference of the unit circle. Thus, we have the following relations:
2π radians = 360◦ , which reduces to π radians = 180◦ .
◦
180 π
Thus, 1 radian = or 1◦ = radians.
π 180
◦
180x πx
x radian = or x◦ = radians.
π 180
Observe that the scale used in radians is much smaller than the scale in degrees. The smaller scale
makes the graphs of trigonometric functions more visible and usable. The above relation gives a way
to convert radians into degrees or degrees into radians.
Note:
(i) The ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter is always a constant. This constant
is denoted by the irrational number π.
8 Trigonometry
(ii) Mark a point P on a unit circle and put the unit circle on the number line so that P touches the
number 0. Allow the circle to roll along the number line. The point P will touch the number 2π
on the number line when the circle rolls to one complete revolution to the right.
(iii) If the unit of angle measure is not specified, then the angle is understood to be in radians.
(iv) Consider a sector of a circle with radius r. If θ is the central angle of the sector, then
 2
πr
 360◦ θ in degree measure


Area of the sector =
2
 πr2 θ = r θ in radian measure


2π 2
Clearly, the calculation in radian measure is much easier to work with.
22
(v) The values of π and correct to four decimal places are 3.1416 and 3.1429 respectively. Thus,
7
22 22
π and are approximately equal correct upto two decimal places. Hence, π ≈ .
7 7
(vi)
◦ 0 00 ◦
1 radian ≈ 57
17 45 and 1 ≈ 0.017453 radian
π
10 = radian ≈ 0.000291 radian.
180 × 60

00 π
1 = radian ≈ 0.000005 radian.
180 × 60 × 60
(vii) The radian measures and the corresponding degree measures for some known angles are given
in the following table
π π π π 3π
Radians 0 1 0.017453 π 2π
6 4 3 2 2
Degrees 0◦ 57◦ 170 4500 1◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦ 180◦ 270◦ 360◦
(viii) sin 90◦ = 1 but sin 90 6= 1 (in radian measure).
Example 3.4 Convert (i) 18◦ to radians (ii)−108◦ to radians.

Solution:
π
Now, 180◦ = π radians gives 1◦ = radians
180
π π
(i) 18◦ = × 18 radians = radians
180 10
π 3π
(ii) − 108◦ = × (−108) radians = − radians.
180 5
π
Example 3.5 Convert (i) radians to degrees (ii) 6 radians to degrees.
5
Solution:
We know that π radians = 180◦ and thus,
π 180◦
(i) radians = = 36◦
5 5 ◦ ◦ ◦
180 7 × 180 7
(ii) 6 radians = ×6 ≈ × 6 = 343 .
π 22 11
3.3 Radian Measure 9
Example 3.6 Find the length of an arc of a circle of radius 5cm subtending a central angle
measuring 15◦ .
Solution:
Let s be the length of the arc of a circle of radius r subtending a central angle θ.
Then s = rθ.
π π
We have, θ = 15◦ = 15 × = radians
180 12
π 5π
So that, s = rθ gives s = 5 × = cm
12 12
Note: In the product rθ , θ must be always in radians.
Example 3.7 If the arcs of same lengths in two circles subtend central angles 30◦ and 80◦ , find the
ratio of their radii.
Solution:
Let r1 and r2 be the radii of the two given circles and l be the length of the arc.
π
θ1 = 30◦ = radians
6
4π
θ2 = 80◦ = radians
9
Given that l = r1 θ = r2 θ
π 4π
Thus, r1 = r2
6 9
r1 8
= which implies r1 : r2 = 8 : 3.
r2 3
Exercise - 3.2
1. Express each of the following angles in radian measure:
(i) 30◦ (ii) 135◦ (iii) −205◦ (iv) 150◦ (v) 330◦ .
2. Find the degree measure corresponding to the following radian measures
π π 2π 7π 10π
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) .
3 9 5 3 9
3. What must be the radius of a circular running path, around which an athlete must run 5 times in
order to describe 1 km?
4. In a circle of diameter 40 cm, a chord is of length 20 cm. Find the length of the minor arc of the
chord.
5. Find the degree measure of the angle subtended at the centre of circle of radius 100 cm by an arc
of length 22 cm.
6. What is the length of the arc intercepted by a central angle of measure 41◦ in a circle of radius
10 f t?
7. If in two circles, arcs of the same length subtend angles 60◦ and 75◦ at the centre, find the ratio of
their radii.
10 Trigonometry
8. The perimeter of a certain sector of a circle is equal to the length of the arc of a semi-circle having
the same radius. Express the angle of the sector in degrees, minutes and seconds.
9. An airplane propeller rotates 1000 times per minute. Find the number of degrees that a point on
the edge of the propeller will rotate in 1 second.
10. A train is moving on a circular track of 1500 m radius at the rate of 66 km/hr. What angle will it
turn in 20 seconds?
11. A circular metallic plate of radius 8 cm and thickness 6 mm is melted and moulded into a pie (a
sector of the circle with thickness) of radius 16 cm and thickness 4 mm. Find the angle of the
sector.
3.4 Trigonometric functions and their properties

3.4.1 Trigonometric Functions of any angle in terms of Cartesian coordinates
We have studied the principles of trigonometric ratios in the lower classes using
P(x,y)
acute angles . But we come across many angles which are not acute. We shall
extend the acute angle idea and define trigonometric functions for any angle. r
y
The trigonometric ratios to any angle in terms of radian measure are called
trigonometric functions. θ
O x
Let P (x, y) be a point other than the origin on
pthe terminal side of an angle
θ in standard position . Let OP = r. Thus, r = x2 + y 2
The six trigonometric functions of θ are defined as follows:
Figure 3.6
y x
sin θ = and cos θ = .
r r
y x r r
Using this, we have tan θ = , x 6= 0; cot θ = , y 6= 0; cosec θ = , y =
6 0; sec θ = , x 6= 0.
x y y x
Note:
(i) Since |x| ≤ r, |y| ≤ r, we have |sin θ| ≤ 1 and |cos θ| ≤ 1.
(ii) In the case of acute angle, the above definitions are equivalent to our earlier definitions using
right triangle.
(iii) The trigonometric functions have positive or negative values depending on the quadrant in
which the point P (x, y) on the terminal side of θ lies.
(iv) The above definitions of trigonometric functions is independent of the points on the terminal
side of the angle. (verify!)
Trigonometric ratios of Quadrantal angles

(0,1)
Let us recall that an angle in its standard position for which the
P(x,y)
terminal side coincides with one of the axes, is a Quadrantal angle. r=1
P(cosθ, sinθ)
We shall find the trigonometric ratios for the quadrantal angles. θ
y
2 2
Consider the unit circle x + y = 1. Let P (x, y) be a point on the (-1,0) O x L Q(1,0)
unit circle where the terminal side of the angle θ intersects the unit
circle. x
Then cos θ = = x (x-coordinate of P ) (0,-1)
1
y
and sin θ = = y (y-coordinate of P ) Figure 3.7
1
Thus, the coordinates of any point P (x, y) on the unit circle is (cos θ, sin θ). In this way, the angle
measure θ is associated with a point on the unit circle.
The following table illustrates how trigonometric function values are determined for a Quadrantal
angles using the above explanation.
3.4 Trigonometric functions and their properties 11
Exact values of trigonomentric functions of quadrantal angles.
Quadrantal Corresponding point on the Unit circle cosine value sine value
angle P (x, y) = P (cos θ, sin θ) cos θ sin θ
θ = 0◦ (1, 0) = (cos 0◦ , sin 0◦ ) cos 0◦ = 1 sin 0◦ = 0
θ = 90◦ (0, 1) = (cos 90◦ , sin 90◦ ) cos 90◦ = 0 sin 90◦ = 1
θ = 180◦ (−1, 0) = (cos 180◦ , sin 180◦ ) cos 180◦ = −1 sin 180◦ = 0
θ = 270◦ (0, −1) = (cos 270◦ , sin 270◦ ) cos 270◦ = 0 sin 270◦ = −1
θ = 360◦ (1, 0) = (cos 360◦ , sin 360◦ ) cos 360◦ = 1 sin 360◦ = 0
Note:
(i) Observe that x and y coordinates of all points on the unit circle lie between −1 and 1.
Hence, −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1, −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1, no matter whatever be the value of θ.
(ii) When θ = 360◦ , we have completed one full rotation. Thus, the terminal side coincides with
positive x- axis. Hence, sine has equal values at 0◦ and at 360◦ . Cosine and other trigonometric
functions also follow it.
(iii) If two angles differ by an integral multiple of 360◦ or 2π, then each trigonometric function will
have equal values at both angles.
(iv) Using the values of sine and cosine at quadrantal angles, we have the following generalization
geometrically.
At Quadrantal angle Justification Generalization

sin 0 = 0 sin (0 + 2nπ) = 0; n ∈ Z sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ; n ∈ Z
sin π = 0 sin (π + 2nπ) = 0; n ∈ Z
cos π2 = 0 cos π2 + 2nπ = 0; n ∈ Z cos θ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1) π2 ; n ∈ Z

cos 3π cos 3π

2
=0 2
+ 2nπ = 0; n ∈ Z
tan 0 = 0 tan (0 + 2nπ) = 0; n ∈ Z tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ; n ∈ Z
tan π = 0 tan (π + 2nπ) = 0; n ∈ Z
π
(v) tan θ is not defined when cos θ = 0 and so, tan θ is not defined when θ = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z.
2
3.4.2 Trigonometric Functions of real numbers
y For applications of trigonometry to the problems in higher
2
mathematics including calculus and to problems in physics
B t and chemistry, scientists required trigonometric functions
1
w(2) w(t) of real numbers. This was skillfully done by exhibiting
w(1)
a correspondence between an angle and an arc length
O A(1,0) x denoting a real number on a unit circle.
Consider a unit circle with the centre at the origin. Let
the angle zero (in radian measure) be associated with the
point A(1, 0) on the unit circle. Draw a tangent to the unit
circle at the point A(1, 0). Let t be a real number such that
Figure 3.8 t is y- coordinate of a point on the tangent line.
For each real number t, identify a point B(x, y) on the
unit circle such that the arc length AB is equal to t.
12 Trigonometry
If t is positive, choose the point B(x, y) in the anticlockwise direction, otherwise choose it in the
clockwise direction. Let θ be the angle subtended by the arc AB at the centre. In this way, we have
a function w(t) associating a real number t to a point on the unit circle. Such a function is called a
wrapping function . Then s = rθ gives arc length t = θ.
Now, define sin t = sin θ and cos t = cos θ.
Clearly, sin t = sin θ = y and cos t = cos θ = x.
Using sin t and cos t, other trigonometric functions can be defined as functions of real numbers.
Note:
(i) B(x, y) = B(cos t, sin t) is a point on the unit circle.
Thus, −1 ≤ cos t ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ sin t ≤ 1 for any real number t.
(ii) Wrapping function w(t) is analogous to wrapping a line around a circle.
(iii) The value of a trigonometric function of a real number t is its value at the angle t radians.
(iv) Trigonometric functions of real numbers are used to model phenomena like waves, oscillations,
that occur in regular intervals.
Example 3.8 The terminal side of an angle θ in standard position passes through the point (3, −4).
Find the six trigonometric function values at an angle θ.
Solution:
Let B(x, y) = B(3, −4), OA be the initial side and OB be the terminal side of the angle θ in the
standard position.
Then ∠AOB is the angle θ and θ lies in the IV quadrant. Also,
p q
OB = r, r = x + y = 32 + (−4)2 = 5
2 2
x = 3, y = −4 and r = 5, we have θ
sin θ =
y 4 x 3 y 4
= − ; cos θ = = ; tan θ = = − ;
O r A
r 5 r 5 x 3
cosec θ =
r 5 r 5 x 3
= − ; sec θ = = ; cot θ = = − . B(3,-4)
y 4 x 3 y 4
Figure 3.9
Signs of Trigonometric functions

Consider a unit circle with centre at the origin.
Let θ be in standard position. Let P (x, y) be the (0,1)
point on the unit circle corresponding to the angle
y II I
θ. Then, cos θ = x, sin θ = y and tan θ = .
x
The values of x and y are positive or negative x<0, y>0 x>0, y>0
depending on the quadrant in which P lies. sine positive All are positive
In the first quadrant: (-1,0) O (1,0)

x<0, y<0 x>0, y<0
cos θ = x > 0 (positive); sin θ = y > 0 (positive) tan positive cos positive
Thus, cos θ and sin θ and hence all trigonometric III IV

functions are positive in the first quadrant.
(0,-1)
In the second quadrant:
cos θ = x < 0 (negative); sin θ = y > 0 (positive) Figure 3.10
Thus, sin θ and cosec θ are positive and others are negative.
Similarly, we can find the sign of trigonometric functions in other two quadrants.
Let us illustrate the above discussions in Figure 3.10.
Note: Signs of trigonometric functions in various quadrants can be remembered with the slogan
“All Students Take Chocolate”. (ASTC rule)
3
Example 3.9 If sin θ = and the angle θ is in the second quadrant, then find the values of other
5
five trigonometric functions.
Solution: r
p 9 4
We know that sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 ⇒ cos θ = ± 1 − sin2 θ = ± 1− =±
25 5
4
Thus, cos θ = − as cos θ is negative in the second quadrant.
5
3 5 4 5
sin θ = ⇒ cosec θ = ; cos θ = − ⇒ sec θ = −
5 3 5 4
sin θ 3 4
tan θ = = − ; cot θ = −
cos θ 4 3
Note: If sin θ and cos θ are known, then the reciprocal identities and quotient identities can be used to
find the other four trigonometric values. The Pythogorean identities can be used to find trigonometric
values when one trigonometric value and the quadrant are known.
3.4.3 Allied Angles
π
Two angles are said to be allied if their sum or difference is a multiple of radians.
2
π 3π
Thus, any two angles of θ, −θ, ± θ, π ± θ, ± θ, ..., are all allied angles .
2 2
Now we shall find the trigonometic ratios involving allied angles θ and −θ.
Trigonometric ratios of −θ in terms of θ
Let ∠XOL = θ and ∠XOM = −θ. Let P (a, b) be a point y
on OL. Choose a point P 0 on OM such that OP = OP 0 .
Draw P N perpendicular to OX intersecting OM at P 0 . L
Since ∠XOP = ∠XOP 0 and ∠P ON = ∠P 0 ON P(a,b)
4P ON and 4P 0 ON are congruent.
θ
Thus, P N = P 0 N and hence the point P 0 is given by xʹ O -θ N x
0
P (a, −b)
Now, by the definition of trigonometric functions Pʹ(a,-b)
b a b M
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
OP OP a yʹ
−b −b
Thus, sin(−θ) = 0
= = − sin θ and
a OPa OP Figure 3.11
cos(−θ) = = = cos θ
OP 0 OP
Then, it is easy to get
tan(−θ) = − tan θ, cosec(−θ) = −cosec θ, sec(−θ) = sec θ, cot(−θ) = − cot θ.
14 Trigonometry
Note:
(i) sin(−θ) = − sin θ, and cos(−θ) = cos θ. These facts follow from the symmetry of the unit
circle about the x-axis. The angle −θ is the same as angle θ except it is on the other side of
the x- axis. Flipping a point (x, y) to the other side of the x- axis makes the point into (x, −y),
so the y-coordinate is negated and hence the sine is negated, but the x-coordinate remains the
same and therefore the cosine is unchanged.
(ii) The negative-angle identities can be used to determine if a trigonometric function is an odd
function or an even function .
Example 3.10 Find the values of (i) sin(−45◦ ) (ii) cos(−45◦ ) (iii) cot(−45◦ )
Solution:
1
sin(−45◦ ) = − sin(45◦ ) = − √ . We can easily see that
2
◦ 1 ◦
cos(−45 ) = √ and cot(−45 ) = −1
2
π
We have already learnt the trigonometric ratios of the angle (90◦ − θ), 0 < θ < in the lower
2
class. Let us recall the trigonometric ratios of angle (90◦ − θ) ;
sin(90◦ − θ) = cos θ, cos(90◦ − θ) = sin θ, tan(90◦ − θ) = cot θ

cosec(90◦ − θ) = sec θ, sec(90◦ − θ) = cosec θ, cot(90◦ − θ) = tan θ.
Now, we will establish the corresponding trigonometric ratios for an angle of the form (90◦ + θ).

◦
π
Trigonometric ratios of an angle of the form (90 + θ), 0 < θ < .
2
Let ∠XOL = θ and ∠XOR = (90◦ + θ). Let P (a, b)
y
be a point on OL and choose a point P 0 on OR such that
OP = OP 0 . R L
90°+θ
0 0
Draw perpendiculars P M and P N from P and P on OX
and OX 0 respectively. Pʹ(-b,a) P(a,b)
0 ◦
Now, ∠XOP = 90 + θ.
Clearly, 4OP M and 4P 0 ON are congruent. θ
xʹ N O M x
0
ON = M P and N P = OM
Hence, the coordinates of P and P 0 are P (a, b) and

P 0 (−b, a), respectively. Now
yʹ
y-coordinate of P 0 a
sin(90◦ + θ) = = = cos θ,
OP 0 OP Figure 3.12
◦ x-coordinate of P 0 −b
cos(90 + θ) = 0
= = − sin θ,
OP OP
Thus, tan(90◦ + θ) = − cot θ, cosec (90◦ + θ) = sec θ, sec(90◦ + θ) = −cosec θ, cot(90◦ + θ) =
− tan θ.
3π
The trigonometric function of other allied angles π ± θ, ± θ, 2π ± θ can be obtained in a similar
way. 2
π
The above results can be summarized in the following table: Here 0 < θ <
2
π π 3π 3π
−θ −θ +θ π−θ π+θ −θ +θ 2π − θ 2π + θ
2 2 2 2
sine − sin θ cos θ cos θ sin θ − sin θ − cos θ − cos θ − sin θ sin θ
cosine cos θ sin θ − sin θ − cos θ − cos θ − sin θ sin θ cos θ cos θ
tangent − tan θ cot θ − cot θ − tan θ tan θ cot θ − cot θ − tan θ tan θ
Note:
(i) The corresponding reciprocal ratios can be written using the above table.
π
(ii) If the allied angles are −θ, π ± θ, 2π ± θ, that is, angles of the form 2n ± θ, n ∈ Z, then, the
2
form of trigonometric ratio is unaltered (i.e., sine remains sine, cosine remains cosine etc.,)
π 3π π
(iii) If the allied angles are ± θ, ± θ, that is, angles of the form (2n + 1) ± θ, n ∈ Z then,
2 2 2
the form of trigonometric ratio is altered to its complementary ratio. i.e., it is to add the prefix
“co” if it is absent and remove the prefix “co” if it is already present (i.e., sine becomes cosine,
cosine become sine etc.,)
(iv) For determining the sign, first find out the quadrant and then attach the appropriate sign
(+ or −) according to the quadrant rule “ASTC”.
Example 3.11 Find the value of (i) sin 150◦ (ii) cos 135◦ (iii) tan 120◦ .
Solution:
1
(i) sin 150◦ = sin (90◦ + 60◦ ) = cos(60◦ ) =
2
1
(or) sin 150◦ = sin (180◦ − 30◦ ) = sin(30◦ ) =
2
1
(ii) cos 135◦ = cos (90◦ + 45◦ ) = − sin(45◦ ) = − √
2
1
(or) cos 135◦ = cos (180◦ − 45◦ ) = − cos(45◦ ) = − √
√ 2
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
(iii) tan 120 = tan (180 − 60 ) = − tan(60 ) = − 3
(or) write tan 120◦ as tan (90◦ + 30◦ ) and find the value.
Example 3.12 Find the value of:

◦ ◦ −15π
(i) sin 765 (ii) cosec (−1410 ) (iii) cot .
4
Solution:
1
(i) sin 765◦ = sin (2 × 360◦ + 45◦ ) = sin 45◦ = √
2
(ii) cosec (−1410 ) = −cosec (1410 ) = −cosec (4 × 360◦ − 30◦ ) = cosec 30◦ = 2
◦ ◦

−15π 15π π π
(iii) cot = − cot = − cot 4π − = cot = 1.
4 4 4 4
Example 3.13 Prove that tan 315◦ cot (−405◦ ) + cot 495◦ tan (−585◦ ) = 2
Solution:
L.H.S = tan (360◦ − 45◦ ) [− cot (360◦ + 45◦ )] + cot (360◦ + 135◦ ) [− tan (360◦ + 225◦ )]
= [− tan 45◦ ] [− cot 45◦ ] + [− tan 45◦ ] [− tan 45◦ ] = (−1)(−1) + (−1)(−1) = 2.
16 Trigonometry
3.4.4 Some Characteristics of Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions have some nice properties. For examples,
(i) Sine and cosine functions are complementary to each other in the sense that
sin (90◦ − θ) = cos θ and cos (90◦ − θ) = sin θ.
(ii) As cos θ and sin θ are obtained as coordinates of a point on the unit circle, they satisfy the
inequalities −1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1. Hence, cos θ, sin θ ∈ [−1, 1]
(iii) Trigonometric function repeats its values in regular intervals.
(iv) Sine and cosine functions have an interesting property that cos (−θ) = cos θ and
sin (−θ) = − sin θ
Let us discuss the last two properties.
Periodicity of Trigonometric Functions

We know that a function f is said to be a periodic function with period p, if there exists a smallest
positive number p such that f (x + p) = f (x) for all x in the domain.
For example, sin (x + 2nπ) = sin x, n ∈ Z.
i.e., sin (x + 2π) = sin (x + 4π) = sin (x + 6π) = . . . = sin x
Thus, sin x is a periodic function with period 2π.
Similarly, cos x , cosecx and sec x are periodic functions with period 2π.
But tan x and cot x are periodic functions with period π.
The periodicity of sin x and cos x can be viewed best using their graphs.
(i) The graph of the sine function
1 y=sinx
-2π -π -π
_ π
_ π 2π 3π 4π
x
2 2
-1
One cycle
Figure 3.13: y =sinx
Here x represents a variable angle. Take the horizontal axis to be the x-axis and vertical axis
to be the y-axis. Graph of the function y = sin x is shown in the Figure 3.13. First, note that it
is periodic of period 2π. Geometrically it means that if you take the curve and slide it 2π either
left or right, then the curve falls back on itself. Second, note that the graph is within one unit of
π
the y-axis. The graph increases and decreases periodically. For instance, increases from − to
2
π π 3π
and decreases from to .
2 2 2
(ii) The graph of the cosine function
y
1
y=cosx
-2π -π -π
_ π
_ π 2π 3π 4π
x
2 2
-1
One cycle
Figure 3.14: y = cosx

Observe that the graph of y = cos x looks just like the graph of y = sin x except it is being
π π
translated to the left by . This is because of the identity cos x = sin + x . It easily follows
2 π 2
from the graph that cos x = cos (−x) = sin +x
2
Note:
(i) The sine and cosine functions are useful for one very important reason, since they repeat in a
regular pattern (i.e., they are periodic). There are a vast array of things in and around us that
repeat periodically. For examples, the rising and setting of the sun, the motion of a spring up and
down, the tides of the ocean and so on, are repeating at regular intervals of time. All periodic
behaviour can be studied through combinations of the sine and cosine functions.
(ii) Periodic functions are used throughout science to describe oscillations, waves and other
phenomena that occur periodically.
Odd and Even trigonomentric functions

Even and odd functions are functions satisfying certain symmetries. A real valued function f (x) is
an even function if it satisfies f (−x) = f (x) for all real number x and an odd function if it satisfies
f (−x) = −f (x) for all real number x.
Basic trigonometric functions are examples of non-polynomial even and odd functions
Because cos(−x) = cos x and sin(−x) = − sin x for all x, it follows that cos x is an even
function and sin x is an odd function.
Also note that sec x is an even function while tan x, cosec x and cot x are all odd functions.
However, f (t) = t − cos t is neither even function nor odd function (why ?)
Example 3.14 Determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.
(i) sin2 x − 2 cos2 x − cos x (ii) sin (cos(x)) (iii) cos (sin(x)) (iv) sin x + cos x
Solution:
(i) Let f (x) = sin2 x − 2 cos2 x − cos x

f (−x) = f (x) [since sin(−x) = − sin x and cos(−x) = cos x]
Thus, f (x) is even.
(ii) Let f (x) = sin (cos(x))
f (−x) = f (x), f (x) is an even function.
(iii) f (x) = cos (sin(x)) , f (−x) = f (x), Thus, f (x) is an even function.
(iv) Let f (x) = sin x + cos x
f (−x) 6= f (x) and f (−x) 6= − f (x)
Thus, f (x) = sin x + cos x is neither even nor odd.
Note:
(i) In general, a function is an even function if its graph is unchanged under reflection about the
y-axis. A function is odd if its graph is symmetric about the origin.
(ii) The properties of even and odd functions are useful in analyzing trigonometric functions
particularly in the sum and difference formula.
(iii) The properties of even and odd functions are useful in evaluating some definite integrals, which
we will see in calculus.
18 Trigonometry
Exercise - 3.3
1. Find the values of (i) sin(480◦ ) (ii) sin(−1110◦ ) (iii) cos(300◦ ) (iv) tan(1050◦ )

◦ 19π 11π
(v) cot(660 ) (vi) tan (vii) sin − .
3 3
√ !
5 2 6
2. , is a point on the terminal side of an angle θ in standard position. Determine the
7 7
trigonometric function values of angle θ.
3. Find the values of other five trigonometric functions for the following:
1
(i) cos θ = − , θ lies in the III quadrant.
2
2
(ii) cos θ = , θ lies in the I quadrant.
3
2
(iii) sin θ = − , θ lies in the IV quadrant.
3
(iv) tan θ = −2, θ lies in the II quadrant.
13
(v) sec θ = , θ lies in the IV quadrant.
5
cot(180◦ + θ) sin(90◦ − θ) cos(−θ)
4. Prove that ◦ ◦
= cos2 θ tan θ.
sin(270 + θ) tan(−θ)cosec(360 + θ)
3
5. Find all the angles between 0◦ and 360◦ which satisfy the equation sin2 θ = .
4
2 π 2 π 2 7π 2 4π
6. Show that sin + sin + sin + sin = 2.
18 9 18 9
3.5 Trigonometric Identities

3.5.1 Sum and difference identities or compound angles formulas
Now, compound angles are algebraic sum of two or more angles. Trigonometric functions do not
satisfy the functional relations like f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) and f (kx) = kf (x), k is a real number.
For examples, cos(α + β) 6= cos α + cos β, sin(2α) 6= 2 sin α, tan 3α 6= 3 tan α, . . .. Thus, we need to
derive formulas for sin(α + β), cos(α + β), . . . and use them in calculations of application problems.
Music is made up of vibrations that create pressure on ear-drums. Musical tones can be modeled
with sinusoidal graphs (graphs looks like that of y = sin x or y = cos x). When more than one tone
is played, the resulting pressure is equal to the sum of the individual pressures. In this context sum
and difference trigonometric identities are used as an important application. Also, sum and difference
trigonometric identities are helpful in the analysis of waves.
First we shall prove the identity for the cosine of the sum of two
angles and extend it to prove all other sum or difference identities. y
(0,1)
R (cos(α+β), sin(α+β))
Identity 3.1: cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
Q (cos α, sin α)
Proof. Consider the unit circle with centre at O. Let P = P (1, 0). β
α x
Let Q, R and S be points on the unit circle such that ∠P OQ = α, (-1,0) O -β
P(1,0)
∠P OR = α + β and ∠P OS = −β as shown in the Figure 3.15. S (cos (-β), sin (-β))
Clearly, angles α, α+βand−β are in standard positions. Now, the points
(0,-1)
Q, R and S are given by Q(cos α, sin α), R (cos(α + β), sin(α + β))
and S (cos(−β), sin(−β)). Figure 3.15
3.5 Trigonometric Identities 19
Since 4P OR and 4SOQ are congruent. So, P R = SQ which gives P R2 = SQ2

Thus, [cos(α + β) − 1]2 + sin2 (α + β) = [cos α − cos(−β)]2 + [sin α − sin(−β)]2
−2 cos(α + β) + 2 = 2 − 2 cos α cos β + 2 sin α sin β
Hence, cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β.
Note:
(i) In the above proof, P R = SQ says that the distance between two points on a circle is
determined by the radius and the central angle .
(ii) Arc lengths PR and SQ, subtends angles α + β and α + (−β) respectively at the center. Thus,
PR = SQ. Thus, distance between the points (cos α, sin α) and (cos(−β), sin(−β)) is same as
the distance between the points (cos(α + β), sin(α + β)) and (1, 0).
(iii) In the above derivations, 0 ≤ α < 2π, 0 ≤ β < 2π. Because of periodicity of sine and cosine,
the result follows for any α and β.
Identity 3.2: cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
Proof.
We know that cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
Now, cos(α − β) = cos [α + (−β)]
= cos α cos(−β) − sin α sin(−β)
Hence, cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β.
Note:
(i) If α = β, the above identity is reduced to cos2 α + sin2 α = 1.
(ii) If α = 0 and β = x, then cos(−x) = cos x, which shows that cos x is an even function.
Identity 3.3: sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

hπ i h π i
Proof. This formula may be proved by writing sin(α+β) = cos − (α + β) = cos −α −β
2 2
and by using Identity 3.2.
Note: If α + β = π2 , the above identity is reduced to cos2 α + sin2 α = 1.
Identity 3.4: sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β
Proof. This formula may be proved by writing sin(α−β) = sin [α + (−β)] and by using Identity 3.3.
Note: The sum and difference formulas for sine and cosine can be written in the matrix form
     
cos α − sin α cos β − sin β cos(α + β) − sin(α + β)
 . = .
sin α cos α sin β cos β sin(α + β) cos(α + β)
tan α + tan β
Identity 3.5: tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
Proof.
sin(α + β) sin α cos β + cos α sin β
tan(α + β) = =
cos(α + β) cos α cos β − sin α sin β
20 Trigonometry
sin α cos β + cos α sin β
cos α cos β
=
cos α cos β − sin α sin β
cos α cos β
tan α + tan β
=
1 − tan α tan β
tan α − tan β
Identity 3.6: tan(α − β) =
1 + tan α tan β
Proof. This result may be proved by writing tan(α − β) = tan [α + (−β)] and using the Identity
3.5.
Note:
(i) Ptolemy (AD 100-170 ) treated the chord of angle as his basic
trigonometric function and proved the theorem: In a cyclic B
C
quadrilateral, the product of diagonals equals the sum of the
products of opposite sides. That is, in a cyclic quadrilateral
ABCD,
(AC)(BD) = (AB)(CD) + (AD)(BC).
Using this theorem, one can prove Sum and Difference D

identities. Hence, these identites are known as Ptolemy’s sum A
and difference formulas.
(ii) Observe that cos(α ± β) 6= cos α ± cos β. Similarly we can
observe for other trigonometric functions also. Figure 3.16
(iii) When α = β, sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β implies sin 0 = 0, which we have already
established. π π
(iv) When α = and β = θ, sin(α − β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β gives sin − θ = cos θ,
2 2
which we have already proved.
(v) We can find the trigonometric function values of a given angle, if we can break it up into sum
or difference of two of the special angles. For example, we can evaluate tan 75◦ as
tan(45◦ + 30◦ ) and cos 135◦ as cos(180◦ − 45◦ ).
Example 3.15 Find the values of (i) cos 15◦ and (ii) tan 165◦ .
Solution:
(i) Now, cos 15◦ = cos (45◦ − 30◦ ) = cos 45◦ cos 30◦ + sin 45◦ sin 30◦
√ √
1 3 1 1 3+1
= √ +√ = √
2 2 22 2 2
√
Also, note that sin 75◦ = 3√+ 1 [ try yourself ]
2 2
tan 120◦ + tan 45◦
(ii) Now, tan 165◦ = tan(120◦ + 45◦ ) =
1 − tan 120◦ √
tan 45◦
But, tan 120 = tan(90 + 30 ) = − cot 30 = − 3 and tan 45◦ = 1
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
√
1 − 3
Thus, tan 165◦ = √ .
1+ 3
4 −12
Example 3.16 If sin x = ( in I quadrant ) and cos y = ( in II quadrant), then
5 13
find (i) sin(x − y), (ii) cos(x − y).
Solution:
4
Given that sin x = .
5
r
2 2
p
2 16 3
cos x + sin x = 1 gives cos x = ± 1 − sin x = ± 1 − =±
25 5
3
In the first quadrant, cos x is always positive. Thus, cos x = .
5
12
Also, given that cos y = − in the II quadrant. We have
13
r
p 144 5
sin y = ± 1 − cos2 y = ± 1 − =± .
169 13
5
In the second quadrant, sin y is always positive. Thus, sin y = .
13

4 −12 3 5 63
(i) sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y = − =− .
5 13 5 13 65

3 −12 4 5 16
(ii) cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y = + =− .
5 13 5 13 65
√

3π 3π
Example 3.17 Prove that cos + x − cos − x = − 2 sin x
4 4
Solution:
3π 3π 3π 3π
L.H.S = cos cos x − sin sin x − cos cos x − sin sin x
4 4 4 4
√

π 1
= −2 sin π − sin x = −2 √ sin x = − 2 sin x.
4 2
Note: Observe that cos(A + x) − cos(A − x) = −2 sin A sin x
Example 3.18 Point A(9, 12) rotates around the origin O in a plane through 60◦ in the anticlockwise
direction to a new position B. Find the coordinates of the point B.
Solution:
Let A(9, 12) = A(r cos θ, r sin θ), where r = OA. Then r cos θ = 9 and r sin θ = 12.
Thus, r2 = 81 + 144 = 225 ⇒ r = 15.
Hence, the point A is given by A (15 cos θ, 15 sin θ).
Now, the point B is given by B (15 cos(θ + 60◦ ), 15 sin(θ + 60◦ )).
15 cos(θ + 60◦ ) = 15 (cos θ cos 60◦ − sin θ sin 60◦ )

√
1 3 3 √
= (15 cos θ) cos 60◦ − (15 sin θ) sin 60◦ = 9 × − 12 × = (3 − 4 3)
2 2 2
22 Trigonometry
3 √
Similarly, 15 sin(θ + 60◦ ) = (4 + 3 3). Hence, the point B is given by
2
√ 3 √

3
B (3 − 4 3), (4 + 3 3) .
2 2
Example 3.19 A ripple tank demonstrates the effect of two water waves being added together. The
two waves are described by h = 8 cos t and h = 6 sin t, where t ∈ [0, 2π) is in seconds and h is
the height in millimeters above still water. Find the maximum height of the resultant wave and the
value of t at which it occurs.
Solution:
Let H be the height of the resultant wave at time t. Then H is given by
H = 8 cos t + 6 sin t
Let 8 cos t + 6 sin t = k cos(t − α) = k(cos t cos α + sin t sin α)
3
Hence, k = 10 and tan α = , so that
4
H = 10 cos(t − α)
Thus, the maximum of H = 10mm. The maximum occurs when t = α, where tan α = 34 .
Example 3.20 Expand (i) sin(A + B + C) (ii) tan(A + B + C)

Solution:
(i) sin(A + B + C) = sin [A + (B + C)]

= sin A cos(B + C) + cos A sin(B + C)
= sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C
+ cos A cos B sin C − sin A sin B sin C
(ii) tan(A + B + C) = tan [A + (B + C)]
tan A + tan(B + C)
=
1 − tan A tan(B + C)
tan B + tan C
tan A +
= 1 − tan B tan C
tan B + tan C
1 − tan A
1 − tan B tan C
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
=
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
Note:
(i) If A+B+C = 0 or π, we have tan(A + B + C) = 0 so that
tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
This result is also true in the case of oblique triangles.

(ii) tan(x − y) + tan(y − z) + tan(z − x) = tan(x − y) tan(y − z) tan(z − x)
(iii) tan 3A − tan 2A − tan A = tan 3A + tan(−2A) + tan(−A) = tan 3A tan 2A tan A
π
(iv) If A + B + C = , then tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A = 1 ( How! ).
2
Exercise - 3.4
15 12 π π
1. If sin x = and cos y = , 0 < x < , 0 < y < ,
17 13 2 2
find the value of (i) sin(x + y) (ii) cos(x − y) (iii) tan(x + y).
3 9 π π
2. If sin A = and cos B = , 0 < A < , 0 < B < ,
5 41 2 2
find the value of (i) sin(A + B) (ii) cos(A − B).
4 3π 24 3π
3. Find cos(x − y), given that cos x = − with π < x < and sin y = − with π < y < .
5 2 25 2
8 π 24 3π
4. Find sin(x − y), given that sin x = with 0 < x < and cos y = − with π < y < .
17 2 25 2
7π
5. Find the value of (i) cos 105◦ (ii) sin 105◦ (iii) tan .
√ 12
3 cos x − sin x
6. Prove that (i) cos(30◦ + x) = (ii) cos(π + θ) = − cos θ
2
(iii) sin(π + θ) = − sin θ.
7. Find a quadratic equation whose roots are sin 15◦ and cos 15◦ .
8. Expand cos(A + B + C). Hence prove that
cos A cos B cos C = sin A sin B cos C + sin B sin C cos A + sin C sin A cos B,
π
if A + B + C = .
2
9. Prove that
√
(i) sin(45◦ + θ) − sin(45◦ − θ) = 2 sin θ.
(ii) sin(30◦ + θ) + cos(60◦ + θ) = cos θ.
10. If a cos(x + y) = b cos(x − y), show that (a + b) tan x = (a − b) cot y.
11. Prove that sin 105◦ + cos 105◦ = cos 45◦ .
12. Prove that sin 75◦ − sin 15◦ = cos 105◦ + cos 15◦ .
13. Show that tan 75◦ + cot 75◦ = 4.
14. Prove that cos(A + B) cos C − cos(B + C) cos A = sin B sin(C − A).
15. Prove that sin(n + 1)θ sin(n − 1)θ + cos(n + 1)θ cos(n − 1)θ = cos 2θ, n ∈ Z.

2π 4π
16. If x cos θ = y cos θ + = z cos θ + , find the value of xy + yz + zx.
3 3
17. Prove that
(i) sin(A + B) sin(A − B) = sin2 A − sin2 B
(ii) cos(A + B) cos(A − B) = cos2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − sin2 A
(iii) sin2 (A + B) − sin2 (A − B) = sin 2A sin 2B
(iv) cos 8θ cos 2θ = cos2 5θ − sin2 3θ
18. Show that cos2 A + cos2 B − 2 cos A cos B cos(A + B) = sin2 (A + B).
3
19. If cos(α − β) + cos(β − γ) + cos(γ − α) = − , then prove that
2
cos α + cos β + cos γ = sin α + sin β + sin γ = 0.
24 Trigonometry
20. Show that

1 + tan A 1 − tan A
(i) tan(45◦ + A) = (ii) tan(45◦ − A) = .
1 − tan A 1 + tan A
cot A cot B − 1
21. Prove that cot(A + B) = .
cot A + cot B
n 1
22. If tan x = and tan y = , find tan(x + y).
n+1 2n + 1
π 3π
23. Prove that tan + θ tan + θ = −1.
4 4

1 3π 5 π
24. Find the values of tan(α + β), given that cot α = , α ∈ π, and sec β = − , β ∈ ,π .
2 2 3 2
k−1
25. If θ + φ = α and tan θ = k tan φ, then prove that sin(θ − φ) = sin α.
k+1
3.5.2 Multiple angle identities and submultiple angle identities
In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that when a wire is passed near a magnet, a small electric
current is produced in the wire. This property is used to generate electric current for homes,
institutions and business establishments throughout the world. By rotating thousands of wires near
large electromagnets, massive amount of electricity can be produced.
Voltage is a quantity that can be modeled by sinusoidal graphs and functions. To model electricity
and other phenomena, trigonometric functions and identities involving multiple angles or sub multiple
angles are used.
A A
If A is an angle, then 2A, 3A, . . . are called multiple angles of A and the angle , , . . .are
2 3
called sub-multiple angles of A. Now we shall discuss the trigonometric ratio of multiple angles and
sub-multiple angles and derive some identities.
Double Angle Identities

Let us take up the sum and difference identities and examine some of the consequences that come
from them. Double angle identities are a special case of the sum identities. That is, when the two
angles are equal, the sum identities are reduced to double angle identities. They are useful in solving
trigonometric equations and also in the verification of trigonometric identities. Further double angle
identities can be used to derive the reduction identities (power reducing identities). Also double angle
identities are used to find maximum or minimum values of trigonometric expressions.
Identity 3.7: sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
Proof.
We know that sin(α + β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β

Taking α = β = A, we have sin(A + A) = sin A cos A + sin A cos A
Thus, sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A.
Note:
(i) y = sin 2x and y = 2 sin x are different. Draw their graphs and identify the difference.
(ii) Application of sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A: When an object is projected with speed u at an angle α
to the horizontal over level ground, the horizontal distance (Range) it travels before striking the
u2 sin 2α u2 π
ground is given by the formula R = . Clearly maximum of R is , when α = .
g g 4
sin 2A 1
(iii) |sin A cos A| = ≤ .
2 2
1 1
Thus, − ≤ sin A cos A ≤ .
2 2
1 π
From this, we infer that the maximum value of sin A cos A is when A = .
2 4
Example 3.21 A foot ball player can kick a football from ground level with an initial velocity of
80 ft/second. Find the maximum horizontal distance the football travels and at what angle?
(Take g = 32).
Solution:
The formula for horizontal distance R is given by
u2 sin 2α (80 × 80) sin 2α

R = = = 10 × 20 sin 2α.
g 32
Thus, the maximum distance is 200ft.
Hence, he has to kick the football at an angle of α = 45◦ to reach the maximum distance.
Identity 3.8: cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A

Proof.
We know that cos(α + β) = cos α cos β − sin α sin β
Take α = β = A. We have cos(A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A

cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A.
Note: From the identity cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A, we also have

cos 2A = cos2 A − 1 − cos2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1 and

cos 2A = (1 − sin2 A) − sin2 A = 1 − 2 sin2 A.

2 tan A
Identity 3.9: tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A
Proof.
tan α + tan β
Now, tan(α + β) =
1 − tan α tan β
tan A + tan A
Take α = β = A. We have, tan(A + A) =
1 − tan A tan A
2 tan A
tan 2A = .
1 − tan2 A
2 tan A
Identity 3.10: sin 2A =
1 + tan2 A
Proof.
2 sin A cos A
we know that sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A =
sin2 A + cos2 A
2 sin A cos A
cos2 A 2 tan A
= 2 2 = .
sin A + cos A 1 + tan2 A
cos2 A
26 Trigonometry
1 − tan2 A
Identity 3.11: cos 2A =
1 + tan2 A
Proof.
cos2 A − sin2 A
We know that cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A =
cos2 A + sin2 A
cos2 A − sin2 A
= cos2 A
cos2 A + sin2 A
cos2 A
1 − tan2 A
Thus, cos 2A = .
1 + tan2 A
Power reducing identities or Reduction identities

Power reducing identities for sine, cosine and tangent can be derived using the double-angle identities.
For example,
1 + cos 2A
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 ⇒ cos2 A =
2
The following table is the list of power reducing identities.
Power Reducing Identities

1 − cos 2A 1 + cos 2A 1 − cos 2A
sin2 A = , cos2 A = , tan2 A =
2 2 1 + cos 2A
Note:
(i) In the power reducing identities, we have reduced the square power on one side to
power 1 on the other side.
(ii) Power reducing identities allow us to rewrite the even powers of sine or cosine in terms of the
first power of cosine.
For example, using power reducing identities one can easily prove that
1 1 3 1 1 3
cos4 x = cos 4x + cos 2x + and sin4 x = cos 4x − cos 2x + (Try it!).
8 2 8 8 2 8
(iii) Power reducing formulas are important in higher level mathematics.
Triple-Angle Identities
Using double angle identities, we can derive triple angle identiites.
Identity 3.12: sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
Proof.
We have, sin 3A = sin(2A + A) = sin 2A cos A + cos 2A sin A

2 sin A cos2 A + 1 − 2 sin2 A sin A

=
2 sin A 1 − sin2 A + 1 − 2 sin2 A sin A

=
= 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
Identity 3.13: cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A

Proof.
We have, cos 3A = cos(2A + A) = cos 2A cos A − sin 2A sin A

= 2 cos2 A − 1 cos A − 2 sin A cos A sin A

= 2 cos2 A − 1 cos A − 2 cos A 1 − cos2 A

= 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A.
3 tan A − tan3 A
Identity 3.14: tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan2 A
Proof.
We have, tan 3A = tan(2A + A)

tan 2A + tan A
=
1 − tan 2A tan A
2 tan A
2 + tan A
= 1 − tan A
2 tan A
1− tan A
1 − tan2 A
3 tan A − tan3 A
= .
1 − 3 tan2 A
Double and Triple angle identities are given below:
sine cosine Tangent

2 tan A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A
2 tan A 3 tan A − tan3 A
sin 2A = cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 tan 3A =
1 + tan2 A 1 − 3 tan2 A
sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A
1 − tan2 A
cos 2A =
1 + tan2 A
cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
Half-Angle Identities
Half angle identities are closely related to the double angle identities. We can use half angle identities
when we have an angle that is half the size of a special angle. For example, sin 15◦ can be computed by
30◦
writing sin 15◦ = sin . Also one can find exact values for some angles using half-angle identities.
2
θ θ
If we put 2A = θ or A = in the double angle identities, we get new identities in terms of angle .
2 2
28 Trigonometry
Let us list out the half angle identities in the following table:
Double angle identity Half-angle identity
θ θ
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A sin θ = 2 sin cos
2 2
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A cos θ = cos2 θ2 − sin2 θ2
cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 cos θ = 2 cos2 θ2 − 1
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A cos θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ2
2 tan A 2 tan θ
tan 2A = tan θ = 2
1 − tan2 A 2 θ
1− tan
2
2 tan A 2 tan θ
sin 2A = sin θ = 2
1 + tan2 A 2 θ
1+ tan
2
θ
1 − tan2 A 1 − tan2
cos 2A = cos θ = 2
1 + tan2 A θ
1 + tan2
2
Note:
(i) The half angle identities are often used to replace a squared trigonometric function by a non
squared trigonometric function.
(ii) Half angle identities allow us to find the value of the sine and cosine of half the angle if we
know the value of the cosine of the original angle.
1◦

Example 3.22 Find the value of sin 22
2
Solution: r
2 θ θ 1 − cos θ
We know that cos θ = 1 − 2 sin ⇒ sin = ± . Take θ = 45◦
2 2 2
r
45 ◦
1 − cos 45 ◦ 1◦
we get sin =± , (taking positive sign only, since 22 lies in the first quadrant)
2 2 2
√
s
1 − √12
p
1◦ 2− 2
Thus, sin 22 = = .
2 2 2
12
Example 3.23 Find the value of sin 2θ, when sin θ = , θ lies in the first quadrant.
13
Solution:
5
Using a right triangle, we can easily find that cos θ =
13
12 5 120
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2 = .
13 13 169
p of constructing the triangle, we can also find the value of cos θ using
Note: Instead
cos θ = ± 1 − sin2 θ formula.
Example 3.24 Prove that sin 4A = 4 sin A cos3 A − 4 cos A sin3 A

Solution:
4 sin A cos3 A − 4 cos A sin3 A = 4 sin A cos A cos2 A − sin2 A

= 4 sin A cos A cos 2A = 2(2 sin A cos A) cos 2A

= 2(sin 2A) cos 2A = sin 4A.
x x x x
10
Example 3.25 Prove that sin x = 2 sin 10 cos cos 2 ... cos 10
2 2 2 2
Solution:
x x x x x
sin x = 2 sin cos = 2 × 2 × sin 2 cos 2 cos
2 2 2 2 2
2 x x x
= 2 sin 2 cos cos 2
2 2 2
Applying repeatedly the half angle sine formula, we get
x x x x
10
sin x = 2 sin 10 cos cos 2 ... cos 10 .
2 2 2 2
Note: The above result can be extended to any finite number of times.
sin θ + sin 2θ
Example 3.26 Prove that = tan θ
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ
Solution:
sin θ + sin 2θ sin θ + 2 sin θ cos θ sin θ(1 + 2 cos θ)
We have = = = tan θ.
1 + cos θ + cos 2θ cos θ + (1 + cos 2θ) cos θ(1 + 2 cos θ)
1 sin3 x + cos3 x
Example 3.27 Prove that 1 − sin 2x =
2 sin x + cos x
Solution:
(sin x + cos x) sin2 x − sin x cos x + cos2 x

sin3 x + cos3 x
We have =
sin x + cos x sin x + cos x
1
= 1 − sin x cos x = 1 − sin 2x.
2
30 Trigonometry
Example 3.28 Find x such that −π ≤ x ≤ π and cos 2x = sin x

Solution:
We have cos 2x = sin x which gives

2 sin2 x + sin x − 1 = 0. The roots of the equation are
−1 ± 3 1
sin x = = −1 or
4 2
1 π 5π
Now, sin x = ⇒ x = ,
2 6 6
π
Also sin x = −1 ⇒ x = −
2
π π 5π
Thus, x = − , , .
2 6 6
Example 3.29 Find the values of (i) sin 18◦ (ii) cos 18◦ (iii) sin 72◦ (iv) cos 36◦ (v) sin 54◦
Solution:
(i) Let θ = 18◦ . Then 5θ = 90◦

3θ + 2θ = 90◦ ⇒ 2θ = 90◦ − 3θ
sin 2θ = sin(90◦ − 3θ) = cos 3θ
2 sin θ cos θ = 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ. Since cos θ = cos 18◦ 6= 0, we have
2 sin θ = 4 cos2 θ − 3 = 4(1 − sin2 θ) − 3
4 sin2 θ + 2 sinp θ−1=0 √
−2 ± 4 − 4(4)(−1) −1 ± 5
sin θ = =
2(4) 4
√
5−1
Thus, sin 18◦ = ( positive sign is taken. Why ?)
p 4
(ii) cos 18◦ = 1 − sin2 18◦
v
u "√ #2
√ √
q
5 − 1 1 1
u q
= 1−
t = 16 − (5 + 1 − 2 5) = 10 + 2 5
4 4 4
√
q
1
(iii) sin 72◦ = sin(90◦ − 18◦ ) = cos 18◦ = 10 + 2 5
" √ 4 #2 √
5−1 5+1
(iv) cos 36◦ = 1 − 2 sin2 18◦ = 1 − 2 =
4 4
√
5+1
(v) sin 54◦ = sin(90◦ − 36◦ ) = cos 36◦ = .
4
Note: Observe that sin 18◦ = cos 72◦ , cos 18◦ = sin 72◦ and cos 36◦ = sin 54◦
r
θ 1−a φ cos θ − a
Example 3.30 If tan = tan , then prove that cos φ = .
2 1+a 2 1 − a cos θ
Solution:
By the half-angle identity, we have

φ 1+a θ
1 − tan2 1− tan2
2 = 1−a 2
cos φ =
φ

1+a θ
1 + tan2 1+ tan2
2 1−a 2
!
2 θ
1 − tan 2
−a
1 + tan2 2θ cos θ − a
= != .
1 − tan2 2θ 1 − a cos θ
1−a
1 + tan2 2θ
√
Example 3.31 Find the value of 3 cosec 20◦ − sec 20◦
Solution:
√ 
√ 3 ◦ 1 ◦
√ 3 1  2 cos 20 − 2 sin 20 
We have 3 cosec 20◦ − sec 20◦ = − = 4  
sin 20◦ cos 20◦  2 sin 20◦ cos 20◦ 
sin 60◦ cos 20◦ − cos 60◦ sin 20◦

= 4 = 4.
sin 40◦
sin 2n A
Example 3.32 Prove that cos A cos 2A cos 22 A cos 23 A . . . cos 2n−1 A =
2n sin A
Solution:
L.H.S. = cos A cos 2A cos 22 A cos 23 A . . . cos 2n−1 A

1
= 2 sin A cos A cos 2A cos 22 A cos 23 A . . . cos 2n−1 A
2 sin A
1
= sin 2A cos 2A cos 22 A cos 23 A . . . cos 2n−1 A
2 sin A
1
= 2 sin 4A cos 22 A cos 23 A . . . cos 2n−1 A
2 sin A
Continuing the process, we get
sin 2n A
= n .
2 sin A
Exercise - 3.5
1. Find the value of cos 2A, A lies in the first quadrant, when
15 4 16
(i) cos A = (ii) sin A = (iii) tan A = .
17 5 63
2. If θ is an acute angle, then find

π θ 1
(i) sin − , when sin θ = .
4 2 25
32 Trigonometry

π θ 8
(ii) cos + , when sin θ = .
4 2 9

1 1 1 3 1
3. If cos θ = a+ , show that cos 3θ = a + 3 .
2 a 2 a
4. Prove that cos 5θ = 16 cos5 θ − 20 cos3 θ + 5 cos θ.
1 − tan2 α
5. Prove that sin 4α = 4 tan α 2.
(1 + tan2 α)
6. If A + B = 45◦ , show that (1 + tan A) (1 + tan B) = 2.
7. Prove that (1 + tan 1◦ )(1 + tan 2◦ )(1 + tan 3◦ ) . . . (1 + tan 44◦ ) is a multiple of 4.
π π
8. Prove that tan + θ − tan − θ = 2 tan 2θ.
4 4
√ √ √ √
◦
1
9. Show that cot 7 = 2 + 3 + 4 + 6.
2
10. Prove that (1 + sec 2θ)(1 + sec 4θ) . . . (1 + sec 2n θ) = tan 2n θ cot θ.
√ π π π π π
11. Prove that 32( 3) sin cos cos cos cos = 3.
48 48 24 12 6
3.5.3 Product to Sum and Sum to Product Identities
Some applications of trigonometric functions demand that a product of trigonometric functions be
written as sum or difference of trigonometric functions. The sum and difference identities for the
cosine and sine functions look amazingly like each other except for the sign in the middle. So, we
tend to combine them to get nice identities. Thus, we use them to derive several identities that make
it possible to rewrite a product as a sum or a sum as a product.
We know that
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B (3.1)
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B (3.2)
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B (3.3)
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (3.4)
From the above identities, we can easily derive the following Product to Sum identities.
1
sin A cos B = [sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)] (3.5)
2
1
cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)] (3.6)
2
1
cos A cos B = [cos(A + B) + cos(A − B)] (3.7)
2
1
sin A sin B = [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)] (3.8)
2
The above identities are very important whenever need arises to transform the product of sine and
cosine into sum. This idea is very much useful in evaluation of some integrals.
To get Sum to Product identities, let us introduce the substitutions A + B = C and A − B = D or
C +D C −D
equivalently A = ,B = in the product to sum identities (3.5) to (3.8). Then, we have
2 2
the following Sum to Product identities
C +D C −D
sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos (3.9)
2 2
C +D C −D
sin C − sin D = 2 cos sin (3.10)
2 2
C +D C −D
cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos (3.11)
2 2
C +D D−C
cos C − cos D = 2 sin sin (3.12)
2 2
1
Identity 3.15: Prove that sin(60◦ − A) sin A sin(60◦ + A) = sin 3A
4
Proof.
sin(60◦ − A) sin A sin(60◦ + A) = sin(60◦ − A) sin(60◦ + A) sin A

1
= [cos 2A − cos 120◦ ] sin A
2
1 1
= cos 2A sin A + sin A
2 2

1 1 1
= sin 3A = sin 3A
2 2 4
Similarly we can prove the following two important identities

1
Identity 3.16: cos(60◦ − A) cos A cos(60◦ + A) = cos 3A
4
Identity 3.17: tan(60◦ − A) tan A tan(60◦ + A) = tan 3A
Example 3.33 Express each of the following product as a sum or difference

x 3x
(i) sin 40◦ cos 30◦ (ii) cos 110◦ sin 55◦ (iii) sin cos
2 2
Solution:
(i) We know that 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)

Take A = 40◦ and B = 30◦ . We get,
2 sin 40◦ cos 30◦ = sin(40◦ + 30◦ ) + sin(40◦ − 30◦ ) = sin 70◦ + sin 10◦ .
1
Thus, sin 40◦ cos 30◦ = [sin 70◦ + sin 10◦ ] .
2
(ii) We know that 2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)
Take A = 110◦ and B = 55◦ . We get,
2 cos 110◦ sin 55◦ = sin(110◦ + 55◦ ) − sin(110◦ − 55◦ ).
1
Thus, cos 110◦ sin 55◦ = [sin 165◦ − sin 55◦ ]
2
(iii) We know that 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A − B)
x 3x
Take A = and B =
2 2

x 3x x 3x x 3x
We get, 2 sin cos = sin + + sin −
2 2 2 2 2 2
x 3x 1
Thus, sin cos = [sin 2x − sin x] .
2 2 2
34 Trigonometry
Example 3.34 Express each of the following sum or difference as a product

3x 9x
(i) sin 50◦ + sin 20◦ (ii) cos 6θ + cos 2θ (iii) cos − cos .
2 2
Solution:
C +D C −D
(i) We know that sin C + sin D = 2 sin cos
2 2
Take C = 50◦ and D = 20◦ . We have
50◦ + 20◦ 50◦ − 20◦
sin 50◦ + sin 20◦ = 2 sin cos = 2 sin 35◦ cos 15◦
2 2
C +D C −D
(ii) We know that cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2
Take C = 6θ and D = 2θ. We have
6θ + 2θ 6θ − 2θ
cos 6θ + cos 2θ = 2 cos cos = 2 cos 4θ cos 2θ
2 2
C +D D−C
(iii) We know that cos C − cos D = 2 sin sin
2 2
3x 9x
Take C = and D = . We have
2 2
3x 9x 9x 3x
3x 9x + −
cos − cos = 2 sin 2 2 sin 2 2 = 2 sin 3x sin 3x .
2 2 2 2 2
Example 3.35 Find the value of sin 34◦ + cos 64◦ − cos 4◦ .
Solution:
64◦ + 4◦ 64◦ − 4◦

◦ ◦ ◦ ◦
We have sin 34 + cos 64 − cos 4 = sin 34 − 2 sin sin
2 2
= sin 34◦ − 2 sin 34◦ sin 30◦ = 0.
1
Example 3.36 Show that cos 36◦ cos 72◦ cos 108◦ cos 144◦ = .
16
Solution:
L.H.S. = cos 36◦ cos (90◦ − 18◦ ) cos (90◦ + 18◦ ) cos (180◦ − 36◦ )
= sin2 18◦ cos2 36◦
√ !2 √ !2
5−1 5+1 1
= = .
4 4 16
sin 75◦ − sin 15◦

Example 3.37 Simplify
cos 75◦ + cos 15◦
Solution:
75◦ + 15◦
◦
75 − 15◦

2 cos sin
sin 75◦ − sin 15◦ 2 2
We have = ◦ ◦
◦
75 − 15◦
◦ ◦

cos 75 + cos 15 75 + 15
2 cos cos
2 2
◦ ◦
2 cos 45 sin 30 1
= ◦ ◦
= tan 30◦ = √ .
2 cos 45 cos 30 3
Note: Try to solve using sin 75◦ = cos 15◦ and cos 75◦ = sin 15◦
3
Example 3.38 Show that cos 10◦ cos 30◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦ = .
16
Solution:
1
We know that cos (60◦ − A) cos A cos (60◦ + A) = cos 3A
4
cos 10◦ cos 30◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦ = cos 30◦ [cos 10◦ cos 50◦ cos 70◦ ]
= cos 30◦ [cos (60◦ − 10◦ ) cos 10◦ cos (60◦ + 10◦ )]
√ √ √ !
3 1 3 1 3 3
= cos 30◦ = =
2 4 2 4 2 16
Exercise - 3.6
1. Express each of the following as a sum or difference
(i) sin 35◦ cos 28◦ (ii) sin 4x cos 2x (iii) 2 sin 10θ cos 2θ (iv) cos 5θ cos 2θ (v) sin 5θ sin 4θ.
2. Express each of the following as a product
(i) sin 75◦ − sin 35◦ (ii) cos 65◦ + cos 15◦ (iii) sin 50◦ + sin 40◦ (iv) cos 35◦ − cos 75◦ .
1
3. Show that sin 12◦ sin 48◦ sin 54◦ = .
8
π 2π 3π 4π 5π 6π 7π 1
4. Show that cos cos cos cos cos cos cos = .
15 15 15 15 15 15 15 128
sin 8x cos x − sin 6x cos 3x
5. Show that = tan 2x.
cos 2x cos x − sin 3x sin 4x
(cos θ − cos 3θ) (sin 8θ + sin 2θ)
6. Show that = 1.
(sin 5θ − sin θ) (cos 4θ − cos 6θ)
7. Prove that sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x = sin 2x (1 + 2 cos x).
sin 4x + sin 2x
8. Prove that = tan 3x.
cos 4x + cos 2x
9. Prove that 1 + cos 2x + cos 4x + cos 6x = 4 cos x cos 2x cos 3x.
36 Trigonometry
θ 7θ 3θ 11θ
10. prove that sin sin + sin sin = sin 2θ sin 5θ.
2 2 2 2
1
11. Prove that cos (30◦ − A) cos (30◦ + A) + cos (45◦ − A) cos (45◦ + A) = cos 2A + .
4
sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + sin 7x
12. Prove that = tan 4x.
cos x + cos 3x + cos 5x + cos 7x
sin (4A − 2B) + sin (4B − 2A)
13. Prove that = tan (A + B).
cos (4A − 2B) + cos (4B − 2A)
4 cos 2A
14. Show that cot (A + 15◦ ) − tan (A − 15◦ ) = .
1 + 2 sin 2A
3.5.4 Conditional Trigonometric Identities
We know that trigonometric identities are true for all admissible values of the angle involved. There
are some trigonometric identities which satisfy the given additional conditions. Such identities are
called conditional trigonometric identities.
In this section, we shall make use of the relations obtained in the earlier sections to establish some
conditional identities based on some relationship.
Example 3.39 If A + B + C = π, prove the following

A B C
(i) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
A B C 1
(ii) sin sin sin ≤
2 2 2 8
3
(iii) 1 < cos A + cos B + cos C ≤
2
Solution:

A+B A−B
(i) cos A + cos B + cos C = 2 cos cos + cos C
2 2

π C A B A+B+C π
= 2 cos − cos − + cos C =
2 2 2 2 2 2

C A B C
= 2 sin cos − + 1 − 2 sin2
2 2 2 2

C A B C
= 1 + 2 sin cos − − sin
2 2 2 2

C A B π C
= 1 + 2 sin cos − − cos −
2 2 2 2 2

C A B A B
= 1 + 2 sin cos − − cos +
2 2 2 2 2

A B C
= 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2

A B C
(ii) Let u = sin sin sin
2 2 2

1 A+B A−B C
= − cos − cos sin
2 2 2 2

1 A+B A−B A+B
= − cos − cos cos
2 2 2 2
A+B A−B A+B A+B

cos2 − cos cos + 2u = 0, which is a quadratic in cos .
2 2 2 2
A+B
Since cos is real number, the above equation has a solution.
2
Thus, the discriminant b2 − 4ac ≥ 0, which gives
A−B 1 A−B 1
cos2 − 8u ≥ 0 ⇒ u ≤ cos2 ≤
2 8
2 8
A B C 1
Hence, sin sin sin ≤
2 2 2 8
(iii) From (i) and (ii), we have cos A + cos B + cos C > 1 and
1
cos A + cos B + cos C ≤ 1 + 4 ×
8
3
Thus, we get 1 < cos A + cos B + cos C ≤ .
2
A B C
Note: sin sin sin > 0, if A + B + C = π
2 2 2
Example 3.40 Prove that

A B C π−A π−B π−C
sin + sin + sin = 1 + 4 sin sin sin , if A + B + C = π
2 2 2 4 4 4
Solution:

π A π B π C
L.H.S. = cos − + cos − + cos −
2 2 2 2 2 2

π A+B B−A 2 π C
= 2 cos − cos + 1 − 2 sin −
2 4 4 4 4

π C B−A π C
= 1 + 2 sin − cos − 2 sin2 −
4 4 4 4 4

π C B−A π C
= 1 + 2 sin − cos − sin −
4 4 4 4 4

π C B−A A+B
= 1 + 2 sin − cos − sin
4 4 4 4

π C B−A π A+B
= 1 + 2 sin − cos − cos −
4 4 4 2 4
B−A π A+B A+B B−A
    
π

π C 
+ − − −
2
= 1 + 2 sin − 2 sin  4 2 4   sin  4 4 
 
4 4 2 2


π−A π−B π−C
= 1 + 4 sin sin sin
4 4 4
38 Trigonometry
Example 3.41 If A + B + C = π, prove that cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2 C = 1 − 2 cos A cos B cos C.
Solution:
1
cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2 C = 2 cos2 A + 2 cos2 B + 2 cos2 C

2
1
= [(1 + cos 2A) + (1 + cos 2B) + (1 + cos 2C)]
2
3 1
= + [(cos 2A + cos 2B) + cos 2C]
2 2
3 1
+ 2 cos(A + B) cos(A − B) + (2 cos2 C − 1 ]

=
2 2
3 1
+ −2 cos C cos(A − B) + 2 cos2 C − 1 (A + B = π − C)

=
2 2
3 1 1
= − + [−2 cos C (cos(A − B) − cos C)]
2 2 2
= 1 − cos C [cos(A − B) − cos C]
= 1 − cos C [cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)]
= 1 − cos C [2 cos A cos B]
= 1 − 2 cos A cos B cos C
Exercise - 3.7
1. If A + B + C = 180◦ , prove that
(i) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
A B C
(ii) cos A + cos B − cos C = −1 + 4 cos cos sin
2 2 2
(iii) sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2 + 2 cos A cos B cos C
(iv) sin2 A + sin2 B − sin2 C = 2 sin A sin B cos C
A B B C C A
(v) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
(vi) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2
(vii) sin(B + C − A) + sin(C + A − B) + sin(A + B − C) = 4 sin A sin B sin C.
2. If A + B + C = 2s, then prove that sin(s − A) sin(s − B) + sin s sin(s − C) = sin A sin B.
2x 2y 2z 2x 2y 2z
3. If x + y + z = xyz, then prove that + + = .
1 − x2 1 − y 2 1 − z 2 1 − x2 1 − y 2 1 − z 2
π
4. If A + B + C = , prove the following
2
(i) sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 cos A cos B cos C
(ii) cos 2A + cos 2B + cos 2C = 1 + 4 sin A sin B cos C.
π
5. If 4ABC is a right triangle and if ∠A = , then prove that
2
(i) cos2 B + cos2 C = 1
(ii) sin2 B + sin2 C = 1
√ B C
(iii) cos B − cos C = −1 + 2 2 cos sin .
2 2
3.6 Trigonometric equations 39
3.6 Trigonometric equations

The equations containing trigonometric functions of unknown angles are known as trigonometric
equations. A solution of trigonometric equation is the value of unknown angle that satisfies the
equation. Unless the domain is restricted, the trigonometric equations have infinitely many solutions,
a fact due to the periodicity of trigonometric functions. Some of the equations may not have a solution
at all.
3
For example, the equation sin θ = , does not have solution, since −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1.
2
The equation sin θ = 0 has infinitely many solutions given by θ = ±π, ±2π, ±3π, . . . and note
that these solutions occur periodically.
General Solution
The solution of a trigonometric equation giving all the admissible values obtained with the help of
periodicity of a trigonometric function is called the general solution of the equation.
Principal Solution
The smallest numerical value of unknown angle satisfying the equation in the interval [0, 2π] (or)
[−π, π] is called a principal solution. We shall take the interval [−π, π] for defining the principal
solution. Further, in this interval we may have two solutions. Even though both are valid solutions,
we take only the numerically smaller one. This helps us to define the principal domain of the
trigonometric functions in order to have their inverses.
−π π
Principal value of sine function lies in the interval , and hence lies in I quadrant or IV
2 2
quadrant. Principal value of cosine is in [0, π] and hence in I quadrant or II quadrant. Principal
function
−π π
value of tangent function is in , and hence in I quadrant or IV quadrant.
2 2
Note:
(i) Trigonometric equations are different from trigonometric identities, since trigonometric identi-
ties are true for all admissible values of unknown angle θ. But trigonometric equations are valid
only for particular values of unknown angle.
(ii) There is no general method for solving trigonometric equations. However, one may notice
that some equations may be factorisable; some equations may be expressed in terms of single
function; some equations may be squared.
(iii) To find solutions to trigonometric equations, some times one may go for the technique of
squaring both sides. One has to take care as it can also produce false solutions (extraneous
solutions).
For example, to find solution for sin x − cos x = 1 in 0 ≤ x < 360◦ , we do squaring on both
π
sides to get (sin x − 1)2 = cos2 x, which gives 2 sin x(sin x − 1) = 0. So, we get x = 0, , π.
2
Clearly x = 0 is a false solution. Thus, we have to check for correct solutions, in the squaring
process.
(iv) Mostly we write the solutions of trigonometric equations in radians.
Now, we find the solutions to different forms of trigonometrical equations.
40 Trigonometry
(i) To solve an equation of the form sin θ = k (−1 ≤ k ≤ 1) :

Let α be the numerically smallest angle such that sin α = k. Thus,
sin θ = sin α
sin θ − sin α = 0
θ+α θ−α
2 cos sin = 0 , which gives either
2 2
θ+α θ−α
cos = 0 or sin = 0.
2 2
θ+α θ−α
Now, cos =0 Now, sin = 0,
2 2
θ+α π θ−α
= (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z = nπ, n ∈ Z
2 2 2
θ = (2n + 1) π − α, n ∈ Z ...(i) θ = 2nπ + α, n ∈ Z ...(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we have sin θ = sin α ⇒ θ = nπ + (−1)n α, n ∈ Z. (3.13)
(ii) To solve an equation of the form cos θ = k (−1 ≤ k ≤ 1) :

Let α be the numerically smallest angle such that cos α = k. Thus,
cos θ = cos α
cos θ − cos α = 0
θ+α α−θ
2 sin sin = 0
2 2
θ+α θ−α
sin sin = 0 , which gives either
2 2
θ+α θ−α
sin = 0 or sin = 0
2 2
θ+α θ−α
sin = 0 gives sin = 0 gives
2 2
θ+α θ−α
= nπ, n ∈ Z = nπ, n ∈ Z
2 2
θ = 2nπ − α, n ∈ Z. ...(i) θ = 2nπ + α, n ∈ Z ...(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we have cos θ = cos α ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± α, n ∈ Z. (3.14)
(iii) To solve an equation of the form tan θ = k (−∞ < k < ∞) :

Let α be the numerically smallest angle such that tan α = k. Thus,
tan θ = tan α
sin θ sin α
= ⇒ sin θ cos α − cos θ sin α = 0
cos θ cos α
sin (θ − α) = 0 ⇒ θ − α = nπ
θ = nπ + α, n ∈ Z
Thus, tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = nπ + α, n ∈ Z (3.15)
(iv) To solve an equation of the form a cos θ + b sin θ = c :
√ b
Take a = r cos α, b = r sin α. Then r = a2 + b2 ; tan α = , a 6= 0
a
a cos θ + b sin θ = c ⇒ r cos α cos θ + r sin α sin θ = c
r cos(θ − α) = c
c c
cos(θ − α) = =√ = cos φ (say)
r a2 + b 2
θ−α = 2nπ ± φ, n ∈ Z
θ = 2nπ + α ± φ, n ∈ Z.
√
Note: The√above method can be used only when c ≤ a2 + b2 .
If c > a2 + b2 , then the equation a cos θ + b sin θ = c has no solution.
Now we summarise the general solution of trigonometric equations.
Trigonometric Equation General solution
sin θ = 0 θ = nπ; n ∈ Z
π
cos θ = 0 θ = (2n + 1) ; n ∈ Z
2
tan θ = 0 θ = nπ; n ∈ Z
h π πi
sin θ = sin α, where α ∈ − , θ = nπ + (−1)n α, n ∈ Z
2 2
cos θ = cos α, where α ∈ [0, π] θ = 2nπ ± α, n ∈ Z

π π
tan θ = tan α, where α ∈ − , θ = nπ + α, n ∈ Z
2 2
√
1 3
Example 3.42 Find the principal solution of (i) sin θ = (ii) sin θ = −
2 2
1
(iii) cosecθ = −2 (iv) cos θ =
2
Solution:
1
(i) sin θ = > 0 so principal value lies in the I quadrant.
2
1 π
sin θ = = sin
2 6
π
Thus, θ = is the principal solution.
6 √
3
(ii) sin θ = −
2
42 Trigonometry
h π πi
We know that principal value of sin θ lies in − , .
√ 2 2
3
Since, sin θ = − < 0, the principal value of sin θ lies in the IV quadrant.
√ 2
3 π π
sin θ = − = − sin = sin − .
2 3 3
π
Hence, θ = − is the principal solution.
3
(iii) cosec θ = −2
1 1
cosec θ = −2 ⇒ = −2 ⇒ sin θ = −
sin θ 2
1
Since sin θ = − < 0, the principal value of sin θ lies in the IV quadrant.
2
1 π π
sin θ = − = − sin = sin −
2 6 6
π
Thus, θ = − is the principal solution.
6
1
(iv) cos θ =
2
Principal value of cos θ lies in the I and II quadrant.
1 h πi
Since cos θ = > 0, the principal value of cos θ lies in the interval 0, .
2 2
1 π
cos θ = = cos
2 3
π
Thus, θ = is the principal solution.
3
√
3
Example 3.43 Find the general solution of sin θ = −
2
Solution: h π πi
The general solution of sin θ = sin α, α ∈ − , , is θ = nπ + (−1)n α, n ∈ Z
2 2
√
3 π
sin θ = − = sin − ,
2 3
Thus the general solution is
π π
θ = nπ + (−1)n − = nπ + (−1)n+1 ; n ∈ Z ... (i)
3 3
π
Note: In arriving at the above general solution, we took the principal value as − with our
3
convention that principal value is the numerically smallest one in the interval [−π, π]. Now through
this example, we shall justify that the principal value may also be taken in [0, 2π] , as we mentioned
in the definition of principle solution. If we take the principal solution in the interval [0, 2π], then the
4π
principal solution is θ = and the general solution is
3

n 4π 4π
θ = nπ + (−1) , n ∈ Z, ∈ [0, 2π] ... (ii)
3 3
From (ii), for n = 0, −1, 1, −2, 2, . . .

4π −7π −π −2π 10π
the corresponding solutions are , , , , ,...
3 3 3 3 3
From (i), for n = 0, −1, 1, −2, 2, . . .
−π −2π 4π −7π 5π
the corresponding solutions are , , , , ,...
3 3 3 3 3
In both the cases, we get the same set of solutions, but in different order. Thus, we have justified
that the principal solution can be taken either in [0, 2π] or in [−π, π].
Example 3.44 Find the general solution of

√
(i) sec θ = −2 (ii) tan θ = 3
Solution:
(i) sec θ = −2
1
sec θ = −2 ⇒ cos θ = −
2
We know that the general solution of cos θ = cos α, α ∈ [0, π], is θ = 2nπ ± α, n ∈ Z
1 π 2π
Let us find α ∈ [0, π] such that cos α = − = cos π − = cos .
2 3 3
2π
so, α = .
3
2π
√general solution is θ = 2nπ ± 3 , n ∈ Z.
Thus, the
(ii) tan θ = 3
√ π
tan θ = 3 = tan
3 π π
We know that the general solution of tan θ = tan α, α ∈ − , is θ = nπ + α, n ∈ Z
π 2 2
Thus, θ = nπ + , n ∈ Z, is the general solution.
3
Example 3.45 Solve 3 cos2 θ = sin2 θ

Solution:
1
3 cos2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ ⇒ cos2 θ =
4
cos 2θ + 1 1 1 π 2π
= ⇒ cos 2θ = − = cos π − = cos
2 4 2 3 3
2π π
2θ = 2nπ ± , n ∈ Z ⇒ θ = nπ ± , n ∈ Z.
3 3
Note: Try to solve by writing tan2 θ = 3.

44 Trigonometry
Example 3.46 Solve sin x + sin 5x = sin 3x

Solution:
sin x + sin 5x = sin 3x ⇒ 2 sin 3x cos 2x = sin 3x
sin 3x (2 cos 2x − 1) = 0
1
Thus, either sin 3x = 0 (or) cos 2x =
2
nπ
If sin 3x = 0, then 3x = nπ ⇒ x = , n ∈ Z ....(i)
3
1 π
If cos 2x = ⇒ cos 2x = cos
2 3
π π
2x = 2nπ ± ⇒ x = nπ ± , n ∈ Z ...(ii)
3 6
nπ π
From (i) and (ii), we have the general solution x = (or) x = nπ ± , n ∈ Z.
3 6
Example 3.47 Solve cos x + sin x = cos 2x + sin 2x

Solution:
cos x+ sin x =cos 2x ⇒ cos x− cos 2x= sin2x − sinx
+ sin 2x
x + 2x 2x − x 2x + x 2x − x
2 sin sin = 2 cos sin
2 2 2 2

3x x 3x x
2 sin sin = 2 cos sin
2 2 2 2
x 3x
3x
sin sin − cos =0
2 2 2
x
3x 3x
Thus, either sin = 0 (or) sin − cos = 0.
2 2 2
x
3x 3x
When sin =0 When sin − cos =0
2 2 2
x 3x π
= nπ ⇒ x = 2nπ, n ∈ Z...(i) ⇒ tan = 1 = tan
2 2 4
3x π 2nπ π
= nπ + ⇒ x = + ...(ii)
2 4 3 6
2nπ π
Thus, the general solution is x = 2nπ (or) x = + , n ∈ Z.
3 6
π sin θ
Note: If sin θ = cos θ, then θ 6= (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z. So, we have =1
2 cos θ
Example 3.48 Solve the equation sin 9θ = sin θ
Solution:
sin 9θ = sin θ ⇒ sin 9θ − sin θ = 0

2 cos 5θ sin 4θ = 0
Either cos 5θ = 0 (or) sin 4θ = 0
π
When cos 5θ = 0 ⇒ 5θ = (2n + 1) When, sin 4θ = 0 ⇒ 4θ = nπ
2
π nπ
⇒ θ = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z ⇒θ= ,n ∈ Z
10 4
π nπ
Thus, the general solution of the given equation is θ = (2n + 1) , θ = , n ∈ Z.
10 4
π
Example 3.49 Solve tan 2x = − cot x +
3
Solution:

π π π 5π
tan 2x = − cot x + = tan +x+ = tan +x
3 2 3 6
5π 5π
2x = nπ + + x, n ∈ Z ⇒ x = nπ + , n ∈ Z.
6 6
Example 3.50 Solve sin x − 3 sin 2x + sin 3x = cos x − 3 cos 2x + cos 3x

Solution:
sin x − 3 sin 2x + sin 3x = cos x − 3 cos 2x + cos 3x
sin 3x + sin x − 3 sin 2x = cos 3x + cos x − 3 cos 2x
2 sin 2x cos x − 3 sin 2x = 2 cos 2x cos x − 3 cos 2x
(sin 2x − cos 2x) (2 cos x − 3) = 0
Then, sin 2x − cos 2x = 0 since 2 cos x − 3 6= 0
nπ π
sin 2x = cos 2x ⇒ tan 2x = 1 ⇒ x = + , n ∈ Z.
2 8
Example 3.51 Solve sin x + cos x = 1 + sin x cos x

Solution:
Let sin x + cos x = t
t2 − 1
⇒ 1 + 2 sin x cos x = t2 ⇒ sin x cos x =
2
Thus, the given equation becomes t2 − 2t + 1 = 0 ⇒ t = 1
sin x + cos x = 1
Hence,
√ 1 1
2 √ sin x + √ cos x = 1
2 2
√ π π 1
2 cos − x = 1 ⇒ cos −x = √
4 4 2
π π
Thus, we have x − = ± + 2nπ, n ∈ Z
4 4
π
x = + 2nπ, or x = 2nπ n ∈ Z.
2
46 Trigonometry
Example 3.52 Solve 2 sin2 x + sin2 2x = 2

Solution:
2 sin2 x + sin2 2x = 2 ⇒ 2 sin2 x + (2 sin x cos x)2 = 2
cos2 x 2 sin2 x − 1 = 0

1
Either cos x = 0 or sin2 x =
2
1 π
cos x = 0 = sin2
sin2 x =
2 4
π π
⇒ x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z x = nπ ± , n ∈ Z How
2 4
π π
Thus the solution is x = (2n + 1) , x = nπ ± , n ∈ Z.
2 4
√ √
Example 3.53 Prove that for any a and b , − a2 + b2 ≤ a sin θ + b cos θ ≤ a2 + b2
Solution:
√

a b
Now, a sin θ + b cos θ = a2 + b2 √ sin θ + √ cos θ
a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
√
= a2 + b2 [cos α sin θ + sin α cos θ]
a b
where cos α = √ , sin α = √
√ a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
= a2 + b2 sin(α + θ)
√
Thus, |a sin θ + b cos θ| ≤ a2 + b2
√ √
Hence, − a2 + b2 ≤ a sin θ + b cos θ ≤ a2 + b2 .
√ √
Example 3.54 Solve 3 sin θ − cos θ = 2
Solution:
√ √
3 sin θ − cos θ =√ 2 √ √
Here a = −1; b = 3; c = 2; r = a2 + b2 = 2.
Thus, the given equation can be rewritten as
√
3 1 1
sin θ − cos θ = √
2 2 2
π π π
sin θ cos − cos θ sin = sin
6 6 4
π π
sin θ − = sin
6 4
π π
θ − = nπ ± (−1)n , n ∈ Z
6 4
π π
Thus, θ = nπ + ± (−1)n , n ∈ Z.
6 4
√ √
Example 3.55 Solve 3 tan2 θ + 3 − 1 tan θ − 1 = 0
Solution:
√ 2
√
3 tan θ + 3 − 1 tan θ − 1 = 0
√ √
√3 tan2 θ + 3 tan θ − tan θ − 1 = 0
3 tan θ − 1 (tan θ + 1) = 0
√
Thus, either 3 tan θ − 1 = 0 (or) tan θ + 1 = 0
√
If 3 tan θ − 1 = 0, then If tan θ + 1 = 0 then

1 π −π
tan θ = √ = tan tan θ = −1 = tan
3 6 4
π π
⇒ θ = nπ + , n ∈ Z...(i) ⇒ θ = nπ − , n ∈ Z...(ii)
6 4
From (i) and (ii) we have the general solution.
Exercise - 3.8
1. Find the principal solution and general solutions of the following:
1 √ 1
(i) sin θ = − √ (ii) cot θ = 3 (iii) tan θ = − √ .
2 3
2. Solve the following equations for which solutions lies in the interval 0◦ ≤ θ < 360◦
(i) sin4 x = sin2 x
(ii) 2 cos2 x + 1 = −3 cos x
(iii) 2 sin2 x + 1 = 3 sin x
(iv) cos 2x = 1 − 3 sin x.
3. Solve the following equations:
(i) sin 5x − sin x = cos 3x
(ii) 2 cos2 θ + 3 sin θ − 3 = 0
(iii) cos θ + cos 3θ = 2 cos 2θ
(iv) sin θ + sin 3θ + sin 5θ = 0
(v) sin 2θ − cos 2θ −√ sin θ + cos θ = 0
(vi) sin θ + cos
√ θ= 2
(vii) sin θ + 3 cos θ =√1
(viii) cot θ + cosecθ = 3
√

π 2π
(ix) tan θ + tan θ + + tan θ + = 3
√ 3 3
5+1
(x) cos 2θ =
4
(xi) 2 cos2 x − 7 cos x + 3 = 0
48 Trigonometry
3.7 Properties of Triangle

One important use of trigonometry is to solve practical problems A
that can be modeled by a triangle. Determination of all the sides
and angles of a triangle is referred as solving the triangle. In
any triangle, the three sides and three angles are called basic A
elements of a triangle. Pythagorean theorem plays a vital role in
finding solution of the right triangle. The law of sines and the c b
law of cosines are important tools that can be used effectively in
solving an oblique triangle ( a triangle with no right angle). In
this section, we shall discuss the relationship between the sides
and angles of a triangle and derive the law of sines and the law B C
of cosines.
Notation: Let ABC be a triangle. The angles of 4ABC corre- B a C
sponding to the vertices A, B, C are denoted by A, B, C them-
selves. The sides opposite to the angles A, B, C are denoted by Figure 3.17
a, b, c respectively. Also we use the symbol 4 to denote the area
of a triangle.
The circle which passes through the three vertices of a triangle is called circumcircle of the
triangle. The centre and the radius R of the circumcircle are known as circumcentre and circumradius
respectively.
Note: In 4ABC, we have A + B + C = π and a + b > c, b + c > a, a + c > b.
The Law of Sines or Sine Formula

3.7.1 Law of Sines
The Law of Sines is a relationship between the angles and the sides of a triangle. While solving a
triangle, the law of sines can be effectively used in the following situations:
(i) To find an angle if two sides and one angle which is not included, by them are given.
(ii) To find a side, if two angles and one side which is opposite to one of given angles, are given.
Theorem 3.1 (Law of Sines): In any triangle, the lengths of the sides are propotional to the sines of
a b c
the opposite angles. That is, in 4ABC, = = = 2R where R is the circumradius
sin A sin B sin C
of the triangle.
Proof. The angle A of the 4ABC is either acute or right or obtuse. Let O be the centre of the
circumcircle of 4ABC and R, its radius.
A A A
D B c A b C
a
A R c b
A R
c a
O B R R C O
R O
R
a 180°-A D
C
∠ A is acute ∠ A = 90° ∠ A is obtuse
Figure 3.18
3.7 Properties of Triangle 49
Case I: ∠A is acute.
Produce BO to meet the circle at D.
∠BDC = ∠BAC = A
∠BCD = 90◦
BC a a
sin ∠BDC = or sin A = ⇒ = 2R
BD 2R sin A
Case II: ∠A is right angle.
In this case O must be on the side BC of the4ABC.
a BC 2R a
Now, = ◦
= = 2R ⇒ = 2R
sin A sin 90 1 sin A
Case III: ∠A is obtuse .
Produce BO to meet the circle at D.
∠BDC + ∠BAC = 180◦
∠BDC = 180◦ − ∠BAC = 180◦ − A
∠BCD = 90◦
BC a a
sin ∠BDC = or sin(180◦ − A) = sin A = ⇒ = 2R
BD 2R sin A
a
In each case, we have = 2R
sin A
b c
Similarly, by considering angles B and C, we can prove that = 2R and = 2R
sin B sin C
respectively.
a b c
Thus, = = = 2R.
sin A sin B sin C
Note:
(i) The Law of Sines can be written as a collection of three equations
a sin A a sin A b sin B

= ; = ; = ;
b sin B c sin C c sin C
(ii) The Law of Sines says that the sides of a triangle are proportional to the sines of their opposite
angles.
(iii) Using the Law of Sines, it is impossible to find the solution to a triangle given two sides and
the included angle.
(iv) An interesting geometric consequence of the Law of Sines is that the largest side of any triangle
is opposite to the largest angle. (Prove)
Napier’s Formula
Theorem 3.2: In 4ABC, we have
A−B a−b C
(i) tan = cot
2 a+b 2
B−C b−c A
(ii) tan = cot
2 b+c 2
C −A c−a B
(iii) tan = cot
2 c+a 2
50 Trigonometry
Proof.
a b c
We know the sine formula: = = = 2R
sin A sin B sin C
a−b C 2R sin A − 2R sin B C
Now, cot = cot
a+b 2 2R sin A + 2R sin B 2
sin A − sin B C
= cot
sin A + sin B 2
A+B A−B
2 cos sin
= 2 2 cot C
A+B A−B 2
2 sin cos
2 2
A+B A−B C
= cot tan cot
2 2 2
C A − B C
= cot 90◦ − tan cot
2 2 2
C A−B C A−B
= tan tan cot = tan
2 2 2 2
Similarly we can prove the other two results.
3.7.2 Law of Cosines
When two sides and included angle or the three sides of a triangle are given, the triangle cannot be
solved using the sine formula. In such a situation, the law of cosines can be used to solve the triangle.
Also, the Law of Cosines is used to derive a formula for finding the area of a triangle given two sides
and the included angle.
Theorem 3.3 (The Law of Cosines): In 4ABC, we have
b 2 + c 2 − a2 c 2 + a2 − b 2 a2 + b 2 − c 2
cos A = ; cos B = ; cos C = .
2bc 2ca 2ab
Proof. In 4ABC, draw AD⊥BC. A
In 4ABD, we have AB 2 = AD2 + BD2 ⇒ c2 = AD2 + BD2 .
Now, we find the values of AD and BD in terms of the elements
of 4ABC.
c b
AD
= sin C ⇒ AD = b sin C
AC
BD = BC − DC = a − b cos C
B D a C
c2 = (b sin C)2 + (a − b cos C)2
Figure 3.19
= b2 sin2 C + a2 + b2 cos2 C − 2ab cos C
= a2 + b2 sin2 C + cos2 C − 2ab cos C

= a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
a2 + b 2 − c 2
Thus, c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C or cos C = .
2ab
Similarly, we can prove the other two results, namely
b 2 + c 2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A or cos A =
2bc
2
c + a2 − b2
b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ca cos B or cos B =
2ca
Note:
(i) a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A says that the square of a side is the sum of squares of other two sides
diminished by twice the product of those two sides and the cosine of the included angle. Also
one formula will give the other formula by cycling through the letters a, b, c.
(ii) The Laws of Cosine for right triangles reduce to Pythagorean theorem. Thus, the Law of cosines
can be viewed as a generalisation of Pythagorean theorem.
(iii) The advantage of using law of cosines over law of sines is that unlike the sine function, the
cosine function distinguishes between acute and obtuse angles. If cosine of an angle is positive,
then it is acute. Otherwise, it is obtuse.
(iv) The Law of Cosines says : The direct route is the shortest. Let us explain this. In a 4ABC,
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C. Since − cos C < 1 we have c2 < a2 + b2 + 2ab. Thus, we have
c < a + b. Hence, In 4ABC, we have a < b + c, b < c + a, c < a + b
(v) When using the law of cosines, it is always best to find the measure of the largest unknown
angle first, since this will give us the obtuse angle of the triangle if there is one such angle.
3.7.3 Projection Formula

Theorem 3.4: In a 4ABC, we have
(i) a = b cos C + c cos B, (ii) b = c cos A + a cos C, (iii) c = a cos B + b cos A
A
Proof. In 4ABC, we have a = BC. Draw AD⊥BC.
a = BC = BD + DC
BD DC
= AB + AC c b
AB AC h
= (cos B)c + (cos C)b
a = b cos C + c cos B
B D a C
Similarly, one can prove the other two projection formulas. Figure 3.20
Note: a = b cos C + c cos B says that a = projection of b on a + projection of c on a

Thus, a side of triangle is equal to sum of the projections of other two sides on it.
3.7.4 Area of the Triangle

We shall use some elements of an oblique triangle and the sine function to
1
find the area of the triangle. Recall that area formula for 4ABC is bh A
2
where b is the base and h is the height. For oblique triangle, we must find
h before using the area formula.
Theorem 3.5: In 4ABC, area of the triangle is
c b
1 1 1
4 = ab sin C = bc sin A = ac sin B
2 2 2
Proof. In 4ABC, draw AD⊥BC
B D a C
AD
In 4ADC, = sin C ⇒ AD = b sin C
AC Figure 3.21
1 1
Thus, 4 = × base × height = ab sin C.
2 2
Similarly we can derive the other two results.

52 Trigonometry
Note:
(i) The formula for the area of an oblique triangle says that the area is equal to one half of the
product of two sides and the sine of their included angle.
(ii) The area formula is used to compute the area of the segment of a B
circle. Segment of a circle is the region between a chord and the arc Seg D
me
it cuts off. nt
Let r be the radius of a circle and θ be the angle subtended by θ
the chord AB at the centre. A
r O
Area of the segmentABD = Area of the sector − Area of the 4OAB
1 1
= r2 θ − r2 sin θ
2 2
1 2 Figure 3.22
= r (θ − sin θ)
2
(iii) The area formula of a triangle is viewed as generalisation of area formula of a right triangle.
(iv) In the above formula, it is clear that the measure of third side is not required in finding the area
of the triangles. Also there is no need of finding the altitude of the triangle in order to find its
area.
Example 3.56
The Government plans to have a circular zoological B
park of diameter 8km. A separate area in the form Seg D
me
of a segment formed by a chord of length 4km is to nt
4
be allotted exclusively for a veterinary hospital in the θ4
park. Find the area of the segment to be allotted for the 4 A
r O
veterinary hospital.
Figure 3.23
Solution:
Let AB be the chord and O be the centre of the circular park.
Let ∠AOB = θ.
Area of the segment = Area of the sector − Area of4OAB.

1 1
= r2 θ − r2 sin θ
2
2
1 2
= × 4 [θ − sin θ] = 8 [θ − sin θ] ...(i)
2
42 + 42 − 42 1
But cos θ = =
2(4)(4) 2
π
Thus, θ =
3
From (i), area of the the segment to be allotted for the veterinary hospital
" √ #
π 3 4h √ i
= 8 − = 2π − 3 3 m2
3 2 3
3.7.5 Half-Angle formula

Theorem 3.6: In 4ABC
r r
A (s − b)(s − c) A s(s − a)
(i) sin = , (ii) cos = ,
2 bc 2 bc
s
A (s − b)(s − c) a+b+c
(iii) tan = , where s is the semi-perimeter of 4ABC given by s =
2 s(s − a) 2
Proof. (i)
r r s
b 2 + c 2 − a2

A 2 A 1 − cos A 1
sin = + sin = = 1−
2 2 2 2 2bc
r s
2bc − b2 − c2 + a2 a2 − (b − c)2
= =
4bc 4bc
r r
(a + b − c)(a − b + c) (a + b + c − 2c)(a + b + c − 2b)
= =
r 4bc r 4bc
(2s − 2b)(2s − 2c) (s − b)(s − c)
= =
r 4bc bc
A (s − b)(s − c)
Thus, sin = .
2 bc
Similarly, we can prove the other two results.
Note: The other half-angle formulas are

r r
B (s − c)(s − a) C (s − a)(s − b)
sin = , sin =
2 r ac 2 r ab
B s(s − b) C s(s − c)
cos = , cos =
2 s ac 2 s ab
B (s − a)(s − c) C (s − a)(s − b)
tan = , tan = ,
2 s(s − b) 2 s(s − c)
r r
A A (s − b)(s − c) s(s − a)
Corollary: sin A = 2 sin cos = 2
2 2 bc bc
2p
sin A = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
bc
Area of a triangle (Heron’s Formula )

Heron’s formula is named after Hero of Alexendria, a Greek Engineer and Mathematician in (AD
10 - 70). This formula is used only when all the three sides are known.
p
Theorem 3.7: In 4ABC, 4 = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) where s is the semi-perimeter of 4ABC.
Proof.

1 1 C C
4 = ab sin C = ab 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2
r r
(s − a)(s − b) s(s − c) p
= ab = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
ab ab
54 Trigonometry
Note:
(i) Using Heron’s formula , Pythagorean theorem can be proved for right triangle and conversely,
using Pythagorean theorem for right triangle one can establish Heron’s area formula.
(ii) If area of a triangle is given as an integer, then Heron’s formula is useful in finding triangles
with integer sides.
(iii) If the perimeter of a triangle is fixed, then Heron’s formula is useful for finding triangles having
integer area and integer sides.
For example, if the perimeter of a triangle is 100m, then there is a triangle with sides
32 m, 34 m, 34 m and area 480 sq.meter.
Example 3.57 In a 4ABC, prove that b2 sin 2C + c2 sin 2B = 2bc sin A.

Solution:
a b c
The Sine formula is, = = = 2R
sin A sin B sin C
Thus, a = 2R sin A; b = 2R sin B; c = 2R sin C
b2 sin 2C + c2 sin 2B = 4R2 sin2 B sin 2C + 4R2 sin2 C sin 2B

4R2 2 sin2 B sin C cos C + 2 sin2 C sin B cos B

=
= 8R2 sin B sin C (sin B cos C + sin C cos B)
= 8R2 sin B sin C sin(B + C)
= 8R2 sin B sin C sin (π − A) = 8R2 sin B sin C sin A

2 b c
= 8R sin A = 2bc sin A.
2R 2R

B−C b−c A
Example 3.58 In a 4ABC, prove that sin = cos .
2 a 2
Solution:
a b c
sin A sin B sin C
b−c A 2R sin B − 2R sin C A
Now, cos = cos
a 2 2R sin A 2

B−C B+C
2 sin cos
2 2 A
= cos
A A 2
2 sin cos
2 2

B−C ◦ A
sin cos 90 −
2 2
=
A
sin
2

B−C A
sin sin
2 2
=
A
sin
2

B−C
= sin .
2
Example 3.59 If the three angles in √ a triangle are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3, then prove that the
corresponding sides are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 2.
Solution:
Let the angles be θ, 2θ, 3θ.
Then θ + 2θ + 3θ = 180◦
Thus, θ = 30◦
a b c
Using the sine formula, = = , we have,
sin A sin B sin C
a b c
◦
= ◦
=
sin 30 sin 60 sin 90◦
a : b : c = sin 30◦ : sin 60◦ : sin 90◦
√
1 3 √
= : :1=1: 3:2
2 2
Example 3.60 In a 4ABC, prove that
(b + c) cos A + (c + a) cos B + (a + b) cos C = a + b + c
Solution:
L.H.S = b cos A + c cos A + c cos B + a cos B + a cos C + b cos C

= b cos C + c cos B + c cos A + a cos C + b cos A + a cos B
= a + b + c [by projection formula]
a2 + b 2 1 + cos(A − B) cos C
Example 3.61 In a triangle ABC, prove that 2 2
=
a +c 1 + cos(A − C) cos B
Solution:
a b c
sin A sin B sin C
a2 + b 2 (2R sin A)2 + (2R sin B)2
L.H.S = =
a2 + c 2 (2R sin A)2 + (2R sin C)2
sin2 A + sin2 B 1 − cos2 A + sin2 B
= =
sin2 A + sin2 C 1 − cos2 A + sin2 C
1 − cos2 A − sin2 B

1 − cos(A + B) cos(A − B)
= 2
=
1 − cos2 A − sin C 1 − cos(A + C) cos(A − C)
1 + cos(A − B) cos C
= .
1 + cos(A − C) cos B
56 Trigonometry
Example 3.62 Derive cosine formula using the law of sines in a 4ABC.
Solution:
a b c
The law of Sines: = = = 2R
sin A sin B sin C
b 2 + c 2 − a2 (2R sin B)2 + (2R sin C)2 − (2R sin A)2
=
2bc 2 (2R sin B) (2R sin C)
sin2 B + sin(C + A) sin(C − A)
=
2 sin B sin C
sin B [sin B + sin(C − A)]
=
2 sin B sin C
sin(C + A) + sin(C − A)
= = cos A
2 sin C
b 2 + c 2 − a2
Thus, cos A = .
2bc
Example 3.63 Using Heron’s formula, show that the equilateral triangle has the maximum area for
any fixed perimeter. [Hint: In xyz ≤ k, maximum occurs when x = y = z].
Solution:
Let ABC be a triangle
p with constant perimeter 2s. Thus s is constant.
We know that 4 = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
Observe that 4 is maximum, when (s − a)(s − b))(s − c) is maximum.
3
s3

(s − a) + (s − b) + (s − c)
Now, (s − a)(s − b)(s − c) ≤ = [ G.M ≤ A.M.]
3 27
3
s
Thus, we get (s − a)(s − b)(s − c) ≤
27
Equality occurs when s − a = s − b = s − c. That is, when a = b = c,
s3
maximum of (s − a)(s − b))(s − c) is
27
Thus, for a fixed perimeter 2s, the area of a triangle is maximum when a = b = c.
Hence, for a fixedrperimeter, the equilateral triangle has the maximum area and the maximum area
s (s3 ) s2
is given by 4 = = √ sq.units.
27 3 3
Exercise - 3.9
sin A sin(A − B)
1. In a 4ABC, if = , prove that a2 , b2 , c2 are in Arithmetic Progression.
sin C sin(B − C)
√ √
2. The angles of a triangle ABC, are in Arithmetic Progression and if b : c = 3 : 2, find ∠A.
3.8 Application to Triangle 57
sin A
3. In a 4ABC, if cos C = , show that the triangle is isosceles.
2 sin B
sin B c − a cos B
4. In a 4ABC, prove that = .
sin C b − a cos C
5. In a 4ABC, prove that a cos A + b cos B + c cos C = 2a sin B sin C.

◦ B−C
6. In a 4ABC, ∠A = 60 . Prove that b + c = 2a cos .
2
7. In a 4ABC, prove the following

A A
(i) a sin + B = (b + c) sin
2 2
A
(ii) a(cos B + cos C) = 2(b + c) sin2
2
a2 − c 2 sin(A − C)
(iii) =
b2 sin(A + C)
a sin(B − C) b sin(C − A) c sin(A − B)
(iv) 2 2
= 2 2
=
b −c c −a a2 − b 2

a+b A+B A−B
(v) = tan cot .
a−b 2 2
8. In a 4ABC, prove that (a2 − b2 + c2 ) tan B = (a2 + b2 − c2 ) tan C.
9. An Engineer has to develop a triangular shaped park with a perimeter 120 m in a village. The park
to be developed must be of maximum area. Find out the dimensions of the park.
10. A rope of length 12 m is given. Find the largest area of the triangle formed by this rope and find
the dimensions of the triangle so formed.
11. Derive Projection formula from (i) Law of sines, (ii) Law of cosines.
3.8 Application to Triangle

Much of architecture and engineering relies on triangular support on any structure where stability
is desired. Trigonometry helps to calculate the correct angle for the triangular support. Also
trigonometry envisages the builders to correctly layout a curved structure. For a right triangle, any
two information with atleast one side say SS, SA are sufficient to find the remaining elements of the
triangle. But, to find the solution of an oblique triangle we need three elements with atleast one side.
If any three elements with atleast one side of a triangle are given, then the Law of Sines, the Law of
Cosines, the Projection formula can be used to find the other three elements.
Working Rule:
• In a right triangle, two sides determine the third side via the Pythagorean theorem and one acute
angle determine the other by using the fact that acute angles in a right triangle are complementary.
• If all the sides of a triangle are given, then we can use either cosine formula or half-angle formula
to calculate all the angles of the triangle.
• If any two angles and any one of the sides opposite to given angles are given, then we can use sine
formula to calculate the other sides.
• If any two sides of a triangle and the included angle are given, we cannot use the Law of sines;
but then we can use the law of cosines to calculate other side and other angles of the triangle. In
this case we have a unique triangle.
• All methods of solving an oblique triangle require that the length of atleast one side must be
provided.
58 Trigonometry
Let us summarise the working rule to solve an oblique triangle in the following table
Given Information
Oblique triangle SAA SSA* SAS SSS AAA
(all angles are acute or
or one angle is obtuse
Details and Law of #(ambiguity The given angle must Law of Cosines; Infinite
Application sines arises) be included angle; First find number
for solutions Either law of Cosines the largest of triangles
or tangents angle
# Angle is not included; more than one triangle;

Use Law of Sines: No solution or one triangle or two triangles.
Suppose a, b, A are known. Let h = b sin A
If a < h, there is no triangle, If a = h, then it is right triangle.
If a > h and a < b, we have two triangles.
If a ≥ b, we have only one triangle.
* SSA means Side, Side and Angle
Example 3.64 In a 4ABC, a = 3, b = 5 and c = 7.

Find the values of cos A, cos B and cos C.
Solution:
By Cosine formula,
b 2 + c 2 − a2 52 + 72 − 32 13
cos A = = =
2bc 2(5)(7) 14
11 1
Similarly, cos B = , cos C = − .
14 2
Example 3.65 In 4ABC, A = 30◦ , B = 60◦ and c = 10, Find a and b.

Solution:
Given that A = 30◦ , B = 60◦ , C = 180◦ − (A + B) = 90◦
Using sine formula,
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C
a b 10
◦
= ◦
= ◦
sin 30 sin 60 sin 90
1
10
10 sin 30◦ 2
a = ◦
= =5
sin 90 1√ !
3
10
10 sin 60◦ 2 √
b = = = 5 3.
sin 90◦ 1
√ √
Example 3.66 In a 4ABC, if a = 2 2, b = 2 3 and C = 75◦ , find the other side and the angles.
Solution: √ √
Given that a = 2 2, b = 2 3 and C = 75◦ .
3.8 Application to Triangle 59
a2 + b2 − c2
Using cosine formula, cos C =
2ab
√
◦ 8 + 12 − c2 3−1 8 + 12 − c2 √ √
cos 75 = √ ⇒ √ = √ ⇒c= 2 3+1
8 6 2 2 8 6
b 2 + c 2 − a2 1
Also, cos A = = √ , Thus A = 60◦ , B = 180◦ − (A + C) = 45◦ .
2bc 2
Example 3.67 Find the area of the triangle whose sides are 13 cm, 14 cm and 15 cm.
Solution:
a+b+c 13 + 14 + 15
We know that s = ⇒s= = 21 cm.
2 p 2
Area of a triangle is 4 = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
p
= 21(21 − 13)(21 − 14)(21 − 15) = 84 sq.cm.
842
Example 3.68 In any 4ABC, prove that a cos A + b cos B + c cos C = .
abc
Solution:
We know that a cos A + b cos B + c cos C = 2a sin B sin C
842

24 24
Thus, a cos A + b cos B + c cos C = 2a =
ac ab abc
Example 3.69
Suppose that there are two cell phone towers within range of a cell
phone. The two towers are located at 6 km apart along a straight 31
5km k
highway, running east to west and the cell phone is north x m
√ of the θ
highway. The signal is 5 km from the first tower and 31 km 6km
from the second tower. Determine the position of the cell phone
north and east of the first tower and how far it is from the highway. Figure 3.24
Solution:
Let θ be the position of the cell phone from north to east of the first tower.
Then, using the cosine formula, we have,
√ 2
31 = 52 + 62 − 2 × 5 × 6 cos θ
31 = 25 + 36 − 60 cos θ
1
cos θ = ⇒ θ = 60◦
2
Let x be the distance of the cell phone’s position from
√ the highway.
x 5 × 3
Then, sin θ = ⇒ x = 5 sin θ = 5 sin 60◦ = km.
5 2
60 Trigonometry
Example 3.70
Suppose that a boat travels 10 km from the B
port towards north and then turns 60◦ to its
m
left. If the boat travels further 8 km, how far
8k
from the port is the boat? Port 60°
Solution: P 10 km
Let BP be the required distance. Figure 3.25

By using the cosine formula, we have,
√
BP 2 = 102 + 82 − 2 × ×108 × cos 120◦ = 244km ⇒ BP = 2 61km
Example 3.71
Suppose two radar stations located 100km apart, each detect a A
fighter aircraft between them. The angle of elevation measured
a
by the first station is 30◦ , whereas the angle of elevation mea- x
sured by the second station is 45◦ . Find the altitude of the aircraft 30° 45°
at that instant. R1 100 N R2
Figure 3.26
Solution:
Let R1 and R2 be two radar stations and A be the position of fighter aircraft at the time of detection.
Let x be the required altitude of the aircraft.
Draw ⊥AN from A to R1 R2 meeting at N .
∠A = 180◦ − (30◦ + 45◦ ) = 105◦

√
a 100 100 1 200 3−1 √
Thus, ◦
= ◦
⇒a= √ ×√ = = 100 × 3 − 1 km
sin 45 sin 105 3+1 2 2
√
x √2 2
Now, sin 30◦ = ⇒ x = 50 × 3 − 1 km.
a
Exercise - 3.10
1. Determine whether the following measurements produce one triangle, two triangles or no triangle:
∠B = 88◦ , a = 23, b = 2. Solve if solution exists.
2. If the sides of a 4ABC

√ are a = 4, √b = 6 and c = 8, then show that 4 cos B + 3 cos C = 2.
◦
3. In a 4ABC, if a = 3 − 1, b = 3 + 1 and C = 60 , find the other side and other two angles.
b 2 + c 2 − a2
4. In any 4ABC, prove that the area 4 = .
4 cos A◦
5. In a 4ABC, if a = 12 cm, b = 8 cm and C = 30 , then show that its area is 24 sq.cm.
6. In a 4ABC, if a = 18 cm, b = 24 cm and c = 30 cm, then show that its area is 216 sq.cm.
7. Two soldiers A and B in two different underground bunkers on a straight road, spot an intruder at
the top of a hill. The angle of elevation of the intruder from A and B to the ground level in the
eastern direction are 30◦ and 45◦ respectively. If A and B stand 5km apart, find the distance of the
intruder from B.
8. A researcher wants to determine the width of a pond from east to west, which cannot be done by
actual measurement. From a point P , he finds the distance to the eastern-most point of the pond to
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 61
be 8 km, while the distance to the western most point from P to be 6 km. If the angle between the
two lines of sight is 60◦ , find the width of the pond.
9. Two Navy helicopters A and B are flying over the Bay of Bengal at same altitude from the sea
level to search a missing boat. Pilots of both the helicopters sight the boat at the same time while
they are apart 10 km from each other. If the distance of the boat from A is 6 km and if the line
segment AB subtends 60◦ at the boat, find the distance of the boat from B.
10. A straight tunnel is to be made through a mountain. A surveyor observes the two extremities A and
B of the tunnel to be built from a point P in front of the mountain. If AP = 3km, BP = 5 km
and ∠AP B = 120◦ , then find the length of the tunnel to be built.
11. A farmer wants to purchase a triangular shaped land with sides 120f eet and 60f eet and the
angle included between these two sides is 60◦ . If the land costs |500 per sq.ft, find the amount he
needed to purchase the land. Also find the perimeter of the land.
12. A fighter jet has to hit a small target by flying a horizontal distance. When the target is sighted,
the pilot measures the angle of depression to be 30◦ . If after 100 km, the target has an angle of
depression of 45◦ , how far is the target from the fighter jet at that instant?
13. A plane is 1 km from one landmark and 2 km from another. From the planes point of view the
land between them subtends an angle of 60◦ . How far apart are the landmarks?
14. A man starts his morning walk at a point A reaches two points B and C and finally back to A such
that ∠A = 60◦ and ∠B = 45◦ , AC = 4km in the 4ABC. Find the total distance he covered
during his morning walk.
15. Two vehicles leave the same place P at the same time moving along two different roads. One
vehicle moves at an average speed of 60km/hr and the other vehicle moves at an average speed
of 80 km/hr. After half an hour the vehicle reach the destinations A and B. If AB subtends 60◦
at the initial point P , then find AB.
16. Suppose that a satellite in space, an earth station and the centre of earth all lie in the same plane.
Let r be the radius of earth and R be the distance from the centre of earth to the satellite. Let d be
the distance from the earth station to the satellite. Let 30◦ be the angle of elevation from the earth
connecting earth station and satellite subtends angle α at
station to the satellite. If the line segment r
r 2 r
the centre of earth, then prove that d = R 1 + − 2 cos α.
R R
3.9 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

A function f (x) has inverse if and only if it is one-to-one and onto. Thus, inverse of a function cannot
be defined if it fails to be one-to-one. However, if we restrict the domain suitably, we can make the
function to be one-to-one in the restricted domain. For example, y = x2 is not one-to-one for all real
numbers. But y = √ x2 is one-to-one and onto either for x ≥ 0 or x ≤ 0. Hence y = x2 , x ≥ 0 has the
−1
inverse f (x) = x, x ≥ 0. Now, owing to their periodicity, none of six trigonometric functions is
one-to-one over their natural domains. We shall restrict their domains so that trigonometric functions
are one-to-one enabling the existence of their inverse functions. This restriction can be done in many
ways once again due to their periodicity. The conventional choices for the restricted domains are
arbitrary but they have some important characteristics. Each restricted domain includes the number 0
and some positive angles and the image of restricted domain contains the entire range.
Let us define the inverse of sine function. Consider f (x) = sin x, x ∈ [− π2 , π2 ]. Then, sin x is
one-to-one and onto in this restricted domain. Hence, the inverse of sine function exists. Note that
f −1 (y) = x if and only if f (x) = y. We write f −1 (x) = sin−1 (x). Thus, inverse of sine is defined as
sin−1 (y) = x if andhonly if isin x = y.
π π h π πi
Clearly, sin x : − , → [−1, 1] and sin x : [−1, 1] → − , . Thus, sin−1 t is an angle
−1
2 2 h π πi 2 2
whose sine is equal to t and which is located in − , . Similarly we can define the other inverse
2 2
trigonometric functions.
62 Trigonometry
The inverse functions sin−1 x, cos−1 x, tan−1 x, cosec−1 (x), sec−1 (x), cot−1 (x) are
called inverse circular functions. For the function y = sin x, there are infinitely many angles x which
h π πsin
satisfy i x = t, −1 ≤ t ≤ 1. Of these infinite set of values, there is one which lies in the interval
− , . This angle is called the principal angle and denoted by sin−1 t. The principal value of
2 2
an inverse function is that value of the general value which is numerically least. It may be positive
or negative. When there are two values, one is positive and the other is negative such that they are
numerically equal, then the principal value is the positive one.
We shall illustrate below the restricted domains, ranges of trigonometric functions and the
domains, ranges of the corresponding inverse functions. h π πi
−1
π π
(i) sin x : − 2 , 2 → [−1, 1] ; sin x : [−1, 1] → − ,
2 2
(ii) cos x : [0, π] → [−1, 1] ; cos−1 x : [−1, 1] → [0, π]
π π
π π −1

(iii) tan x : − 2 , 2 → (−∞, ∞) ; tan x : (−∞, ∞) → − ,
2 2
(iv) cot x : (0, π) → (−∞, ∞) ; cot−1 x : (−∞, ∞) → (0, π)
h π πi
(v) cosecx : − π2 , π2 − {0} → R − (−1, 1) ; cosec−1 x : R − (−1, 1) → − ,

− {0}
2 n
2 o
π
(vi) sec x : [0, π] − π2 → R − (−1, 1) ; sec−1 x : R − (−1, 1) → [0, π] −

2
Note:
1
(i) sin−1 x does not mean .
sin x
(ii) Another notation for sin−1 x is arcsin x due to Sir. John FW Herschel (1813).
(iii) While discussing the inverse of sine function, we confined to y = sin x, − π2 ≤ x ≤ π2 and
x = sin−1 y, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
(iv) The graph of inverse function f −1 is the reflexion of the graph of f about the line y = x. Thus,
if (a, b) ∈ f then (b, a) ∈ f −1 .
Principal values of inverse trigonometric functions are listed below:
Principal value for x ≥ 0 Principal value for x < 0

π π
0 ≤ sin−1 (x) ≤ − ≤ sin−1 (x) < 0
2 2
π π
0 ≤ cos−1 (x) ≤ < cos−1 (x) ≤ π
2 2
π π
0 ≤ tan−1 (x) < − < tan−1 (x) < 0
2 2
π π
0 < cot−1 (x) ≤ − < cot−1 (x) < 0
2 2
π π
0 ≤ sec−1 (x) < < sec−1 (x) ≤ π
2 2
π π
0 < cosec−1 (x) ≤ − < cosec−1 (x) < 0
2 2
Note:
(i) Properties, graphs, theorems on inverse trigonometric functions will be studied in higher
secondary second year.
(ii) Inverse trigonometric functions are much useful in the evaluation of some integrals which will
be studied later.
√ !
3 2
Example 3.72 Find the principal value of (i) sin−1 , (ii) cosec−1
√ ,
2 3

−1 −1
(iii) tan √ .
3
Solution:
√ !
−1 3 π π
(i) Let sin = y, where − ≤ y ≤
2 2 2
√
3 π π
⇒ sin y = = sin ⇒ y =
2 3 3 √ !
3 π
Thus, the principal value of sin−1 =
2 3

2 π π
(ii) Let cosec −1 √ = y, where − ≤ y ≤
3 2 2
√
2 3
⇒ cosec y = √ = sin y =
3 2

−1 2 π
Thus, the principal value of cosec √ =
3 3

−1 π π
(iii) Let tan−1 √ = y, where − ≤ y ≤
3 2 2
1 π π
tan y = − √ ⇒ tan y = tan − ⇒y=−
3 6 6

−1 π
Thus the principal value of tan−1 √ =− .
3 6
Exercise - 3.11
√ √
−1 1 −1 3
1. Find the principal value of (i) sin √ (ii) cos (iii) cosec−1 (−1) (iv) sec−1 − 2
√ 2 2
−1
(v) tan 3 .
2. A man standing directly opposite to one side of a road of width x meter views a circular shaped
traffic green signal of diameter a meter on the other side of the road. The bottom of the green
signal is b meter height from the horizontal level of viewer’s eye. If α denotes the angle subtended
by the diameter of the green signal at the viewer’s eye, then prove that

−1 a+b −1 b
α = tan − tan .
x x
64 Trigonometry
Exercise - 3.12
Choose the correct

√ answer or most suitable answer:
1 3
1. ◦
− =
cos 80 sin 80◦
√ √
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 2 (4) 4
2. If cos 28◦ + sin 28◦ = k 3 , then cos 17◦ is equal to
k3 k3 k3 k3
(1) √ (2) − √ (3) ± √ (4) − √
2 2 2 3
2 2 x x
3. The maximum value of 4 sin x + 3 cos x + sin + cos is
2 2
√ √
(1) 4 + 2 (2) 3 + 2 (3) 9 (4) 4

π 3π 5π 7π
4. 1 + cos 1 + cos 1 + cos 1 + cos =
8 8 8 8
1 1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) √ (4) √
8 2 3 2
√
q
3π
5. If π < 2θ < , then 2 + 2 + 2 cos 4θ equals to
2
(1) −2 cos θ (2) −2 sin θ (3) 2 cos θ (4) 2 sin θ
tan 140◦ − tan 130◦
6. If tan 40◦ = λ, then =
1 + tan 140◦ tan 130◦
1 − λ2 1 + λ2 1 + λ2 1 − λ2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
◦
λ ◦ ◦
λ ◦
2λ 2λ
7. cos 1 + cos 2 + cos 3 + . . . + cos 179 =
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) −1 (4) 89
1 k
sin x + cosk x where x ∈ R and k ≥ 1. Then f4 (x) − f6 (x) =

8. Let fk (x) =
k
1 1 1 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)
4 12 6 3
9. Which of the following is not true?
3 1
(1 ) sin θ = − (2) cos θ = −1 (3) tan θ = 25 (4) sec θ =
4 4
10. cos 2θ cos 2φ + sin2 (θ − φ) − sin2 (θ + φ) is equal to
(1) sin 2(θ + φ) (2) cos 2(θ + φ) (3) sin 2(θ − φ) (4) cos 2(θ − φ)
sin(A − B) sin(B − C) sin(C − A)
11. + + is
cos A cos B cos B cos C cos C cos A
(1) sin A + sin B + (2) 1 (3) 0 (4) cos A + cos B +

sin C cos C
12. If cos pθ + cos qθ = 0 and if p 6= q, then θ is equal to (n is any integer)
π(3n + 1) π(2n + 1) π(n ± 1) π(n + 2)
(1) (2) (3) (4)
p−q p±q p±q p+q
sin(α + β)
13. If α and β are the roots of tan2 x + a tan x + b = 0, then is equal to
sin α sin β
b a a b
(1) (2) (3) − (4) −
a b b a
14. In a triangle ABC, sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2, then the triangle is
(1) equilateral triangle (2) isosceles triangle (3) right triangle (4) scalene triangle.
15. If f (θ) = |sin θ| + |cos θ| , θ ∈ R, then f (θ) is in the interval
h √ i
(1) [0, 2] (2) 1, 2 (3) [1, 2] (4) [0, 1]
cos 6x + 6 cos 4x + 15 cos 2x + 10
16. is equal to
cos 5x + 5 cos 3x + 10 cos x
(1) cos2 x (2) 1+cos x (3) cos 3x (4) cos 2x
17. The triangle of maximum area with constant perimeter 12m
(1) is an equilateral tri-
(2) is an isosceles (3) is a triangle with (4) Does not exist.
angle with side 4m triangle with sides sides 3m, 4m, 5m
2m, 5m, 5m
18. A wheel is spinning at 2 radians/second. How many seconds will it take to make 10 complete
revolutions?
(1) 10π seconds (2) 20π seconds (3) 5π seconds (4) 15π seconds
19. If sin α + cos α = b, then sin 2α is equal to
√ √ √
(1) b2 − 1, if b ≤ 2 (2) b2 − 1, if b > 2 (3) b2 − 1, if b ≥ 1 (4) b2 − 1, if b ≥ 2
20. In a 4ABC,
A B C
(i) sin sin sin > 0
2 2 2
(ii) sin A sin B sin C > 0
(1) Both (i) and (ii) are (2) Only (i) is true (3) Only (ii) is true (4) Neither (i) nor (ii)
true is true.
66 Trigonometry
Summary
Sum and Difference Identities(Ptolemy Identities):
cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β; sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β
tan α + tan β tan α − tan β
tan(α + β) = ; tan(α − β) =
1 − tan α tan β 1 + tan α tan β
Double, Triple and Half angle Identities
sine cosine Tangent
2 tan A
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A
2 tan A 3 tan A − tan3 A
sin 2A = cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1 tan 3A =
1 + tan2 A 1 − 3 tan2 A
sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A
1 − tan2 A
cos 2A =
1 + tan2 A
cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
θ θ 2 tan θ2
sin θ = 2 sin cos cos θ = cos2 θ2 − sin2 θ2 tan θ =
2 2 θ
1 − tan2
2
θ
cos θ = 2 cos2 θ2 − 1
2 tan
sin θ = 2
2 θ
1+ tan
2
cos θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ2
Trigonometric Equation General solution

h π πi
sin θ = sin α, where α ∈ − , θ = nπ + (−1)n α, n ∈ Z
2 2
cos θ = cos α, where α ∈ [0, π] θ = 2nπ ± α, n ∈ Z
π π
tan θ = tan α, where α ∈ − , θ = nπ + α, n ∈ Z
2 2
Law of sine Law of cosine Law of Tangent
a b c b2 + c2 − a2 A−B a−b C
= = = 2R. cos A = ; tan = cot
sin A sin B sin C 2bc 2 a+b 2
a2 + c 2 − b 2 B−C b−c A
cos B = ; tan = cot
2ac 2 b+c 2
a2 + b 2 − c 2 C −A c−a B
cos C = tan = cot
2ab 2 c+a 2
In a 4ABC, we have
(i) a = b cos C + c cos B, b = c cos A + a cos C and c = a cos B + b cos A [Projection formula].
1 1 1
(ii) 4 = abr sin C = bc sin A = ac sin Br[Area of the triangle].s
2 2 2
A (s − b)(s − c) A s(s − a) A (s − b)(s − c)
(iii) sin = , cos = , tan = , where s is
2 bc 2 bc 2 s(s − a)
a+b+c
the semi-perimeter of 4ABC given by s = . [Half Angle formula].
2
Combinatorics and
Chapter 4 Mathematical Induction
A particle of tuition conveys science to a comprehensive mind: and having reached it, expands of its
own impulse. As oil poured on water, as a secret entrusted to the vile, as alms bestowed upon the
worthy, however little, so does science infused into a wise mind spread by intrinsic force
- Bhaskara - II
4.1 Introduction
Combinatorics is the branch of mathematics which is related to counting. It deals with arrangements
of objects as well as enumeration, that is, counting of objects with specic properties. The roots of
the subject can be traced as far back as 2800 B.C when it was used to study magic squares and
patterns within them. The 12th century witnessed Bhaskaracharyas work on the binomial coefcients
of (x + y)n and the study of these coefcients relied heavily on Combinatorics. Bhaskara II was
an Indian astronomer born at a place called Vijayapura, now known as Bijapur, karnataka in the
year 1114.
His main work is Siddhantha Shiromani, (Crown of treatises) is
divided into four parts called Lilavati(beautiful woman, named after
his daughter Lilavati), Bijaganita, Grahaganita (mathematics of planets)
and Goladhyaya (study of sphere/earth). These four sections deal with
arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets, and spheres respectively.
He also wrote another treatise named Karna Kautoohala.
A small story behind the name Lilavati as follows:
From casting her horoscope, he discovered that the auspicious time
for her wedding would be a particular hour on a certain day. He placed
a cup with a small hole at the bottom of the vessel lled with water, (1114−1185)
arranged so that the cup would sink at the beginning of the propitious hour. When everything was
ready and the cup was placed in the vessel, Lilavati suddenly out of curiosity bent over the vessel and
a pearl from her dress fell into the cup and blocked the hole in it. The lucky hour passed without the
cup sinking. Bhaskaracharya believed that the way to console his dejected daughter, who now would
never get married, was to write her a manual of mathematics! He died in the year 1185.
Combinatorics has many real life applications where counting of objects are involved. For
example, we may be interested to know if there are enough mobile numbers to meet the demand
or the number of allowable passwords in a computer system. It also deals with counting techniques
and with optimisation methods, that is, methods related to nding the best possible solution among
several possibilities in a real problem. In this chapter we shall study counting problems in terms of
ordered or unordered arrangements of objects. These arrangements are referred to as permutations and
combinations. Combinatorics are largely used in the counting problems of Network communications,
Cryptography, Network Security and Probability theory. We shall explore their properties and apply
them to counting problems.
1
2 Combinatorics and Mathematical Induction
Consider another situation: We all know that our electricity consumer card number is of the form
A: B : C, where A denotes the electrical substation /larger capacity transformer number, B denotes the
smaller capacity electricity transformer number and C denotes the consumer number. There may be
conditions that to each substation certain maximal number of transformer can only be linked and with
a particular transformer certain maximal number of consumer connection can only be linked. Now
the question of deciding, whether a new Transformer/Substation needs to be erected, can be made by
the count of the number of consumer connections linked with a substation transformer. How to get
that count? This count can be easily arrived by the use of counting principles.
In this Chapter, the art of counting is discussed starting with the Fundamental principles of
counting, travelling through Permutation and Combinations.
Learning Objectives

• the principles of counting and applying it to various situations.
• how to compute the number of ways in arranging a set of distinct objects.
• how to compute the number of arrangements from a set containing identical objects.
• how to compute and applying the strategies to nd the number of combinations of a set of
different objects.
• the applications of the principle of mathematical induction.
We shall start the chapter with the section on
4.2 Fundamental principles of counting
1. The Sum Rule Let us consider two tasks which need to be completed. If the rst task can
be completed in M different ways and the second in N different ways, and if these cannot be
performed simultaneously, then there are M + N ways of doing either task. This is the sum rule
of counting.
Example 4.1 Suppose one girl or one boy has to be selected for a competition from a class
comprising 17 boys and 29 girls. In how many different ways can this selection be made?
Solution:
The rst task of selecting a girl can be done in 29 ways. The second task of selecting a boy can
be done in 17 ways. It follows from the sum rule, that there are 17+29 = 46 ways of making this
selection.
Note 4.1: The sum rule may be extended to more than two tasks. Thus if there are n non-
simultaneous tasks T1 , T2 , T3 , · · · Tn which can be performed in m1 , m2 , · · · mn ways respectively,
then the number of ways of doing one of these tasks is m1 + m2 + · · · + mn .
2. The Product Rule Let us suppose that a task comprises of two procedures. If the rst procedure
can be completed in M different ways and the second procedure can be done in N different ways
after the rst procedure is done, then the total number of ways of completing the task is M × N
Example 4.2 Consider the 3 cities Chennai, Trichy and Tirunelveli. In order to reach Tirunelveli
from Chennai, one has to pass through Trichy. There are 2 roads connecting Chennai with Trichy
4.2 Fundamental principles of counting 3
and there are 3 roads connecting Trichy with Tirunelveli. What are the total number of ways of
travelling from Chennai to Tirunelveli?
Solution:
There are 2 roads connecting Chennai to Trichy. Suppose these are R1 and R2 . Further there
are 3 roads connecting Trichy to Tirunelveli . Let us name them as S1 , S2 and S3 . Suppose
a person chooses R1 to travel from Chennai to Trichy and may further choose any of the
3 roads S1 , S2 or S3 to travel from Trichy to Tirunelveli. Thus the possible road choices
are (R1 , S1 ), (R1 , S2 ), (R1 , S3 ). Similarly, if the person chooses R2 to travel from Chennai to
Trichy, the choices would be (R2 , S1 ), (R2 , S2 ), (R2 , S3 ).
R1 S1
S2
CH TR TV
R2 S3
Figure 4.1
Thus there are 2 × 3 = 6 ways of travelling from Chennai to Tirunelveli.
Note 4.2: An extension of the product rule may be stated as follows:

If a task comprises of n procedures P1 , P2 , P3 · · · Pn which can be performed in m1 , m2 , · · · mn
ways respectively, and procedure Pi can be done after procedures P1 , P2 , P3 · · · Pi−1 are done, then
the number of ways of completing the task is m1 × m2 × · · · mn .
3. The Inclusion -Exclusion Principle Suppose two tasks A and B can be performed simultaneously.
Let n(A) and n(B) represent the number of ways of performing the tasks A and B independent of
each other. Also let n(A ∩ B) be the number of ways of performing the two tasks simultaneously.
We cannot use the sum rule to count the number of ways of performing one of the tasks as that
would lead to over counting. To obtain the correct number of ways we add the number of ways
of performing each of the two tasks and then subtract the number of ways of doing both tasks
simultaneously. This method is referred to as the principle of inclusion - exclusion. Using the
notation of set theory we write it as
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B).
Suppose we have to nd the number of positive integers divisible by 2 or 7 (but not both), upto
1000. Let n(A) denote the number of integers divisible by 2, n(B) denote the number of integers
divisible by 7 and n(A ∩ B) the number of integers divisible by both 2 and 7. Then the number of
positive integers divisible by 2 or 7 is given by
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) = 500 + 142 − 71 = 571.
(Note that n(A) will include all multiples of 2 upto 1000, n(B) will include all multiples of 7 upto
1000 and so on.)
Tree Diagrams: Tree diagrams are often helpful in representing the possibilities in a counting
problem. Typically in a tree the branches represent the various possibilities. For example, suppose
a person wants to buy a Car for the family. There are two different branded cars and ve colours are
available for each brand. Each colour will have three different variant on it namely GL,SS,SL. Then
the various choices for choosing a car can be represented through a tree diagram as follows:
My New Car
GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL GL SS SL
Figure 4.2
We shall now illustrate the different rules described above through examples
4.3 Problems based on principles of counting
Example 4.3 A School library has 75 books on Mathematics, 35 books on Physics. A student can
choose only one book. In how many ways a student can choose a book on Mathematics or Physics?
Solution:
(i) A student can choose a Mathematics book in 75 different ways.

(ii) A student can choose a Physics book in 35 different ways.
Hence applying the Rule of Sum, the number of ways a student can choose a book is
75 + 35 = 110.
Now we shall discuss the problem stated in our introduction.
Example 4.4 If an electricity consumer has the consumer number say 238:110: 29, then describe
the linking and count the number of house connections upto the 29th consumer connection linked
to the larger capacity transformer number 238 subject to the condition that each smaller capacity
transformer can have a maximal consumer link of say 100.
Solution:
The following gure illustrates the electricity distribution network.
Transmission System Monitoring & Control Disribution System
Substation
Figure 4.3
4.3 Problems based on principles of counting 5
There are 110 smaller capacity transformers attached to a larger capacity transformer. As
each smaller capacity transformer can be linked with only 100 consumers, we have for the 109
transformers, there will be 109 × 100 = 10900 links. For the 110th transformer there are only
29 consumers linked. Hence, the total number of consumers linked to the 238th larger capacity
transformer is 10900 + 29 = 10929.
Example 4.5 A person wants to buy a car. There are two brands of car available in the market and
each brand has 3 variant models and each model comes in ve different colours as in Figure 4.2 In
how many ways she can choose a car to buy?
Solution:
A car can be bought by choosing a brand, then a variant model, and then a colour. A brand can be
chosen in 2 ways; a model can be chosen in 3 ways and a colour can be chosen in 5 ways. By the
rule of product the person can buy a car in 2 × 3 × 5 = 30 different ways.
Example 4.6 A Woman wants to select one silk saree and one sungudi saree from a textile shop
located at Kancheepuram. In that shop, there are 20 different varieties of silk sarees and 8 different
varieties of sungudi sarees. In how many ways she can select her sarees.
Solution:
The work is done when she selects one silk saree and one sungudi saree. The Woman can select a
silk saree in 20 ways and sungudi saree in 8 ways. By the rule of product, the total number of ways
of selecting these 2 sarees is 20 × 8 = 160.
Example 4.7 In a village, out of the total number of people, 80 percentage of the people own
Coconut groves and 65 percent of the people own Paddy elds. What is the minimum percentage of
people own both?
Solution:
Let n(C) denote the percentage of people who own the Coconut groves and n(P) denote the
percentage of people who own Paddy elds. We are given n(C) = 80 and n(P ) = 65. By the
rule of inclusion - exclusion n(C ∩ P ) = n(C) + n(P ) − n(C ∪ P ) . The maximum value of
n(C ∪ P ) is 100. Therefore, the minimum value of n(C ∩ P ) is 80 + 65 − 100 = 45. That is, the
minimum percentage of the people who own both is 45.
Note 4.3: In the next problem, we use the notion of a 'string'. A string is formed by writing given
letters one by one in a sequence. For instance, strings of length three formed out of the letters a,b,c &
d are aaa, abb, bda, dca, cdd · · · .
Example 4.8
(i) Find the number of strings of length 4, which can be formed using the letters of the word
BIRD, without repetition of the letters.
(ii) How many strings of length 5 can be formed out of the letters of the word PRIME taking all
the letters at a time without repetition.
Solution:
(i) There are as many strings as lling the 4 vacant places by the 4 letters, keeping in mind that
repetition is not allowed. The rst place can be lled in 4 different ways by any one of the
letters B,I,R,D. Following which, the second place can be lled in by any one of the remaining
3 letters in 3 different ways, following which the third place can be lled in 2 different ways,
following which fourth place can be lled in 1 way.
Thus the number of ways in which the 4 places can be lled, by the rule of product is
4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24. Hence, the required number of strings is 24.
(ii) There are 5 different letters with which 5 places are to be lled. The rst place can be lled
in 5 ways as any one of the ve letters P,R,I,M,E can be placed there. Having lled the rst
place with any of the 5 letters, 4 letters are left to be placed in the second place, three letters
are left for the third place and 2 letters are left to be put in the fourth place. The remaining 1
letter has to be placed in the fth place.
Hence, the total number of ways lling up ve places is 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
Note 4.4: Observe the similarity between the above two cases.
Example 4.9 How many strings of length 6 can be formed using letters of the word FLOWER if
(i) either starts with F or ends with R?
(ii) neither starts with F nor ends with R?
Solution:
In any such string, each of the letters F,L,O,W,E,R is used exactly once.
(i) If such a string starts with F, then the second position is lled with one out of the remaining
L, O, W, E, R in 5 different ways. Next, the third is lled with one out of the remaining 4
letters, 4 different ways.
As there cannot be any repetition of letters in the
formation of the strings we can ll up the 2nd, 3rd,
4th, 5th and 6th places in 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 ways.
Hence, by the rule of product, the number of strings of length 6 starting with F is equal to
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
If such a string ends with R, then the other ve
positions are to be lled with the letters F,L,O,W,E.
As in the previous case, we conclude that the number of strings of length ending with R is
120.
If a string start with F and also ends with R, then
the other 4 positions are to be lled with letters L, O,
W, E.
As in the previous cases, the number of strings of length of 6 starting with F and ending
with R is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24.
By the principle of inclusion - exclusion, the number of strings of length 6, either starting
with F or ending with R is 120 + 120 − 24 = 216.
(ii) A string that neither starts with F nor ends with R is one which has not been counted in
(i). Together, they account for all possible strings of length 6 formed out of the letters,
F,L,O,W,E,R, where no letter is repeated.
Now, the number of all such strings is formed by lling the rst position by any of the
6 letters, the second by any of the remaining 5 letters and so on. That is, there are in total
6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720 such strings. The number of words neither starting with F nor
ending with R is the same as the difference between total number of letter strings and the
number of strings either starting with F or end with R which is 720 − 216 = 504.
Example 4.10 How many licence plates may be made using either two distinct letters followed by
four digits or two digits followed by 4 distinct letters where all digits or letters are distinct?
Solution:
Here we have two cases:
Case 1: The number of licence plates having two letters followed by four digits is
26 × 25 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 32, 76, 000.
Case 2: The number of licence plates having two digits followed by four letters is
10 × 9 × 26 × 25 × 24 × 23 = 3, 22, 92, 000.
Since either case 1 or case 2 is possible, the total number of licence plates is
(26 × 25 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7) + (10 × 9 × 26 × 25 × 24 × 23) = 3, 55, 68, 000.
Example 4.11 Count the number of positive integers greater than 7000 and less than 8000 which
are divisible by 5, provided that no digits are repeated.
Solution:
It should be a 4-digit number greater than 7000 and less than 8000.
Then the 1000th place will be the digit 7. Further, as the number must
be divisible by 5 the unit place should be either 0 or 5.
As repetition is not permitted, the 100th place can be lled in 8 ways using remaining numbers
and 10th place can be lled in 7 ways.
Hence, the required number of numbers is 1 × 8 × 7 × 2 = 112.
Example 4.12 How many 4 - digit even numbers can be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4, if
repetition of digits are not permitted?
Solution:
There are three conditions as follows:
1. It must be even number.
2. It is 4-digit number and hence its 1000th place cannot be 0.
3. Its unit place can be either 0, 2 or 4.
Two cases arise in this situation. Either 0 in the unit place or not.
Case 1. When the unit place is lled by 0, then the 1000th place can be lled
in 4 ways, 100th place can be lled in 3 ways and 10th place in 2
ways. Therefore, number of 4-digit numbers having 0 at unit place
is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24.
Case 2. When the unit place is lled with non-zero numbers, that is 2 or 4, the number of ways is
2, the number of ways of lling the 1000th place is in 3 ways (excluding '0'), 100th place
in 3 ways and 10th place in 2 ways. Therefore, number of 4-digit numbers without 0 at unit
place is 3 × 3 × 2 × 2 = 36.
Hence, by the rule of sum, the required number of 4 digit even
numbers is 24+36 = 60.
Example 4.13 Find the total number of outcomes when 5 coins are tossed once.
Solution:
When a coin is tossed, the outcomes are in two ways which are {Head, T ail}.
By the rule of counting, the number of outcomes when 5 coins are tossed is
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 25 = 32.
Note 4.5: More generally, if n coins are tossed then the number of outcomes is 2n .
Example 4.14 In how many ways (i) 5 different balls be distributed among 3 boxes? (ii) 3 different
balls be distributed among 5 boxes?
Solution:
(i) Each ball can be placed into any one of the three boxes in 3 different ways. Therefore, by
rule of product, the number of ways of distributing 5 different balls among three boxes is
3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 35 .
(ii) Each ball can be placed into any one of the ve boxes in 5 different ways. Therefore, by rule of
product, the number of ways of distributing 3 different balls among ve boxes is 5×5×5 = 53 .
Note 4.6: In order to avoid confusions, take the objects(balls) and distribute them in places(boxes).
More generally, if n different objects are to be placed in m places, then the number of ways of placing
is mn .
Example 4.15 There are 10 bulbs in a room. Each one of them can be operated independently. Find
the number of ways in which the room can be illuminated.
Solution:
Each of the 10 bulbs are operated independently means that each bulb can be operated in two ways.
That is in off mode or on mode. The total number of doing this are 210 which includes the case in
which 10 bulbs are off. Keeping all 10 bulbs in off mode, the room cannot be illuminated. Hence,
the total number of ways are 210 − 1 = 1024 − 1 = 1023.
Another concept which is an essential tool in a counting process which is stated as follows:
The Pigeonhole Principle:
Suppose a ock of pigeons y into a set of pigeonholes. If there are more pigeons than
pigeonholes then there must be at least one pigeonhole with at least two pigeons in it. A
generalised form of this may be applied to other objects and situations as well.
If k + 1 or more objects are placed in k boxes, then there is at least one box containing two or
more of the objects.
Here are some examples.
1. In any group of 27 English words, there must be at least two words which begin with the
same letter (since there are only 26 letters in the English alphabet).
2. If six meetings are held on weekdays only, then there must be at least two meetings held on
the same day.
In order to understand the Permutation and Combinations we need a concept called Factorials which
will be discussed in the next section.
4.4 Factorials
Factorial of a natural number n is the product of the rst n natural numbers. It is denoted by n!.
That is,
n! = 1 × 2 × 3 × · · · × n.
We read this symbol as n factorial or factorial of n. The notation n! was introduced by the French
mathematician Christian Kramp in the year 1808. Note that for a positive integer n
n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1
= n(n − 1)! for n > 1
= n(n − 1)(n − 2)! for n > 2
= n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)! for n > 3 and so on.
Observe that,
1! = 1
2! = 2×1=2
3! = 3×2×1=6
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
... = ...
22! = 22 × 21 × 20 × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1 = 1124000727777607680000
4.5 Problems based on Factorials 11
The number 22 ( the Birth date of Ramanujan) has a special place with respect to factorial that, it is
the least integer N greater than 1 whose factorial has exactly N digits.
It will be a good exercise for both students and teachers to nd the next number N such that N !
has exactly N digits.
Note that 0! = 1 is evident by substituting n = 0 in the equation (n + 1)! = (n + 1) × n! as
1! = (0 + 1) × 0! =⇒ 0! = 1!1 = 1. This way, we talk of factorial for non-negative integers. Note
that factorials can be extended to certain negative numbers and also to complex numbers, which are
beyond the scope of this book.
4.5 Problems based on Factorials
We shall now discuss certain examples in order to familiarise the computation of factorials.
Example 4.16 Find the value of

8!
(i) 5! (ii) 6! − 5! (iii) .
5! × 2!
Solution:
(i) 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
(ii) 6! − 5! = 6 × 5! − 5! = (6 − 1) × 5! = 5 × 120 = 600.

8! 8 × 7 × 6 × 5! 8×7×6
(iii) = = = 168.
5! × 2! 5! × 2! 2
7!
Example 4.17 Simplify
2!
Solution:
7! 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2!
= = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 2520.
2! 2!
n!
Example 4.18 Evaluate when (i) n = 7, r = 5 (ii) n = 50, r = 47 (iii) For any n
r!(n − r)!
with r = 3.
Solution:
(i) When n = 7, r = 5
n! 7! 7 × 6 × 5! 7×6
= = = = 21.
r!(n − r)! 5!(7 − 5)! 5! × 2! 1×2
(ii) When n = 50, r = 47
n! 50! 50 × 49 × 48 × 47! 50 × 49 × 48
= = = = 19600.
r!(n − r)! 47!(50 − 47)! 47! × 3! 1×2×3
(iii) For any n and r = 3

n! n! n.(n − 1).(n − 2)(n − 3)! n(n − 1)(n − 2)
= = = .
r!(n − r)! 3!(n − 3)! 1 × 2 × 3 × (n − 3)! 6
Example 4.19 Let N denote the number of days. If the value of N ! is equal to the total number of
hours in N days then nd the value of N ?
Solution:
We need to solve the equation N ! = 24 × N .
For N = 1, 2, 3, 4, N ! < 24 × N .
For N = 5, we have N ! = 5! = 4! × 5 = 24N .
For N > 5, we have N ! ≥ 5!N > 24 × N . Hence N = 5.
6!
Example 4.20 If = 6, then nd the value of n.
n!
Solution:
6! 1.2.3.4.5.6.
= = 6. As n < 6 we get, n = 5.
n! 1.2.3...n
Example 4.21 If n! + (n − 1)! = 30, then nd the value of n.

Solution:
Now, 30 = 6 × 5. As n! + (n − 1)! = (n + 1)(n − 1)! , equating (n − 1)! = 6 = 3!, we get n = 4.
Example 4.22 What is the unit digit of the sum 2! + 3! + 4! + ..... + 22!?
Solution:
From 5! onwards for all n! the unit digit is zero and hence the contribution to the unit digit is through
2! + 3! + 4! only. which is 2 + 6 + 24 = 32 . Therefore the required unit digit is 2.
Example 4.23 If 1
7!
+ 1
8!
= A
9!
then nd the value of A.
Solution:
We have, A
9×8×7!
= 1
7!
+ 1
8×7!
Therefore, 1
7!
× A
9×8
= 1
7!
× [1 + 81 ] = equivalently, A
72
= 98 , which imply A = 81.
(2n)!
Example 4.24 Prove that = 2n (1.3.5 · · · (2n − 1)).
n!
4.5 Problems based on Factorials 13
Solution:
(2n)! 1.2.3.4 · · · (2n − 2).(2n − 1)2n

=
n! n!
(1.3.5. · · · (2n − 1)) (2.4.6. · · · (2n − 2).2n)
=
n!
(Grouping the odd and even numbers separately)
(1.3.5. · · · (2n − 1)) × 2n × (1.2.3. · · · (n − 1).n)
= (taking out the 2' s)
n!
(1.3.5. · · · (2n − 1)) × 2n × n!
=
n!
= 2n (1.3.5. · · · (2n − 1)) .
Exercise - 4.1
1. (i) A person went to a restaurant for dinner. In the menu card, the person saw 10 Indian and 7
Chinese food items. In how many ways the person can select either an Indian or a Chinese
food?
(ii) There are 3 types of toy car and 2 types of toy train available in a shop. Find the number of
ways a baby can buy a toy car and a toy train?
(iii) How many two-digit numbers can be formed using 1,2,3,4,5 without repetition of digits?
(iv) Three persons enter in to a conference hall in which there are 10 seats. In how many ways
they can take their seats?
(v) In how many ways 5 persons can be seated in a row?
2. (i) A mobile phone has a passcode of 6 distinct digits. What is the maximum number of attempts
one makes to retrieve the passcode?
(ii) Given four ags of different colours, how many different signals can be generated if each
signal requires the use of three ags, one below the other?
3. Four children are running a race.
(i) In how many ways can the rst two places be lled?
(ii) In how many different ways could they nish the race?
4. Count the number of three-digit numbers which can be formed from the digits 2,4,6,8 if
(i) repetitions of digits is allowed. (ii) repetitions of digits is not allowed
5. How many three-digit numbers are there with 3 in the unit place? (i) with repetition (ii) without
repetition.
6. How many numbers are there between 100 and 500 with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ? if (i) repetition
of digits allowed (ii) the repetition of digits is not allowed.
7. How many three-digit odd numbers can be formed by using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ? if (i) the
repetition of digits is not allowed (ii) the repetition of digits is allowed.
8. Count the numbers between 999 and 10000 subject to the condition that there are (i) no restriction.
(ii) no digit is repeated. (iii) at least one of the digits is repeated.
9. How many three-digit numbers, which are divisible by 5, can be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 if (i) repetition of digits are not allowed? (ii) repetition of digits are allowed?
10. To travel from a place A to place B, there are two different bus routes B1 , B2 , two different train
routes T1 , T2 and one air route A1 . From place B to place C there is one bus route say B1 , two
0
different train routes say T1 , T2 and one air route A1 . Find the number of routes of commuting
0 0 0
from place A to place C via place B without using similar mode of transportation.
11. How many numbers are there between 1 and 1000 (both inclusive) which are divisible neither by
2 nor by 5?
12. How many words can be formed using the letters of the word LOTUS if the word
(i) either starts with L or ends with S? (ii) neither starts with L nor ends with S?
13. (i) Count the total number of ways of answering 6 objective type questions, each question
having 4 choices.
(ii) In how many ways 10 pigeons can be placed in 3 different pigeon holes ?
(iii) Find the number of ways of distributing 12 distinct prizes to 10 students?
14. Find the value of
12! (n + 3)!
(i) 6! (ii) 4! + 5! (iii) 3! − 2! (iv) 3! × 4! (v) (vi)
9! × 3! (n + 1)!
n!
15. Evaluate when
r!(n − r)!
(i) n = 6, r = 2 (ii) n = 10, r = 3 (iii) For any n with r = 2.
16. Find the value of n if

1 1 n
(i) (n + 1)! = 20(n − 1)! (ii) + = .
8! 9! 10!
Factorials can be generalised as double factorial as follows:
Double Factorial of n:
Factorial of an integer n, denoted by n! can be viewed as a function f : N ∪ {0} → N, where N
is the set of all positive integers, dened as
(
1 for n = 0,
f (n) =
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × .... × 3 × 2 × 1 for n =
6 0.
One can dene n!! ( double factorial of n ) as
for n = 0,

1

g(n) = n × (n − 2) × (n − 4) × .... × 4 × 2 for n is even
for n is odd

n × (n − 2) × (n − 4) × .... × 3 × 1
Accordingly, 5!! = 5 × 3 × 1 = 15 and 8!! = 8 × 6 × 4 × 2 = 376.

Note that n!! 6= (n!)! as 4!! = 8 where as (4!)! = (24)!
4.6 Permutations 15
4.6 Permutations
What is a permutation ?
Permuations come in various disguises.
Suppose three friends A, B and C have to stand in line for a
photograph. In how many order can they stand? Some of the possible
arrangements (from left to right) are
A, B, C: A, C, B: B, A, C
B, C, A: C, B, A: C, A, B.
Thus there are six possible ways in which they can arrange themselves
for the photograph.
Thus if 3 objects have to be arranged in a row there are 3 × 2 × 1 = 3! possible permutations. The
number of permutations of 4 objects taken all at a time is 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! Thus if n objects have to
be arranged in a line there are n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × 3 × 2 × 1 = n! possible arrangements
or permutations.
Suppose you have 7 letters A,B,C,D,E,F and G. We want to make a 4 letter string. We have
7 choices for the 1st letter. Having chosen the rst letter, we have 6 choices for the second letter.
Proceeding this way, we have 4 choices for the 4th letter.
Hence, the number of permutations of 4 letters chosen from 7 letters is
7×6×5×4×3×2×1 7! 7!
7×6×5×4= = = .
3×2×1 3! (7 − 4)!
More generally, the number of distinct permutations of r objects which can be made from n distinct
n!
objects is . It is denoted by n Pr . The formal proof of this result will be proved in this section.
(n − r)!
4.7 Permutations of distinct objects
In terms of function on any nite set say S = {x1 , x2 , ...xn }, a permutation can be dened as a
bijective mapping on the set S onto itself. The number of permutation on the set S is the same as the
total number of bijective mappings on the set S .
We denote the number of permutations by n Pr .
Theorem 4.1: If n, r are positive integers and r ≤ n, then the number of permutations of n distinct
objects taken r at a time is n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1).
Proof. A permutation is an ordering. A permutation of n distinct objects taken r at a time is formed
by lling of r positions, in a row with objects chosen from the given n distinct objects.
There are n objects that can be lled in the rst position. For the second position there are
remaining n − 1 objects. There are n − 2 objects for the third position. Continuing like this until
nally we place one of the (n − (r − 1)) possible objects in the rth position. By the rule of product
we conclude n Pr = n (n − 1) (n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1).

n!
Theorem 4.2: If n ≥ 1, and 0 ≤ r ≤ n, then n Pr = .
(n − r)!
Proof. By Theorem 4.1, we have,
n
Pr = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 1)
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 1) × (n − r) × (n − r − 1) · · · 2 × 1
=
(n − r) × (n − r − 1) × · · · × 2 × 1
n!
= .
(n − r)!
Note 4.7: To be specic, if n is a positive integer, and r is any non-negative integer, we can represent,
n!

n
 for r ≤ n,
Pr = (n − r)!

0 for r > n.
Note 4.8: (
n
n
Pn = n! for r = n,
Pr = n
P0 = 1 for r = 0.
Note 4.9: The n different objects arranged in a row is n Pn = n! ways.

Theorem 4.3: The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time where repetition
is allowed, is nr .
Proof. As in Theorem 4.2.
We can ll the rst position with n objects. For the second position (still we can use the object
used in rst position), there are n objects, and so on the rth position can be lled with n objects.By the
rule of product, The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time where repetition
is allowed=n × n × n × · · · n (r times) = nr .
4.8 Properties of Permutations
1.
n
Pn =n Pn−1 .
Proof. We have,
n n! n! n!
Pn−1 = = = n! = =n Pn
(n − (n − 1))! 1! (n − n)!
2.
n
Pr = n ×n−1 Pr−1
4.9 Problems based on permutations 17
Proof. We have,
n−1 (n − 1)! n!
n × Pr−1 = n × = =n Pr .
((n − 1) − (r − 1))! (n − r)!
Continuing this process, we arrive at
n
Pr = n ×n−1 Pr−1 = n × (n − 1) ×n−2 Pr−2
= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) ×n−3 Pr−3 × · · · × (n − (r − 1))n−r P0
= n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 1).
n
Pr = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × · · · × (n − r + 1).

3. Pr =
n n−1
Pr + r × n−1
Pr−1
Proof. We have,
n−1 (n − 1)! (n − 1)!

Pr + r ×n−1 Pr−1 = +r
((n − 1) − r)! (n − r)!
(n − 1)! (n − 1)!
= +r
(n − 1 − r)! (n − r)!
(n − 1)! × (n − r) (n − 1)!
= +r
(n − 1 − r)! × (n − r) (n − r)!
(n − 1)! × (n − r) (n − 1)!
= +r
(n − r)! (n − r)!
(n − 1)! ((n − r) + r) (n − 1)!n
= =
(n − r)! (n − r)!
n!
= =n Pr
(n − r)!

4.9 Problems based on permutations
Example 4.25 Evaluate:

(i) 4 P4 (ii) 5 P3 (iii)8 P4 (iv) 6
P5 .
Solution:
(i) 4
P4 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24.
(ii) 5
P3 = 5 × 4 × 3 = 60.
(iii) 8
P4 = 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 = 1680.
(iv) 6
P5 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 6! = 720.
Example 4.26 If (n+2) P4 = 42 × n P2 , nd n.

Solution:
(n+2)
P4 = 42 × n P2
(n+2)
P4
⇒ n = 42
P2
(n + 2)(n + 1)(n)(n − 1)
⇒ = 42
n(n − 1)
⇒ (n + 2)(n + 1) = 42 = 7 × 6
⇒n+2 = 7 ⇒ n = 5.
Example 4.27 If 10 Pr =7 Pr+2 nd r.

Solution:
10
Pr = 7 Pr+2
10! 7!
=
(10 − r)! (5 − r)!
i.e.,
10 × 9 × 8 × 7! 7!
=
(10 − r) × (9 − r) × (8 − r) × (7 − r) × (6 − r) × (5 − r)! (5 − r)!
(10 − r) × (9 − r) × (8 − r) × (7 − r) × (6 − r) = 10 × 9 × 8 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2.
Therefore, 10 − r = 6 ⇒ r = 4.
Example 4.28 How many `letter strings' together can be formed with the letters of the word
VOWELS so that
(i) the strings begin with E
(ii) the strings begin with E and end with W.
Solution:
The given strings contains 6 letters (V,O,W,E,L,S).
(i) Since all strings must begin with E , we have the

remaining 5 letters which can be arranged in 5 P5 = 5!
ways.
Therefore the total number of strings with E as the starting letter is 5! = 120.
(ii) Since all strings must begin with E , and end with
W, we need to x E and W. The remaining 4 letters
can be arranged in 4 P4 = 4! ways.
Therefore the total number of strings with E as the starting letter and W as the nal letter is
4! = 24.
Example 4.29 A number of four different digits is formed with the use of the digits 1,2,3,4 and 5
in all possible ways. Find the following
(i) How many such numbers can be formed?
(ii) How many of these are even?
(iii) How many of these are exactly divisible by 4?
Solution:
(i) The solution for this is the same as the number of

permutations taking four-digit out of 5 digits is 5 P4 =
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 = 120.
(ii) For even number last digits must be 2 or 4 which

is lled in 2 ways and remaining 3 places lled from
remaining 4 digits. Therefore the required number of
ways is 2 P1 × 4 P3 = 2 × 24 = 48.
(iii) Since the number divisible by 4, then last two

digit must be divisible by 4. The Last two digits
become 12,24,32,52 ( 4 ways). The remaining rst two
places lled from remaining 3 digits in 3 P2 ways. The
required number of numbers which are divisible by 4
is 4 × 3 P2 = 4 × 6 = 24.
Note 4.10 (Objects always together (String method)): The number of permutations of n different
objects, taken all at a time, when m specied objects are always together,
• Consider a string of m specied objects as a single unit
• Then we have (n − m + 1) objects. Permute this (n − m + 1) objects in (n − m + 1)! ways.
• Then permute the m specied objects between themselves in m! ways.
• Finally, the answer is m! × (n − m + 1)!.
Note 4.11 (No two things are together (Gap method)): To obtain the number of permutations of n
different objects when no two of k given objects occur together and there are no restrictions on the
remaining m = n − k objects, we follow the procedure as follows:
• First of all, arrange the m objects on which there is no restriction in a row. These m objects can
be permuted in m Pm = m! ways.
• Then count the number of gaps between every two of m objects on which there is no restriction
including the end positions. Number of such gaps will be one more than m that is (m + 1). In this
m + 1 gaps, we can permute the k objects in m+1 Pk ways.
• Then the required number of ways are m! ×(m+1) Pk .
Example 4.30 How many different strings can be formed together using the letters of the word
EQUATION so that
(i) the vowels always come together?
(ii) the vowels never come together?
Solution:
(i) There are 8 letters in the word EQUATION which includes 5 vowels (E,U,A,I,O) and 3
consonants (Q,T,N). Considering 5 vowels as one letter, we have 4 letters which can be
arranged in 4 P4 = 4! ways. But corresponding each of these arrangements, the vowels
E,U,A,I,O can be put in 5 P5 = 5! ways.
Hence, by the rule of product required number of words is 4! × 5! = 24 × 120 = 2880.
(ii) The total number of strings formed by using all the eight letters of the word EQUATION is
8
P8 = 8! = 40320.
So, the total number of strings in which vowels are never together is the same as the difference
between the total number of strings and the number of strings in which vowels are together is
40320 − 2880 = 37440.
Example 4.31 There are 15 candidates for an examination. 7 candidates are appearing for
mathematics examination while the remaining 8 are appearing for different subjects. In how many
ways can they be seated in a row so that no two mathematics candidates are together?
Solution:
Let us arrange the 8-non-mathematics candidates in 8 P8 = 8! ways. Each of these arrangements
create 9 gaps. Therefore, the 7 mathematics candidates can be placed in these 9 gaps in 9 P7 ways.
By the rule of product, the required number of arrangements is

9 9! 8! × 9!
8! × P7 = 8! × = .
2! 2!
Example 4.32 In how many ways 5 boys and 4 girls can be seated in a row so that no two girls are
together.
Solution:
The 5 boys can be seated in the row in 5 P5 = 5! ways. In each of these arrangements 6 gaps are
created. Since no two girls are to sit together, we may arrange 4 girls in this 6 gaps. This can be
done in 6 P4 ways. Hence, the total number of seating arrangements is
6
5! × P4 = 120 × 360 = 43200.
Example 4.33 4 boys and 4 girls form a line with the boys and girls alternating. Find the number
of ways of making this line.
Solution:
4 boys can be arranged in a line in 4 P4 = 4! ways. By keeping boys as rst in each of these
arrangements, 4 gaps are created. In these 4 gaps, 4 girls can be arranged in 4 P4 = 4! ways.
Therefore, keeping boys as rst, the total number of arrangements are 4! × 4!. Similarly, keeping
girls as rst, by a similar argument, the total number of arrangements are 4! × 4!. Hence, by the rule
of sum, keeping either a boy or a girl rst, the total number of arrangements are
(4! × 4!) + (4! × 4!) = 2(4!)2 = 1152.
Example 4.34 A van has 8 seats. It has two seats in the front with two rows of three seats behind.
The van belongs to a family, consisting of seven members, F, M, S1 , S2 , S3 ,
D1 , D2 . How many ways can the family sit in the van if
(i) There are no restriction.
(ii) Either F or M drives the car
(iii) D1 , D2 sits next to a window and F is driving?
Solution:
(i) As there 8 seats to be occupied out of which one seat is for the one who drives. Since there
are no restrictions any one can drive the van. Hence the number of ways of occupying the
driver seat is 7 P1 = 7 ways . The number of ways of occupying the remaining 7 seats by the
remaining 6 people is 7 P6 = 5040. Hence the total number of ways the family can be seated
in the car is 7 × 5040 = 35280.
(ii) As the driver seat can be occupied by only F or M, there are only two ways it can be occupied.
Hence the total number of ways the family can be seated in the car is 2 × 5040 = 10080.
(iii) As there are only 5 window seats available for D1 &D2 to occupy the number of ways of
seated near the windows by the two family members is 5 P2 = 20. As the driver seat is
occupied by F, the remaining 4 people can be seated in the available 5 seats in 5 P4 = 120.
Hence the total number of ways the family can be seated in the car is
20 × 1 × 120 = 2400.
To understand the next problem we now dene, The Rank of a word in the dictionary.
It is the place at which the given word comes when writing all the words formed by the letters of the
given word in the dictionary order or lexicographic order.
Example 4.35 If the letters of the word TABLE are permuted in all possible ways and the words
thus formed are arranged in the dictionary order (alphabetical order), nd the ranks of the words
(i) TABLE, (ii) BLEAT
Solution:
The dictionary order of the letters of given word is A, B, E, L, T. In the dictionary order of the words
which begin with A come rst. If we ll the rst place with A, remaining 4 letters (B, E, L, T) can
be arranged in 4! ways. On proceeding like this we get
(i) The rank of the word TABLE
A − − − − = 4! = 24 ways
B − − − − = 4! = 24 ways
E − − − − = 4! = 24 ways
L − − − − = 4! = 24 ways
T ABEL = 1 way
T ABLE = 1 way
The rank of the word TABLE is 4 × 4! + 1 + 1 = 98.
(ii) The rank of the word BLEAT

A − − − − = 4! = 24 ways
BA − −− = 3! = 6 ways
BE − −− = 3! = 6 ways
BLA − − = 2! = 2 ways
BLEAT = 1 way
The rank of the word BLEAT is 24 + 6 + 6 + 2 + 1 = 39.
4.10 Permutations of not all distinct objects
Consider permuting the letters of the word JEE. In this case the letters of the word are not different.
There are 2 E's, which are of same kind. Let us treat, temporarily, the 2 E's as different, say E1 and
E2 . The number of permutations of 3 different letters taken all at a time is 3!.
Permutations when E1 , E2 are different Permutations when E1 , E2 are the same.
JE1 E2 , JEE
JE2 E1
E1 JE2 , EJE
E2 JE1
E1 E2 J , EEJ
E2 E1 J
It is because of the two E1 , E2 permuted internally will give rise to the same permutations. Since they
3!
are same, the required number of permutations is = 3.
2!
Theorem 4.4: The number of permutations of n objects, where p objects are of the same kind and
n!
rest are all different is .
p!
Generally, the number of permutations of n objects, where p1 objects are one kind, p2 objects are
n!
of second kind, · · · pk , are of k th kind and the rest of it are of different kind is .
p1 ! × p2 ! × · · · × pk !
Example 4.36 Find the number of ways of arranging the letters of the word BANANA.
Solution:
This word has 6 letters in which there are 3 A'S, 2 N's and one B. The number of ways of
6!
arrangements is = 60.
3! × 2!
4.10 Permutations of not all distinct objects 23
Example 4.37 Find the number of ways of arranging the letters of the word
RAMANUJAN so that the relative positions of vowels and consonants are not changed.
Solution:
In the word RAMANUJAN there are 4 vowels (A,A,U,A)in that 3 A's, 1 U and 5 consonants
(R,M,N,J,N) in that two N's and rest are distinct. The 4 vowels (A,A,A,U) can be arranged
themselves in 4!3! = 4 ways. The 5 consonants (R,M,N,J,N) can be arranged themselves in 2!5! = 60
ways. Therefore the number of required arrangements are 4!3! × 5!2! = 4 × 60 = 240.
Example 4.38 Three twins pose for a photograph standing in a line. How many arrangements are
there (i). when there are no restrictions. (ii). when each person is standing next to his or her twin?
Solution:
(i) The six persons without any restriction may be arranged in 6 P6 = 6! = 720 ways.
(ii) Let us consider three twins as T1 , T2 , T3 . Each twin is considered as a single unit and these
three can be permuted in 3! ways. Again each twin can be permuted between themselves in
2! ways. Hence, the total number of arrangements is 3! × 2! × 2! × 2! = 48 ways.
Example 4.39 How many numbers can be formed using the digits 1,2,3,4,2,1 such that, even digits
occupies even place?
Solution:
There are 6 places in that there are 3 even places we have 2,4,2 as even numbers. The number of
ways of permuting 2,4,2 in the 3 even places in 3!2! = 3 ways. The remaining numbers 1,3,1 can
be permuted in the remaining 3 places in 3!2! = 3 ways. Hence, the required number of numbers is
3 × 3 = 9.
Example 4.40 How many paths are there from start to end on a 6 × 4 grid as shown in the picture?
How Many Paths?
End
Start
Figure 4.4
Solution:
Note that any such path comprises 6 horizontal unit lengths and 4 vertical unit lengths. This each
path consists of 10 unit lengths where 6 are of one kind (horizontal) and 4 are of another kind
(vertical).
10!
Thus the total number of paths is = 210.
4! × 6!
Example 4.41 If the different permutations of all letters of the word BHASKARA are listed as in
a dictionary, how many strings are there in this list before the rst word starting with B?
Solution:
The required number of strings is the total number of strings starting with A and using the letters
7!
A,A,B,H,K,R,S is = 2520.
2!
Example 4.42 If the letters of the word IITJEE are permuted in all possible ways and the strings
thus formed are arranged in the lexicographic order, nd the rank of the word IITJEE
Solution:
The lexicographic order of the letters of given word is E, E, I, I, J, T. In the lexicographic order,
the strings which begin with E come rst. If we ll the rst place with E, remaining 5 letters
5!
(E, I, I, J, T ) can be arranged in ways. On proceeding like this we get,
2!
E − − − − = 5! 2!
= 60 ways
IIE − −− = 3! = 6 ways
IIJ − −− = 3! 2!
= 3 ways
IIT E − − = 2! = 2 ways
IIT JEE = 1way
The rank of the word IITJEE is 60 + 6 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 72.
Example 4.43 Find the sum of all 4-digit numbers that can be formed using the digits 1, 2, 4, 6, 8.
Solution:
The number of 4-digit numbers that can be formed using the given 5 digits is 5 P4 = 120. We rst
nd the sum of the digits in the unit place of all these 120 numbers. By lling the 1 in unit place,
the remaining three places can be lled with remaining 4 digits in 4 P3 = 24 ways. This means, the
number of 4-digit numbers having 1 in units place is 4 P3 = 24. Similarly, each of the digits 2, 4, 6,
8 appear 24 times in units place. An addition of all these digits gives the sum of all the unit digits
of all 120 numbers. Therefore,
(4 P3 × 1) + (4 P3 × 2) + (4 P3 × 4) + (4 P3 × 6) + (4 P3 × 8)
= 4 P3 × (1 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8)
= 4 P3 × (sum of the digits)
= 4 P3 × 21.
Similarly, we get the sum of the digits in 10th place as 4 P3 × 21. Since it is in 10th place, its value
is 4 P3 × 21 × 10. Similarly, the values of the sum of the digits in 100th place and 1000th place are
4
P3 × 21 × 100 and 4 P3 × 21 × 1000 respectively. Hence the sum of all the 4 digit numbers formed
by using the digits 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 is
(4 P3 × 21) + (4 P3 × 21 × 10) + (4 P3 × 21 × 100) + (4 P3 × 21 × 1000)
= 4 P3 (21 × 1111)
= 24 × 21 × 1111
= 559944.
4.10 Permutations of not all distinct objects 25
Deduction 4.1: The sum of all r -digit numbers that can be formed using the given n non zero digits
is (n−1) P(r−1) × (sum of the digits) × 111 · · · 1(r times)
Deduction 4.2: If 0 is one digit among the given n digits, then we get that the sum of the r -digits
numbers that can be formed using the given n digits (including 0) is
{(n−1) P(r−1) × (sum of the digits) × 111 · · · 1(r times)} −
{(n−2) P(r−2) × (sum of the digits) × 111 · · · 1((r-1) times)}.
Permutation as Function
Permutation on any nite set Sn = {x1 , x2 , x3 , · · · xn } is a bijective function from Sn → Sn .

Therefore the set of all permutations on a nite set with n elements is the same as the total
number of bijective functions on the set. This is precisely n!. Hence the study of permutation is
the same as the study of the bijective mappings on the set. Few representations for a permutation
on S3 are given by
A B C A B C A B C
, , ,···
B C A C A B C B A
Exercise - 4.2
1. If (n−1) P3 :n P4 = 1 : 10, nd n.

2. If 10 Pr−1 = 2 ×6 Pr , nd r.
3. (i) Suppose 8 people enter an event in a swimming meet. In how many ways could the gold,
silver and bronze prizes be awarded?
(ii) Three men have 4 coats, 5 waist coats and 6 caps. In how many ways can they wear them?
4. Determine the number of permutations of the letters of the word SIMPLE if all are taken at a time?
5. A test consists of 10 multiple choice questions. In how many ways can the test be answered if
(i) Each question has four choices?
(ii) The rst four questions have three choices and the remaining have ve choices?
(iii) Question number n has n choices?
6. A student appears in an objective test which contain 5 multiple choice questions. Each question
has four choices out of which one correct answer.
(i) What is the maximum number of different answers can the students give?
(ii) How will the answer change if each question may have more than one correct answers?
7. How many strings can be formed from the letters of the word ARTICLE, so that vowels occupy
the even places?
8. 8 women and 6 men are standing in a line.
(i) How many arrangements are possible if any individual can stand in any position?
(ii) In how many arrangements will all 6 men be standing next to one another?
(iii) In how many arrangements will no two men be standing next to one another?
9. Find the distinct permutations of the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI?
10. How many ways can the product a2 b3 c4 be expressed without exponents?
11. In how many ways 4 mathematics books, 3 physics books, 2 chemistry books and 1 biology book
can be arranged on a shelf so that all books of the same subjects are together.
12. In how many ways can the letters of the word SUCCESS be arranged so that all Ss are together?
13. A coin is tossed 8 times,
(i) How many different sequences of heads and tails are possible?
(ii) How many different sequences containing six heads and two tails are possible?
14. How many strings are there using the letters of the word INTERMEDIATE, if
(i) The vowels and consonants are alternative (ii) All the vowels are together
(iii) Vowels are never together (iv) No two vowels are together.
15. Each of the digits 1, 1, 2, 3, 3 and 4 is written on a separate card. The six cards are then laid out
in a row to form a 6-digit number.
(i) How many distinct 6-digit numbers are there?
(ii) How many of these 6-digit numbers are even?
(iii) How many of these 6-digit numbers are divisible by 4?
16. If the letters of the word GARDEN are permuted in all possible ways and the strings thus formed
are arranged in the dictionary order, then nd the ranks of the words (i) GARDEN (ii) DANGER.
17. Find the number of strings that can be made using all letters of the word THING. If these words
are written as in a dictionary, what will be the 85th string?
18. If the letters of the word FUNNY are permuted in all possible ways and the strings thus formed
are arranged in the dictionary order, nd the rank of the word FUNNY.
19. Find the sum of all 4-digit numbers that can be formed using digits 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 repetitions not
allowed?
20. Find the sum of all 4-digit numbers that can be formed using digits 0, 2, 5, 7, 8 without repetition?
4.11 Combinations 27
4.11 Combinations
Let us suppose there are four persons A, B, C and D (actual names may be used here) and we have
to select three of them to be a part of a committee. In how many ways can we make this selection?
For example, A, B, C is one possible choice. Here the order of selection is immaterial. Thus A, B, C
is the same as B, A, C or C, A, B as long as the same three persons are selected. Thus the possible
distinct choices or selections are A, B, C; A, B, D; A, C, D and B, C, D. We may thus conclude that
there are 4 ways of selecting 3 people out of 4. Each choice or selection is referred to as a combination
of 4 different objects taken 3 at a time.
Suppose two persons are to be selected from four persons. The possible choices are: A, B : A, C :
A, D : B, C : B, D : C, D. Thus the number of combinations of 4 different objects taken 2 at a time
is 6. The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time is represented by n Cr . From
the above we may conclude that 4 C3 = 4 and 4 C2 = 6. Now, 4 C3 is the number of combinations of 4
objects taken 3 at a time. Note that in each combination, the three objects may be arranged in 3! ways.
Thus the total number of permutations of 4 objects taken 3 at a time is 4 C3 × 3!. This is also equal to
4
P3 . Hence 4 P3 =4 C3 × 3!.
In general, this leads to an important relationship between permutations and combinations as,
n
Pr =n Cr × r!.
Normally for any reader there may be a confusion between permutation and combination. The
following table with an example may be helpful in clearing the confusion.
Theorem 4.5: The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is given by
n n!
Cr = , 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
r!(n − r)!
Proof. By the relation between permutations and combinations, we have
n
Pr n!
n
Cr = = (by a result from permutation).
r! r!(n − r)!
4.12 Properties of Combinations
Property 1: (i) n C0 = 1 , (ii) n Cn = 1, (iii) n Cr = n(n−1)(n−2)···(n−r+1)

r!
.
Proof.
n!
(i)n C0 = = 1.
0!(n − 0)!
n! n!
(ii)n Cn = = = 1.
n!(n − n)! n!0!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − (r − 1)) n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)
(iii)n Cr = = .
r! r!

In view of,
n n! n!
Cn−r = = =n Cr ,
(n − r)!(n − (n − r))! (n − r)!r
we have,
Property 2:
n
Cr =n Cn−r .
Property 3: If n Cx =n Cy then either x = y or x + y = n.

Proof. By the property 2 we have, Cy = Cn−y
n n
Therefore, n Cx =n Cy =n Cn−y gives us x = y or x = n − y equivalently, x = y or x + y = n.

n
Property 4: Cr +n Cr−1 =n+1 Cr .
4.13 Problems based on Combinations 29
Proof. Using the expressions for the combination we have,
n n! n!
Cr +n Cr−1 = +
r!.(n − r)! (r − 1)!.(n − (r − 1))!
n! n!
= +
r! × (n − r)! (r − 1)! × (n − r + 1)
n! n!
= +
r.(r − 1)! × (n − r)! (r − 1)!.(n − r)!(n − r + 1)

n! 1 1
= × +
(r − 1)! × (n − r)! r (n − r + 1)
n! (n − r + 1 + r)
= ×
(r − 1)! × (n − r)! r(n − r + 1)
n! (n + 1)
= ×
(r − 1)! × (n − r)! r(n − r + 1)
(n + 1)!
= =n+1 Cr .
r! × (n + 1 − r)!

n
Property 5:
n
Cr = ×(n−1) C(r−1) .
Proof. r
n (n−1) n (n − 1)!
× C(r−1) =
r r (r − 1)! × ((n − 1) − (r − 1))!
n(n − 1)!
= =n Cr
r(r − 1)!(n − r)!
4.13 Problems based on Combinations
Example 4.44 Evaluate the following: (i) 10 C3 (ii) 15 C13 (iii) 100 C99 (iv) 50 C50 .
Solution:
(i) 10 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
C3 = =
7! × 3! 7! × 3 × 2 × 1
10 × 9 × 8
= = 120
3×2×1
(ii) 15 15! 15 × 14 × 13!
C13 = =
2! × 13! 2 × 1 × 13!
15 × 14
= = 105
2×1
(iii)
100 100 × 99!
C99 = = 100
99!
(iv)
50 50!
C50 = = 1.
50! × 0!
Example 4.45 Find the value of 5 C2 and 7 C3 using the property 5

Solution:
n n n−1
Cr = × Cr−1 .
r
Substituting n = 5 and r = 2, we get
5 5 5 4
C2 = × 4 C1 = ×
2 2 1
5×4
= = 10.
2×1
Substituting n = 7 and r = 3, we get
7 7 7 6
C3 = × 6 C2 = × × 5 C2−1
3 3 2
7 6 5 7 6 5
= × × C1 = × ×
3 2 3 2 1
7×6×5
= = 35
3×2×1
Example 4.46 If n C4 = 495, What is n?.

Solution:
We know that,
n
C4 = 495.
Therefore,
n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3)
= 495
4×3×2×1
=⇒ n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) = 495 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
Factoring 495 = 3 × 3 × 5 × 11, and writing this product as a product of 4 consecutive numbers in
the descending order we get, n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × (n − 3) = 12 × 11 × 10 × 9. Equating n with
the maximum number, we obtain n = 12.
Example 4.47 If n Pr = 11880 and n Cr = 495, Find n and r.

Solution:
We know that, n
Pr
nC
= r!.
r
Therefore,
11880
r! = = 24 = 4!,
495
gives r = 4. Using this r = 4, in n c4 = 495, and applying the result of the problem (4.46) we get,
n = 12.
4.13 Problems based on Combinations 31
4
Prove that 24 C4 +
X
(28−r)
Example 4.48 C3 =29 C4
r=0
Solution:
4
X
24 (28−r) 24
C4 + C3 = C4 +28 C3 +27 C3 +26 C3 +25 C3 +24 C3
r=0
24
= C4 +24 C3 +25 C3 +26 C3 +27 C3 +28 C3
25
= C4 +25 C3 +26 C3 +27 C3 +28 C3
26
= C4 +26 C3 +27 C3 +28 C3
27
= C4 +27 C3 +28 C3
28
= C4 +28 C3
29
= C4
Example 4.49 Prove that 10 C2 + 2 ×10 C3 +10 C4 =12 C4

Solution:
10
C2 + 2 ×10 C3 +10 C4 = 10 C2 + (10 C3 +10 C3 ) +10 C4
= (10 C2 +10 C3 ) + (10 C3 +10 C4 )
= 11 C3 +11 C4
= 12 C4
Example 4.50 If (n+2) C7 :(n−1) P4 = 13 : 24 nd n.

Solution:
(n+2)
C7 :(n−1) P4 = 13 : 24.
(n+2)
C7 13
(n−1) P
= .
4 24
(n + 2)! (n − 5)! 13
× = .
(n − 5)! × 7! (n − 1)! 24
(n + 2)(n + 1)n(n − 1)! 13
= .
(n − 1)! × 7! 24
13 13
(n + 2)(n + 1)(n) = × 7! = ×7×6×5×4×3×2×1
24 24
(n + 2)(n + 1)(n) = 13 × 14 × 15
n + 2 = 15 =⇒ n = 13.
Example 4.51 A salad at a certain restaurant consists of 4 of the following fruits: apple, banana,
guava, pomegranate, grapes, papaya and pineapple. Find the total possible number of fruit salads.
Solution:
There are seven fruits and we have to select four fruits for the fruit salad. Hence, the total number
of possible ways of making a fruit salad is 7 C4 =7 C3 = 35.
Example 4.52 A Mathematics club has 15 members. In that 8 are girls. 6 of the members are to be
selected for a competition and half of them should be girls. How many ways of these selections are
possible?
Solution:
There are 8 girls and 7 boys in the mathematics club. The number of ways of selecting 6 members
in that half of them girls (3 girls and 3 others) is 8 C3 ×7 C3 = 56 × 35 = 1960.
Example 4.53 In rating 20 brands of cars, a car magazine picks a rst, second, third, fourth and
fth best brand and then 7 more as acceptable. In how many ways can it be done?
Solution:
The picking of 5 brands for a rst, second, third, fourth and fth best brand from 20 brands in 20 P5
ways. From the remaining 15 we need to select 7 acceptable in 15 C7 ways. By the rule of product it
can be done in 20 P5 ×15 C7 ways.
Example 4.54 From a class of 25 students, 10 students are to be chosen for an excursion party.
There are 4 students who decide that either all of them will join or none of them will join. In how
many ways can the excursion party be chosen?
Solution:
There are two possibilities (i) All the 4 students will got to the excursion party then, we need to
21!
select 6 students out of 21 students. It can be done in 21 C6 = ways.
6! × 15!
(ii) All the 4 students will not go to the excursion party then, we need to select 10 students out
21!
of 21 students. It can be done in 21 C10 = . Hence, the total number of ways is
10! × 11!
21! 21!
21 21
C6 + C10 = + .
6! × 15! 10! × 11!
Example 4.55 A box of one dozen apple contains a rotten apple. If we are choosing 3 apples
simultaneously, in how many ways, one can get only good apples.
Solution:
The total number of ways of selecting 3 apples from 12 apples is 12 C3 = 220.
The total number of ways of getting a rotten apple when selecting 3 apples from 12 apples is
equal to selecting 1 rotten apple and remaining 2 apples can be selected from 11 apples is 11 C2 = 55.
Therefore, the total number of ways of getting only good apples is
12
C3 − 11 C2 = 220 − 55 = 165
Example 4.56 An exam paper contains 8 questions, 4 in Part A and 4 in Part B. Examiners are
required to answer 5 questions. In how many ways can this be done if
(i) There are no restrictions of choosing a number of questions in either parts.
(ii) At least two questions from Part A must be answered.
4.14 Problems involving both permutations and combinations 33
Solution:
(i) Totally there are 8 questions in both Part A and Part B. The total
There are no restrictions.
number of ways of attempting 5 questions from 8 questions is 8 C5 = 8 C3 = 56.
(ii) At least two questions from Part A needs to be answered.Accordingly, various choices are
tabulated as follows.
Part A Part B Number of selections
4
2 3 C2 ×4 C3
4
3 2 C3 ×4 C2
4
4 1 C4 ×4 C1
Therefore, the required number of ways of answering is

4
C2 ×4 C3 +4 C3 ×4 C2 +4 C4 ×4 C1 = 24 + 24 + 4 = 52.
4.14 Problems involving both permutations and

combinations
Example 4.57 Out of 7 consonants and 4 vowels, how many strings of 3 consonants and 2 vowels
can be formed?
Solution:
Number of ways of selecting (3 consonants out of 7) and (2 vowels out of 4) is
7
C3 ×4 C2
Each string contains 5 letters. Number of ways of arranging 5 letters among themselves is 5! = 120
Hence required number of ways is,
7
C3 ×4 C2 × 5! = 35 × 6 × 120 = 25200
.
Find the number of strings of 5 letters that can be formed with the letters of the word
Example 4.58
PROPOSITION.
Solution:
There are 11 letters in the word, with respect to number of repetitions of letters there are 4 distinct
letters (R, S, T, N), 2 sets of two alike letters (PP,II), 1 set of three alike letters (OOO). The following
table will illustrate the combination of these sets and the number of words
S.No Letter Options Selections Arrangements

1 5 distinct 7
C5 7
C5 × 5! = 2520
(R, S, T, N, P, I, O)
5!
2 1 set of 3 alike (OOO), 1
C 1 ×2 C 1 1
C 1 ×2 C 1 × = 20
3! × 2!
1 set of 2 alike (P P, II)
5!
3 1 set of 3 alike (OOO), 1
C 1 ×6 C 2 1
C1 ×6 C2 × = 300
3!
2 distinct (R, S, T, N, P, I)
5!
4 2 sets of 2 alike (P P, II, OO), 1 distinct 3
C 2 ×5 C 1 3
C2 ×5 C1 × = 450
2! × 2!
(R, S, T, N and remaining one in 2 alike)
5!
5 1 set of 2 alike (P P, II, OO), 3 distinct 3
C 1 ×6 C 3 3
C 1 ×6 C 3 × = 3600
2!
(R, S, T, N and remaining two in 2 alike)
Hence, the total number of strings are 2520 + 20 + 300 + 450 + 3600 = 6890.
Example 4.59 If a set of m parallel lines intersect another set of n parallel lines (not parallel to the
lines in the rst set), then nd the number of parallelograms formed in this lattice structure.
Solution:
Whenever we select 2 lines from the rst set of m lines and 2 lines from the second set of n lines,
one parallelogram is formed. Thus the number of parallelograms formed is m C2 ×n C2 .
Example 4.60 How many diagonals are there in a polygon with n sides?
Solution:
A polygon of n sides has n vertices. By joining any two vertices of a polygon, we obtain either a
side or a diagonal of the polygon. Number of line segments obtained by joining the vertices of a
n(n − 1)
n sided polygon taken two at a time is n C2 = . Out of these lines, there are n sides of
2
polygon. Therefore, number of diagonals of the polygon is
n(n − 1) n(n − 3)
−n=
2 2
. In particular for a pentagon and heptagon (Septagon), number of diagonals respectively are
5(5−3)
2
= 5 and 7(7−3)
2
= 14.
Exercise - 4.3
1. If n C12 =n C9 nd 21 Cn .
2. If 15 C2r−1 =15 C2r+4 , nd r.
3. If n Pr = 720, and n Cr = 120, nd n, r.

4.14 Problems involving both permutations and combinations 35
4. Prove that 15 C3 + 2 ×15 C4 +15 C5 =17 C5 .

(39−r)
5. Prove that 35 C5 + C4 =40 C5 .
P4
r=0
6. If (n+1) C8 :(n−3) P4 = 57 : 16, nd the value of n.

2n × 1 × 3 × · · · (2n − 1)
7. Prove that 2n Cn =
n!
8. Prove that if 1 ≤ r ≤ n then n ×(n−1) Cr−1 = (n − r + 1)n Cr−1 .
9. (i) A Kabaddi coach has 14 players ready to play. How many different teams of 7 players could
the coach put on the court?
(ii) There are 15 persons in a party and if each 2 of them shakes hands with each other, how
many handshakes happen in the party?
(iii) How many chords can be drawn through 20 points on a circle?
(iv) In a parking lot one hundred , one year old cars, are parked. Out of them ve are to be
chosen at random for to check its pollution devices. How many different set of ve cars can
be chosen?
(v) How many ways can a team of 3 boys,2 girls and 1 transgender be selected from 5 boys, 4
girls and 2 transgenders?
10. Find the total number of subsets of a set with
(i) 4 elements (ii) 5 elements (iii) n elements
11. A trust has 25 members.
(i) How many ways 3 ofcers can be selected?
(ii) In how many ways can a President, Vice President and a Secretary be selected?
12. How many ways a committee of six persons from 10 persons can be chosen along with a chair
person and a secretary?
13. How many different selections of 5 books can be made from 12 different books if,
(i) Two particular books are always selected?
(ii) Two particular books are never selected?
14. There are 5 teachers and 20 students. Out of them a committee of 2 teachers and 3 students is to
be formed. Find the number of ways in which this can be done. Further nd in how many of these
committees
(i) a particular teacher is included?
(ii) a particular student is excluded?
15. In an examination a student has to answer 5 questions, out of 9 questions in which 2 are
compulsory. In how many ways a student can answer the questions?
16. Determine the number of 5 card combinations out of a deck of 52 cards if there is exactly three
aces in each combination.
17. Find the number of ways of forming a committee of 5 members out of 7 Indians and 5 Americans,
so that always Indians will be the majority in the committee.
18. A committee of 7 peoples has to be formed from 8 men and 4 women. In how many ways can this
be done when the committee consists of
(i) exactly 3 women?
(ii) at least 3 women?
(iii) at most 3 women?
19. 7 relatives of a man comprises 4 ladies and 3 gentlemen, his wife also has 7 relatives; 3 of them
are ladies and 4 gentlemen. In how many ways can they invite a dinner party of 3 ladies and 3
gentlemen so that there are 3 of men' s relative and 3 of the wife' s relatives?
20. A box contains two white balls, three black balls and four red balls. In how many ways can three
balls be drawn from the box, if at least one black ball is to be included in the draw?
21. Find the number of strings of 4 letters that can be formed with the letters of the word
EXAMINATION.
22. How many triangles can be formed by joining 15 points on the plane, in which no line joining any
three points?
23. How many triangles can be formed by 15 points, in which 7 of them lie on one line and the
remaining 8 on another parallel line?
24. There are 11 points in a plane. No three of these lies in the same straight line except 4 points,
which are collinear. Find,
(i) the number of straight lines that can be obtained from the pairs of these points?
(ii) the number of triangles that can be formed for which the points are their vertices?
25. A polygon has 90 diagonals. Find the number of its sides?
4.15 Mathematical induction
Let us consider the sum of the rst n positive odd numbers. These are 1, 3, 5, 7, · · · , 2n − 1. The rst
odd number 1 which is equal to 1. The rst two odd numbers are 1 and 3 and their sum is 4. Writing
these as follows helps us to see a pattern.
1 = 1
1+3 = 4
1+3+5 = 9
1+3+5+7 = 16
1+3+5+7+9 = 25
and so on. We note that the right hand side of the expressions are the perfect squares 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 · · · .
This pattern compels us to make the conjecture that the sum of the rst n odd numbers is equal to n2 .
Symbolically, we express this as,
1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 .
However we have only made a conjecture. In order to prove the conjecture we shall use the Principle
of Mathematical Induction. Mathematical Induction is a method or technique of proving mathematical
results or theorems of the above kind. This technique relies upon making conjectures by observing all
possible cases of a specic result. It is well suited for proving results in algebra or in other disciplines
of mathematics where results or theorems are stated in terms of n, n being a positive integer. The
process of Mathematical Induction may be compared to that of climbing an innite staircase.
In order to ensure that we complete the climb, it is sufcient to ensure the following.
(a) We can climb the rst step.
(b) Once we have reached a particular step of the staircase, we can climb to the next step.
Being sure of (a) and (b) will enable us to climb all the steps in the staircase. Similarly, when we apply
this method to prove a mathematical statement P (n), the process of induction involves the following
steps.
Step 1: Verify that the statement is true for n = 1, that is, verify that P(1) is true. This is akin to
climbing the rst step of the staircase and is referred to as the initial step.
4.16 Problems Based on Mathematical Induction 37
Figure 4.5
Step 2: Verify that the statement is true for n = k + 1 whenever it is true for n = k , where k is a
positive integer. This means that we need to prove that P (k + 1) is true whenever P (k) is
true. This is referred to as the inductive step.
Step 3: If steps 1 and 2 have been established then the statement P (n) is true for all positive
integers n.
One of the interesting method of proof in Mathematics is by the Mathematical induction. We shall
illustrate the method through problems. As an illustration of the process let us revisit a well known
result through an example below:
4.16 Problems Based on Mathematical Induction
Example 4.61 By the principle of mathematical induction, prove that, for all integers n ≥ 1,
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
2
Solution:
Let,
n(n + 1)
P (n) := 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = .
2
1(1 + 1)
Substituting the value of n = 1, in the statement we get, P (1) = = 1. Hence, P (1) is
2
true.
Let us assume that the statement is true for n = k . Then
k(k + 1)
P (k) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = .
2
We need to show that P (k + 1) is true. Consider,
k(k + 1)
P (k + 1) = |1 + 2 + 3{z+ · · · + k} +(k + 1) = + (k + 1).
2
That is,
k(k + 1) + 2(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
P (k + 1) = = .
2 2
This implies, P (k + 1) is true. The validity of P (k + 1) follows from that of P (k). Therefore by
the principle of mathematical induction, for all integers n ≥ 1,
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
2
Example 4.62 Prove that the sum of rst n positive odd numbers is n2 .
Solution:
Let P (n) = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 1) . Therefore P (1) = 1 = 12 is true.
We assume that P (k) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ...(2k − 1) is true for n = k . That is P (k) = k 2
We need to prove P (k + 1) = (k + 1)2 .
P (k + 1) = 1 + 3 + 5 + ...(2(k + 1) − 1)
= 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + ... + (2k − 1) +2k + 1
| {z }
= P (k) + 2k + 1
= k 2 + 2k + 1 = (k + 1)2
This implies, P (k + 1) is true. Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, P (n) is true for
all natural numbers.
Example 4.63 By the principle of mathematical induction, prove that, for all integers n ≥ 1,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = .
6
Solution:
Let,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
P (n) := 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = .
6
1(1 + 1)(2(1) + 1)
Substituting n = 1 in the statement we get, P (1) = = 1 . Hence, P (1) is true.
6
Let us assume that the statement is true for n = k . Then
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
P (k) = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + k 2 = .
6
We need to show that P (k + 1) is true. Consider
P (k + 1) = 1| 2 + 22 + 3{z
2
+ · · · + k}2 +(k + 1)2
= P (k) + (k + 1)2
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
= + (k + 1)2
6
k(k + 1)(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)2
=
6
(k + 1) (k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1))
=
6
2
(k + 1) (2k + 7k + 6)
=
6
(k + 1) [(k + 2)(2k + 3)]

=
6
(k + 1) [((k + 1) + 1)(2(k + 1) + 1)]
= .
6
That is,
(k + 1)((k + 1) + 1) (2(k + 1) + 1)
P (k + 1) = .
6
This implies, P (k + 1) is true. The validity of P (k + 1) follows from that of P (k). Therefore by
the principle of mathematical induction,
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = , for all n ≥ 1.
6
Example 4.64 Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n,
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ··· + = .
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1) n+1
Solution:
1 1 1 1 n
Let P (n) := + + + ··· + = . Substituting the value of n = 1, in the
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1) n+1
1 1
statement we get, P (1) = = . Hence, P (1) is true. Let us assume that the statement is true
1.2 2
for n = k. Then
1 1 1 1 k
P (k) = + + + ··· + = .
1.2 2.3 3.4 k(k + 1) k+1
1 1 1 1 1
P (k + 1) = + + + ··· + +
1.2 2.3 3.4 k(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
| {z }
1
= P (k) +
(k + 1)(k + 2)
k 1
= +
(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)

1 k 1
= +
k+1 1 k+2
2
1 k + 2k + 1
=
k+1 k+2
(k + 1)2

1 (k + 1)
= = .
k+1 k+2 (k + 2)
This implies, P (k + 1) is true. The validity of P (k + 1) follows from that of P (k). Therefore, by
the principle of mathematical induction, for any natural number n,
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ··· + = .
1.2 2.3 3.4 n(n + 1) n+1
Example 4.65 Prove that for any natural number n, an − bn is divisible by a − b, where a > b
Solution:
Let
P (n) := an − bn , is divisible by a − b.
Substituting the value of n = 1, in the statement we get,

P (1) = a − b,
which is divisible by a − b. Hence, P (1) is true. Let us assume that the statement is true for n = k .
Then P (k) = ak − bk , is divisible by a − b. We can write
P (k) = ak − bk = λ(a − b), λ ∈ N.
We need to show that P (k + 1) = ak+1 − bk+1 , is divisible by a − b.

P (k + 1) = ak+1 − bk+1
= ak+1 − abk + abk − bk+1
= a(ak − bk ) + bk (a − b)
= a(λ(a − b)) + bk (a − b)
(a − b) aλ + bk

=
= (a − b)λ1 , λ1 = aλ + bk , λ1 ∈ N.
which is divisible by a − b. This implies that P (k + 1) is true. The validity of P (k + 1) follows from
that of P (k). Therefore by the principle of mathematical induction, an − bn is divisible by a − b,
where a > b, for all natural numbers n.
Example 4.66 Prove that 32n+2 − 8n − 9 is divisible by 8 for all n ≥ 1.

Solution:
Let
P (n) := 32n+2 − 8n − 9, is divisible by 8.

P (1) = 32+2 − 8(1) − 9 = 64,
which is divisible by 8. Hence, P (1) is true. Let us assume that the statement is true for n = k .
Then P (k) = 32k+2 − 8k − 9, is divisible by 8. We can write
P (k) = 32k+2 − 8k − 9 = 8k1 , k1 ∈ N and therefore,
32k+2 = 8k1 + 8k + 9.
We need to show that P (k + 1) = 32(k+1)+2 − 8(k + 1) − 9, is divisible by 8.

Consider,
P (k + 1) = 32(k+1)+2 − 8(k + 1) − 9
= 32 32k+2 − 8k − 8 − 9
= 32 (8k1 + 8k + 9) − 8k − 17 (by(4.1))
= 72k1 + 64k + 64
= 8 (9k1 + 8k + 1)
= 8k2 , k2 = 9k1 + 8k + 1 ∈ N
which is divisible by 8. This implies that P (k + 1) is true. This means that the validity of P (k + 1)
follows from that of P (k). Therefore by the principle of mathematical induction, 32n+2 − 8n − 9 is
divisible by 8 for all n ≥ 1.
Example 4.67 Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any integer
n ≥ 2, 3n2 > (n + 1)2
Solution:
Let P (n) be the statement that 3n2 > (n + 1)2 with n ≥ 2. Therefore the rst stage is n = 2.
Now, P (2) = 3 × 22 = 12 and 32 = 9. As 12 > 9 we get P (2) is true.
We assume that P (n) is true for n = k.
Now,
P (k + 1) = 3(k + 1)2 = 3k 2 + 6k + 3
= P (k) + 6k + 3
> (k + 1)2 + 6k + 3
= k 2 + 8k + 4
= k 2 + 4k + 4 + 4k
= (k + 2)2 + 4k
> (k + 2)2 since k > 0.
This is the statement P (k + 1). The validity of P (k + 1) follows from that of P (k). Therefore by
the principle of mathematical induction, for all n ≥ 2, 3n2 > (n + 1)2 .
Example 4.68 Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any integer
n ≥ 2, 3n > n2
Solution:
Let P (n) be the statement that 3n > n2 with n ≥ 2. Therefore the rst stage is n = 2. Now,
P (3) = 32 = 9 and 22 = 4. As 9 > 4, we get P (2) is true
We assume that P (n) is true for n = k. That is P (k) > k2 . Now,
P (k + 1) = 3k+1 = 3 × 3k = 3 × P (k)
> 3k 2
> (k + 1)2 , by problem 4.67.
Hence, for any integer n ≥ 2, 3n > n2 .

Example 4.69 By the principle of mathematical induction, prove that, for n ∈ N,

nβ

(n − 1)β sin 2
cos α + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β) + · · · + cos(α + (n − 1)β) = cos α + × β

2 sin 2
Solution:
Let P (n) := cos(α) + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β) + ... + cos(α + (n − 1)β). Then,
cos(α). sin( β2 )
P (1) = cos(α) = ,
sin( β2 )
which shows P (1) is true. We now assume that P (n) is true for n = k . That is,
kβ

(k − 1)β sin 2
cos(α) + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β) + · · · + cos(α + (k − 1)β) = cos α + × β
.
2 sin 2
We need to prove P (k + 1) is true. Now,

P (k + 1) = cos(α) + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β) + · · · + cos(α + (k − 1)β) + cos(α + kβ)
| {z }
Then,
P (k + 1) = P (k) + cos(α + kβ)

cos α + (k−1)β kβ

2
sin 2
= + cos(α + kβ)
β
sin( )
2
1 (k − 1)β kβ β
= β
cos α + sin + cos(α + kβ) sin
sin( 2 ) 2 2 2

1 kβ β kβ β
= β
cos α+ − sin + cos(α + kβ) sin
sin( 2 ) 2 2 2 2

1 kβ β
= β
cos α + cos
sin 2 2 2

kβ β kβ β
+ sin α + sin sin + cos(α + kβ) sin
2 2 2 2

1 kβ β kβ
= β
cos α + cos sin
sin 2 2 2 2

β kβ kβ
+ sin sin α + sin + cos(α + kβ)
2 2 2

1 kβ β kβ
= cos α + cos sin
sin β2

2 2 2
β #
sin 2 kβ kβ
+ 2 sin α + sin + 2 cos(α + kβ)
2 2 2

1 kβ β kβ
= cos α + cos sin
sin β2

2 2 2
#
sin β2
+ (cos α − cos (α + kβ) + 2 cos(α + kβ))
2
" #
β
1 kβ β kβ sin 2
= β
cos α + cos sin + (cos α + cos(α + kβ))
sin 2 2 2 2 2
" #
sin β2

1 kβ β kβ kβ −kβ
= cos α + cos sin + 2 cos α + cos
sin β2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cos α + kβ

kβ β β kβ
= β
2 sin cos + sin cos
sin 2 2 2 2 2

cos α + kβ sin (k+1)β

2 2
= β

sin 2
That is,
cos α + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β) + · · · + cos(α + (k − 1)β) + cos(α + kβ)

sin (k+1)β
kβ 2
= cos α + × β

2 sin 2
This implies that P (k + 1) is true. The validity of P (k + 1) follows from that of P (k). Therefore
by the principle of mathematical induction,
cos α + cos(α + β) + cos(α + 2β) + · · · + cos(α + (n − 1)β)
nβ

(n − 1)β sin 2
= cos α + × β

2 sin 2
Example 4.70 Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n, with the
assumption i = −1,
2
(r(cos θ + i sin θ))n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) ,
Solution:
Let,
P (n) := (r(cos θ + i sin θ)n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) .

P (1) = (r(cos θ + i sin θ))1 = r (cos θ + i sin θ) .
Hence, P (1) is true. Let us assume that the statement is true for n = k. Then
(r(cos θ + i sin θ))k = rk (cos kθ + i sin kθ) ,

P (k + 1) = (r(cos θ + i sin θ))k+1
= (r(cos θ + i sin θ))k × r(cos θ + i sin θ)
= rk (cos kθ + i sin kθ) × r(cos θ + i sin θ)
rk+1 × (cos kθ cos θ + i2 sin kθ sin θ) + i(sin kθ cos θ + cos kθ sin θ)

=
= rk+1 × ((cos kθ cos θ − sin kθ sin θ) + i(sin kθ cos θ + cos kθ sin θ))
= rk+1 × (cos(k + 1)θ + i sin(k + 1)θ) .
This implies that P (k + 1) is true. The validity of P (k + 1) follows from that of P (k). Therefore
by the principle of mathematical induction, for any natural number n,
(r(cos θ + i sin θ))n = rn (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) .
Note
What we have proved in Example 4.70 is called the Demoivre's theorem for natural numbers,
which will be studied in detail in the second year of Higher Secondary course.
Exercise - 4.4
1. By the principle of mathematical induction, prove that, for n ≥ 1

2
3 3 3 3 n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n =
2
n(2n − 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 32 + 52 + · · · + (2n − 1)2 = .
3
3. Prove that the sum of the rst n non-zero even numbers is n2 + n.

4. By the principle of Mathematical induction, prove that, for n ≥ 1
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + · · · + n.(n + 1) = .
3
5. Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n ≥ 2,

1 1 1 1 n+1
1− 2 1− 2 1 − 2 ··· 1 − 2 = .
2 3 4 n 2n
6. Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n ≥ 2,
1 1 1 1 n−1
+ + + ··· + = .
1+2 1+2+3 1+2+3+4 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n n+1
7. Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n,
1 1 1 1 n(n + 3)
+ + + ··· + = .
1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 n.(n + 1).(n + 2) 4(n + 1)(n + 2)
8. Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n,
1 1 1 1 n
+ + + ··· + = .
2.5 5.8 8.11 (3n − 1)(3n + 2) 6n + 4
9. Prove by Mathematical Induction that
1! + (2 × 2!) + (3 × 3!) + ... + (n × n!) = (n + 1)! − 1.
10. Using the Mathematical induction, show that for any natural number n, x2n − y 2n is divisible by
x + y.
n3
12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 > .
3
12. Use induction to prove that n3 − 7n + 3, is divisible by 3, for all natural numbers n.
13. Use induction to prove that 5n+1 + 4 × 6n when divided by 20 leaves a remainder 9, for all natural
numbers n.
14. Use induction to prove that 10n + 3 × 4n+2 + 5, is divisible by 9, for all natural numbers n.
15. Prove that using the Mathematical induction

π 2π
sin(α) + sin α + + sin α + + ···
6 6
sin α + (n−1)π × sin nπ

(n − 1)π 12
12 .
+ sin α + = π

6 sin 12
Exercise - 4.5

1. The sum of the digits at the 10th place of all numbers formed with the help of 2, 4, 5, 7 taken all
at a time is
(1) 432 (2) 108 (3) 36 (4) 18
2. In an examination there are three multiple choice questions and each question has 5 choices .
Number of ways in which a student can fail to get all answer correct is
(1) 125 (2) 124 (3) 64 (4) 63
3. The number of ways in which the following prize be given to a class of 30 boys rst and second
in mathematics, rst and second in physics, rst in chemistry and rst in English is
(1) 304 × 292 (2) 303 × 293 (3) 302 × 294 (4) 30 × 295 .
4. The number of 5 digit numbers all digits of which are odd is
(1) 25 (2) 55 (3) 56 (4) 625.
5. In 3 ngers, the number of ways four rings can be worn is · · · · · · · · · ways.

(1) 43 − 1 (2) 34 (3) 68 (4) 64
6. If (n+5) P(n+1) = ( 11(n−1)
2
)(n+3) Pn , then the value of n are
(1) 7 and 11 (2) 6 and 7 (3) 2 and 11 (4) 2 and 6.
7. The product of r consecutive positive integers is divisible by
(1) r! (2)(r − 1)! (3) (r + 1)! (4) rr .
8. The number of ve digit telephone numbers having at least one of their digits repeated is
(1) 90000 (2) 10000 (3) 30240 (4) 69760.
9. If a −a C2 =a −a C4 then the value of 'a' is
2 2
(1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5

10. There are 10 points in a plane and 4 of them are collinear. The number of straight lines joining
any two points is
(1) 45 (2) 40 (3) 39 (4) 38.
11. The number of ways in which a host lady invite for a party of 8 out of 12 people of whom two do
not want to attend the party together is
(1) 2 ×11 C7 +10 C8 (2) 11 C7 +10 C8 (3) 12 C8 −10 C6 (4) 10 C6 + 2!.
12. The number of parallelograms that can be formed from a set of four parallel lines intersecting
another set of three parallel lines.
(1) 6 (2) 9 (3) 12 (4) 18
13. Everybody in a room shakes hands with everybody else. The total number of shake hands is 66.
The number of persons in the room is · · · · · · · · · · · ·
(1) 11 (2) 12 (3) 10 (4) 6
14. Number of sides of a polygon having 44 diagonals is · · · · · ·
(1) 4 (2) 4! (3) 11 (4) 22
15. If 10 lines are drawn in a plane such that no two of them are parallel and no three are concurrent,
then the total number of point of intersection are
(1) 45 (2) 40 (3)10! (4) 210
16. In a plane there are 10 points are there out of which 4 points are collinear, then the number of
triangles formed is
(1) 110 (2)10 C3 (3) 120 (4) 116
17. In 2n C3 :n C3 = 11 : 1 then n is
(1) 5 (2) 6 (3)11 (4)7
18. (n−1) Cr +(n−1) C(r−1) is
(1) (n+1) Cr (2) (n−1) Cr (3) n Cr (4)n Cr−1 .
19. The number of ways of choosing 5 cards out of a deck of 52 cards which include at least one king
is
(1) 52 C5 (2)48 C5 (3)52 C5 +48 C5 (4)52 C5 −48 C5 .
20. The number of rectangles that a chessboard has · · ·
4.17 Summary 47
(1) 81 (2) 99 (3)1296 (4) 6561

21. The number of 10 digit number that can be written by using the digits 2 and 3 is
(1)10 C2 +9 C2 (2)210 (3)210 − 2 (4) 10!
22. If Pr stands for r Pr then the sum of the series 1 + P1 + 2P2 + 3P3 + · · · + nPn is
(1) Pn+1 (2) Pn+1 − 1 (3) Pn−1 + 1 (4)(n+1) P(n−1)
23. The product of rst n odd natural numbers equals
(1)2n Cn ×n Pn (2)( 21 )n × 2n Cn ×n Pn (3)( 14 )n × 2n Cn ×2n Pn (4)n Cn ×n Pn
24. If n C4 , n C5 , n C6 are in AP the value of n can be
(1)14 (2)11 (3)9 (4)5
25. 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + 17 is equal to
(1) 101 (2) 81 (3) 71 (4) 61
4.17 Summary

• Factorial of a natural number n is the product of the rst n natural numbers.
• n! = n(n − 1)!, for any integer n ≥ 1.
• The number of ways of arranging n unlike objects if n!.
• The number of distinct permutations of r objects which can be made from n distinct objects is
n n!
Pr = = n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1).
(n − r)!
• The number of permutations of n objects taken all at a time where P1 objects one of rst kind, P2
objects one of second kind, · · · Pk objects one of the k th kind and the rest, if any are all different
and is given by
n!
.
P1 !P2 ! · · · Pk !
• Order matters for a permutation where as order does not matter for a combination.
• The number of combinations of n different objects taken r at a time denoted by n Cr is given by
n n! n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1)
Cr = =
r!(n − r)! r!
Binomial Theorem,
Chapter 5 Sequences and Series
“If I have seen further than others it is by standing upon the shoulders of Giants”
Sir Issac Newton
5.1 Introduction
Binomial theorem facilitates the algebraic expansion of the binomial (a + b) for a positive integral
exponent n. Binomial theorem is used in all branches of Mathematics and also in other Sciences.
Using the theorem, for example one can easily find the coefficient of x20 in the expansion of (2x−7)23 .
If one wants to know the maturity amount after 10 years on a sum of money deposited in a nationalised
bank at the rate of 8% compound interest per year or to know the size of population of our country
after 15 years if the annual growth rate and present population size are known, Binomial theorem
helps us in finding the above quantities. The coefficients that appear in the binomial expansion of
(a + b)n , n ∈ N, are called binomial coefficients. Binomial theorem plays a vital role in determining
the probabilities of events when the random experiment involves finite sample space and each outcome
is either success or failure. In this chapter we learn binomial theorem and some of its applications.
Greek Mathematician Euclid mentioned the special case of binomial theorem for exponent 2.
Binomial theorem for exponent 3 was known by 6th century in India. In 1544, Michael Stifel (German
Mathematician) introduced the term binomial coefficent and expressed (1+x)n in terms of (1+x)n−1 .
Isaac Newton (England), the most famous scientist and mathemati-
cian, was usually credited with finding the formulas for Binomial Expan-
sions when the index n is a rational number. By 1665, Newton found
generalized binomial expressions for turning certain expressions into
infinite series. Newton’s account of the binomial expansion appears in
his ‘epistola prior’, letter he had sent to Leibniz in the summer of 1676,
eleven years after his discovery.
Sir Issac Newton
(1643 - 1727)
Over the period of thousand years, legends have developed mathematical problems involving
sequences and series. One of the famous legends about series concerns the invention of chess, where
the cells of chess board were related to 1, 2, 4, 8, . . . (imagine the number related to 64th cell). There
are many applications of arithmetic and geometric progressions to real life situations.
In the earlier classes we have learnt about sequences, series. Roughly speaking a sequence is an
arrangement of objects in some order and a series is the sum of the terms of a sequence of numbers.
9
The concept of infinite series helps us to compute many values, like sin 44 π, log 43 and e20 to a desired
level of approximation. Sequences are important in differential equations and analysis. We learn more
about sequences and series.
1
2 Binomial Theorem, Sequences and Series
Learning Objectives
• the concept of Binomial Theorem, to compute binomial coefficients and their applications
• the concepts of sequences and series
• how to compute arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means
• how to find the sum of finite and infinite series of real numbers
• how to add series using telescopic summation
• how to apply binomial, exponential and logarithmic series
5.2 Binomial Theorem

The prefix bi in the words bicycle, binocular, binary and in many more words means two. The word
binomial stands for expressions having two terms. For examples (1 + x), (x + y), (x2 + xy) and
(2a + 3b) are some binomial expressions.
5.2.1 Binomial Coefficients

In Chapter 4 we have learnt and used the symbol n Cr which is defined as
n n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . (n − (r − 1)) n!

Cr = = .
r(r − 1)(r − 2) . . . 1 (n − r)! r!
Since n Cr occurs as the coefficients of xr in (1 + x)n n ∈ N and as the coefficients of ar bn−1

in (a + b)n , they are called binomial coefficients. Though the values of n Cr can be computed by
formula, there is an interesting simple way to find n Cr without doing cumbersome multiplications.
Pascal Triangle
The Pascal triangle is an arrangement of the numbers n Cr in a triangular form. The (k + 1)st row
consists of the numbers
k
C0 , k C1 , k C2 , k C3 , . . . , k Ck .
In fact, the Pascal triangle is
0
C0 1
1 1
C0 C1 1 1
2 2 2
C0 C1 C2 1 2 1
3
C0 3
C1 3
C2 3
C3 ⇔ 1 3 3 1
4 4 4 4 4
C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 1 4 6 4 1
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

5.2 Binomial Theorem 3
Recall the expansion and observe the coefficients of each term of the identities (a + b)0 , (a + b)1 ,
(a + b)2 , (a + b)3 . There is a pattern in the arrangements of coefficents
(a + b)0 = 1 1
(a + b)1 = a + b 1 1
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 1 2 1
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 1 3 3 1
If we observe carefully the Pascal triangle, we may notice that each row starts and ends with 1
and other entries are the sum of the two numbers just above it. For example ‘3’ is the sum of 1 and 2
above it; ‘10’ is the sum of 4 and 6 above it. We will prove in a short while that
(a + b)n = n C0 an b0 + n C1 an−1 b1 + · · · + n Cr an−r br + · · · + n Cn a0 bn .
which is the binomial expansion of (a + b)n . The binomial expansion of (a + b)n for any n ∈ N can
be written using Pascal triangle. For example, from the fifth row we can write down the expansion of
(a + b)4 and from the sixth row we can write down the expansion of (a + b)5 and so on. We know the
terms (without coefficients) of (a + b)5 are
a5 , a4 b, a3 b2 , a2 b3 , ab4 , b5
and the sixth row of the Pascal triangle is
1 5 10 10 5 1.
Using these two we can write
(a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4 b + 10a3 b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5 .
The Pascal triangle can be constructed using addition alone, without using any multiplication or
division. So without multiplication we can write down the binomial expansion for (a + b)n for any
n ∈ N.
The above pattern resembling a triangle, is credited in the name of the seventeenth century French
Mathematician Blaise Pascal, who studied mathematical properties of this structure and used this
concept effectively in Probability Theory.
5.2.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Index

Now we prove the most celebrated theorem called Binomial Theorem.
Theorem 5.1 (Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Index): If n is any positive integer, then
Proof. We prove the theorem by using mathematical induction. For any positive integer n, let P (n)
be the statement
Since
1 1
C0 = 1 and C1 = 1,
the expression in the right hand side of P (1) is a1 b0 + a0 b1 which is same as a + b; the left hand side
is (a + b)1 . Hence P (1) is true.
We assume that for a positive integer k, P (k) is true. That is,
(a + b)k = k C0 ak b0 + k C1 ak−1 b1 + · · · + k Cr ak−r br + · · · + k Ck a0 bk .
Let us use the identity

n
Cr + n Cr−1 = n+1
Cr
in the proof. Now
(a + b)k+1 = (a + b)(a + b)k
= (a + b) k C0 ak b0 + k C1 ak−1 b1 + · · · + k Cr ak−r br + · · · + k Ck a0 bk

= k C0 ak+1 b0 + k C1 ak b1 + · · · + k Cr ak−r+1 br + · · · + k Ck a1 bk

+ k C0 ak b1 + k C1 ak−1 b2 + · · · + k Cr ak−r br+1 + · · · + k Ck a0 bk+1

= k C0 ak+1 b0 + k C1 + k C0 ak b1 + · · · + k Cr + k Cr−1 ak−r+1 br

+ · · · + k Ck + k Ck−1 a1 bk + k Ck a0 bk+1

k+1
= C0 ak+1 b0 + k+1
C1 ak b1 + k+1
C2 ak−1 b2 + · · · + k+1
Cr ak−r+1 br
k+1
+··· + Ck a1 bk + k+1
Ck+1 a0 bk+1
(a + b)k+1 = k+1
C0 a(k+1) b0 + k+1
C1 a(k+1)−1 b1 + k+1
C2 a(k+1)−2 b2 + · · ·
+ k+1 Cr a(k+1)−r br + · · · + k+1
Ck a1 b(k+1)−1 + k+1
Ck+1 a0 bk+1 .
This shows that P (k + 1) is true whenever P (k) is true. Thus, by the principle of mathematical
induction, P (n) is true for all natural numbers n. Hence,
(a + b)n = n C0 an b0 + n C1 an−1 b1 + · · · + n Cr an−r br + · · · + n Cn a0 bn , n ∈ N.
Note:
(i) The expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N can also be written as
(a + b)n = Σnk=0 n Ck an−k bk or Σnk=0 n Ck ak bn−k .
(ii) The expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N, contains exactly (n + 1) terms.

(iii) In (a+b)n = Σnk=0 n Ck an−k bk , the powers of a decreases by 1 in each term, whereas the powers
of b increases by 1 in each term. However, the sum of powers of a and b in each term is always
n.
(iv) The (r + 1)th term in the expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N, is
Tr+1 = n Cr an−r br , r = 0, 1, 2, · · · , n.
(v) In the product (a + b)(a + b) · · · (a + b), n times, to get br , we need any r factors out of these n
factors. This can be done in n Cr ways. That is why, we have n Cr as the coefficient of an−r br .
(vi) In the expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N, the coefficients at equidistant from the beginning and from
the end are equal due to the fact that n Cr = n Cn−r .
(vii) In the expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N, the greatest coefficient is n C n2 if n is even and the greatest
coefficients are n C n−1 or n C n+1 , if n is odd.
2 2
5.3 Particular cases of Binomial Theorem 5
(viii) In the expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N,

n n
if n is even, the middle term is T n2 +1 = n
C n2 an− 2 b 2 . If n is odd, then the two middle terms
are T n−1 +1 and T n+1 +1 .
2 2
5.3 Particular cases of Binomial Theorem

(i) Replacing b by (−b), in the binomial expansion of (a + b)n , n ∈ N, we get
(a − b)n = n
C0 an b0 − n C1 an−1 b1 + n C2 an−2 b2 − · · ·
+(−1)r n Cr an−r br + · · · + (−1)n n Cn a0 bn .
Observe that the sign ‘+’ and ‘−’ appear alternately in the binary expansion of (a − b)n .
(ii) Replacing a by 1 and b by x, in the binomial expansion of (a + b)n , we get
(1 + x)n = n C0 + n C1 x + n C2 x2 + · · · + n Cr xr + · · · + n Cn xn .
n
In particular, when x = 1, C0 + n C1 + n C2 + · · · + n Cn = 2n .
Note: If X is a set containing n elements, then we know that n Cr is the number of subsets of
X having exactly r elements. So by adding n Cr for r = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n we get the number of
subsets of X. So by using the above identity we see that a set of n elements has 2n subsets.
(iii) (1 − x)n = n C0 − n C1 x + n C2 x2 − · · · + (−1)r n Cr xr + · · · + (−1)n xn . In particular, when
x = 1, n C0 + n C2 + n C4 + · · · = n C1 + n C3 + n C5 + · · · = 2n−1
Example 5.1 Find the expansion of (2x + 3)5 .

Solution:
By taking a = 2x, b = 3 and n = 5 in the binomial expansion of (a + b)n we get
(2x + 3)5 = (2x)5 + 5(2x)4 3 + 10(2x)3 32 + 10(2x)2 33 + 5(2x)34 + 35

= 32x5 + 240x4 + 720x3 + 1080x2 + 810x + 243.
Example 5.2 Evaluate 984 .

Solution:
By taking a = 100, b = 2 and n = 4 in the binomial expansion of (a − b)n we get
984 = (100 − 2)4

= 4 C0 1004 − 4 C1 1003 2 + 4 C2 1002 22 − 4 C3 1001 23 + 4 C4 1000 24
= 100000000 − 8000000 + 240000 − 3200 + 16
= 92236816.
Example 5.3 Find the middle term in the expansion of (x + y)6 .

Solution:
Here n = 6; which is even. Thus the middle term in the expansion of (x + y)6 is the term containing
6 6
x 2 y 2 , that is the term 6 C3 x3 y 3 which is equal to 20x3 y 3 .
Example 5.4 Find the middle terms in the expansion of (x + y)7 .

Solution:
As n = 7 which is odd, the terms containing x4 y 3 and x3 y 4 are the two middle terms. They are
7
C3 x4 y 3 and 7 C4 x3 y 4 which are equal to 35x4 y 3 and 35x3 y 4 .
Example 5.5 Find the coefficient of x6 in the expansion of (3 + 2x)10 .

Solution:
Let us take a = 3 and b = 2x in the binomial expansion of (a + b)10 . Then, x6 will appear in the
term containing (2x)6 and nowhere else. So the term containing x6 is
10 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 4
C4 a4 b6 = 3 (2x)6 = 210 × 34 × 26 x6 .
4×3×2×1
So coefficient of x6 in the expansion of (3 + 2x)10 is 210 × 34 26 .
Example 5.6 Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (2 − 3x)7 .

Solution:
Let us take a = 2 and b = −3x in the binomial expansion of (a + b)7 . Then, x3 will appear in the
term containing (−3x)3 and nowhere else. So the term containing x3 is
7 7×6×5 4
C4 a4 b3 = 2 (−3x)3 = 35 × 24 × (−3)3 x3 .
3×2×1
So coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (2 − 3x)7 is 35 × 16 × (−27) = −15120.
Example 5.7 The 2nd , 3rd and 4th terms in the binomial expansion of
(x + a)n are 240, 720 and 1080 for a suitable value of x. Find x, a and n.
Solution:
It is given that T2 = 240 , T3 = 720 and T4 = 1080.
n
T2 = C1 xn−1 a = 240 (1)
n
T3 = C2 xn−2 a2 = 720 (2)
n
T4 = C3 xn−3 a3 = 1080 (3)
5.3 Particular cases of Binomial Theorem 7
Dividing (2) by (1) and (3) by (2) we get

a 6
= n−1
(4)
x
a 9
= 2(n−2)
(5)
x
From (4) and (5)
6 9
=
n−1 2(n − 2)
Thus n = 5. Substituting n = 5 in (1), (4) and dividing (1) by (4)
5x4 a 240
a = 6
x 4
Thus 5x5 = 160 and hence x = 2. Substituting in (4) we get a = 3.
1 4

Example 5.8 Expand 2x − 2x
.
Solution:
We have
4 0 1 2
1 4 4 1 4 3 1 4 2 1
2x − = C0 (2x) − + C1 (2x) − + C2 (2x) −
2x 2x 2x 2x
3 4
2 1
+ 4 C3 (2x)1 − + 4 C4 (2x)0 −
x 2x
2 3 4
4 3 1 2 1 1 1
= (2x) − 4(2x) + 6(2x) − 6(2x) +
2x 2x 2x 2x
3 1
= 16x4 − 16x2 + 6 − 2 +
2x 16x4
√ 5 √ 5
Example 5.9 Expand x2 + 1 − x2 + x2 − 1 − x2 .
Solution:
We have

2
√ 5
5
√
2 5
0
5 2 4
√ 1
x + 1−x 2 = C0 (x ) 1−x 2 + C1 (x ) 1−x 2
√ 2 √ 3
+ 5 C2 (x2 )3 1 − x2 + 5 C3 (x2 )2 1 − x2
√ 4 √ 5
+ 5 C4 (x2 )1 1 − x2 + 5 C5 (x2 )0 1 − x2
√ √
= x10 + 5x8 1 − x2 + 10x6 (1 − x2 ) + 10x4 (1 − x2 ) 1 − x2
√
+5x2 (1 − x2 )2 + (1 − x2 )2 ( 1 − x2 )
√ 5 √ 0 √ 1
x2 − 1 − x2 = 5
C0 (x2 )51 − x2 − 5 C1 (x2 )4 1 − x2
√ 2 √ 3
+ 5 C2 (x2 )3 1 − x2 − 5 C3 (x2 )2 1 − x2
√ 4 √ 5
5 2 1 2 5 2 0 2
+ C4 (x ) 1−x − C5 (x ) 1−x
√ √
= x10 − 5x8 1 − x2 + 10x6 (1 − x2 ) − 10x4 (1 − x2 ) 1 − x2
√
+5x2 (1 − x2 )2 − (1 − x2 )2 ( 1 − x2 )
Thus
√ 5 √ 5
x2 + 1 − x2 + x2 − 1 − x2 = 2[x10 + 10x6 (1 − x2 ) + 5x2 (1 − x2 )2 ]
= 2[x10 + 10x6 − 10x8 + 5x2 (1 − 2x2 + x4 )]
= 2[x10 − 10x8 + 15x6 − 10x4 + 5x2 ]
Example 5.10 Using Binomial theorem, prove that 6n −5n always leaves remainder 1 when divided
by 25 for all positive integer n.
Solution:
To prove this it is enough to prove, 6n − 5n = 25k + 1 for some integer k. We first consider the
expansion
(1 + x)n = n C0 + n C1 x + n C2 x2 + · · · + n Cn−1 xn−1 + n Cn xn , n ∈ N
Taking x = 5 we get (1 + 5)n = n C0 + n C1 5 + n C2 52 + · · · + n Cn−1 5n−1 + n Cn 5n . The above

equality reduces to 6n = 1 + 5n + 25( n C2 + 5 n C3 + · · · + n Cn 5n−2 ).
That is,
6n − 5n = 1 + 25( n C2 + 5 n C3 + · · · + n Cn 5n−2 ) = 1 + 25k, k ∈ N.
Thus 6n − 5n always leaves remainder 1 when divided by 25 for all positive integer n.
Example 5.11 Find the last two digits of the number 7400 .
Solution:
We have
7400 = (72 )200 = (50 − 1)200

200
= C0 50200 − 200
C1 50199 + · · ·
+ 200 C198 502 (−1)198 + 200
C199 50(−1)199 + 200
C200 (−1)200
= 502 200
C0 50198 − 200
C1 50197 + · · · + 200
C198 (−1)198 − 200 × 50 + 1.

As 502 and 200 are divisible by 100, the last two digits: 0 1.
5.4 Finite Sequences 9
Exercise - 5.1
3 √ 4 √ 4
1. Expand (i) 2x2 − x3 (ii) 2x2 − 3 1 − x2 + 2x2 + 3 1 − x2 .
2. Compute (i) 1024 (ii) 994 (iii) 97 .
3. Using binomial theorem, indicate which of the following two number is larger: (1.01)1000000 ,
10000. 10
4. Find the coefficient of x15 in x2 + x13 .
6
5. Find the coefficient of x6 and the coefficient of x2 in x2 − x13 .
6. Find the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of (1 + x3 )50 (x2 + x1 )5 .
5
7. Find the constant term of 2x3 − 3x12 .
8. Find the last two digits of the number 3600 .
9. If n is a positive integer, show that, 9n+1 − 8n − 9 is always divisible by 64.
10. If n is an odd positive integer, prove that the coefficients of the middle terms in the expansion of
(x + y)n are equal.
11. If n is a positive integer and r is a nonnegative integer, prove that the coefficients of xr and xn−r
in the expansion of (1 + x)n are equal.
12. If a and b are distinct integers, prove that a − b is a factor of an − bn , whenever n is a positive
integer. [Hint: write an = (a − b + b)n and expand]
13. In the binomial expansion of (a + b)n , the coefficients of the 4th and 13th terms are equal to each
other, find n.
14. If the coefficients of three consecutive terms in the expansion of (a + x)n are in the ratio 1 : 7 : 42,
then find n.
15. In the binomial coefficients of (1 + x)n , the coefficients of the 5th , 6th and 7th terms are in AP Find
all values of n.
2n!
16. Prove that C02 + C12 + C22 + · · · + Cn2 = (n!) 2.
5.4 Finite Sequences

A sequence is a list of elements with a particular order. While the idea of a sequence of numbers,
a1 , a2 , · · · , is straightforward, it is useful to think of a sequence as a function whose domain is either
the set of first n natural numbers or N. Throughout this chapter, we consider only sequences of real
numbers and we will refer to them as sequences. The arithmetic sequences and geometric sequences
are also known as arithmetic progressions(AP) and geometric progressions (GP). Let us recall, the
basic definitions of sequences and series.
• If X is any set and n ∈ N, then any function f : {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} → X is called a finite sequence
on X and any function g : N → X is called an infinite sequence on X. The value f (n) of the
function f at n is denoted by an and the sequence itself is denoted by (an ).
• If the set X happens to be a set of real numbers, the sequence is called a numerical sequence or a
sequence of real numbers.
• Though every sequence is a function, a function is not necessarily a sequence.
• Unlike sets, where elements are not repeated, the terms in a sequence may be repeated. In
particular, a sequence in which all terms are same is called a constant sequence.
• A useful way to visualise a sequence (an ) is to plot the graph of {(n, an ) : n ∈ N} which gives
some details about the sequence.
Figure 5.1
5.4.1 Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions

Progressions are some special cases of sequences where the terms of the sequences are either in
increasing form or decreasing form.
We recall some definitions and results we discussed in earlier classes on arithmetic and geometric
progressions.
Arithmetic Progression (AP)

• A sequence of the form
a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . , a + (n − 1)d, a + nd, . . .
is called an arithmetic progression or an arithmetic sequence. In other words, each term (other
than the first term) of the sequence is obtained by adding a constant to its previous term; the
constant d is called common difference and the term a is called the initial term or first term.
• The nth term of√an arithmetic
√ √ progression
√ √ is given
√ by√Tn = a + (n − 1)d.
• The sequences 2, 2 + 3, 2 +√2 3, 2 + 3 3, . . . and 12, 9, 6, 3, . . . are arithmetic
sequences with common differences 3 and −3 respectively.
• It is interesting to observe that 3, 7, 11 are three prime numbers which form an AP.
• For n ∈ N, Tn = an + b where a and b are relatively prime, form an AP which contains infinitely
many prime numbers along with infinitely many composite numbers.
Geometric Progression (GP)

• A sequence of the form
a, ar, ar2 , ar3 , . . . , arn−1 , arn , . . .
with a 6= 0 is called a geometric progression or a geometric sequence. In other words, each

term (other than the first term) of the sequence is obtained by multiplying its previous term by a
constant; the constant r is called common ratio and the term a is called the initial term or first
term.
• The nth term of a geometric progression√ is given by√ Tn = ar
n−1
√ .
• The sequences 1, 2, 4, 8, √16, . . . and 2, 2, 2 2, 4, 4 2, 16, . . . are geometric sequences
with common ratios 2 and 2 respectively.
• Taking logarithm of each term in a geometric progression with positive common ratio yields an
arithmetic progression. i.e., If a, ar, ar2 , . . . is a GP with r > 0, then log a, log(ar), log(ar2 ), . . .
is an AP with common difference log r.
It is interesting to note that the constant sequence c, c, c, . . . is an arithmetic sequence and is also a
geometric sequence if c 6= 0.
Let us consider the special constant sequence 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . . We have no problem in seeing this as
an arithmetic sequence. But when we try to see this as a geometric sequence clearly the initial term
a must be 0. What can we say about the common ratio r? If we take r as 1, 2 or any other number
we get the same sequence 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . . We are left with the situation where a geometric sequence
has infinitely many common ratios. To overcome these confusions some mathematicians exclude this
sequence from the class of geometric sequences by assuming a 6= 0 in the definition. (We made this
assumption)
5.4.2 Arithmetico-Geometric Progression

Combining arithmetic and geometric progressions, a new progression called arithmetico geometric
progression is formed. As we use the abbreviations AP and GP for arithmetic progressions and
geometric progressions, we use the abbreviation AGP for arithmetico geometric progression. AGP’s
arise in various applications, such as the computation of expected value in probability theory.
Definition 5.1: A sequence of the form
a, (a + d)r, (a + 2d)r2 , (a + 3d)r3 , . . . , (a + (n − 1)d)rn−1 , (a + nd)rn , . . .
is called an arithmetico-geometric progression or an arithmetico-geometric sequence.

Consider an AP: a, a + d, a + 2d, · · ·
GP: 1, r, r2 , · · ·
Then the AGP is a, (a + d)r, (a + 2d)r2 , · · ·
Here, a is the initial term, d is the common difference and r is the common ratio of the AGP.
If we take r = 1, then the AGP will become an AP and if we take d = 0, then it will become
a GP. So the arithmetic and Geometric progressions become particular cases of AGP. This is a nice
situation to know the concept of generalization in mathematics.
We note that the nth term of an AGP is given by Tn = (a + (n − 1)d)rn−1 . All APs and all GPs
are AGPs.
For example, the AP 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, · · · and the GP 1, 21 , 14 , 18 , · · · give the AGP 01 , 12 , 24 , 38 , · · ·
The sequence 4, 14, 40, 104, 256, 608, . . . is also an example of an arithmetico-geometric progres-
sion. For this sequence a = 4, d = 3 and r = 2.
5.4.3 Harmonic Progression (HP)

Harmonic progression is one of many important sequences and is closely related to the arithmetic
progression. Harmonic progression is widely used.
Definition 5.2: A sequence h1 , h2 , h3 , . . . is said to a harmonic sequence or a harmonic progression
if h11 , h12 , h13 , h14 , . . . is an arithmetic sequence.
Note that a sequence is in harmonic progression if its reciprocals are in arithmetic progression.
But we should not say that harmonic progressions are reciprocals of arithmetic progressions; in fact,
if an arithmetic sequence contains a zero term, then its reciprocal is not meaningful. Of course, if
an arithmetic progression contains no zero term, then its reciprocal is a harmonic progression. So a
general harmonic progression will be of the form
1 1 1 1
, , , ,....
a a + d a + 2d a + 3d
As the denominator of a fraction cannot be 0, a + kd 6= 0 for any integer k ≥ 0. So the condition −a
d
is not a whole number is essential. Problems in harmonic progression can be converted into problems
in arithmetic progression and be solved using arithmetic progression techniques and formulae.
Note:
(i) The sequence n1 = 1, 12 , 13 , · · · is a harmonic sequence.

One can draw the graph of
1 1

{(n, n ) : n ∈ N} and visualize the harmonic sequence n .
2ac
(ii) If a, b, c are in HP, then b = a+c .
(iii) In a triangle, if the altitudes are in AP, then the sides are in HP
a a−b
Example 5.12 Prove that if a, b, c are in HP, if and only if c
= b−c
.
Solution:
If a, b, c are in HP, then a1 , 1b , 1c are in AP. Thus, we have 2b = a1 + 1c , which gives ab−ac = ac−bc. So,
a(b − c) = c(a − b), which gives ac = a−b b−c
. On the other hand, if ac = a−b
b−c
, then a(b − c) = c(a − b).
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Dividing each term by abc, we get c − b = b − a . Thus, a , b , c are in AP and hence a, b, c are
in HP.
1 1
Example 5.13 If the 5th and 9th terms of a harmonic progression are 19
and 35
, find the 12th term
of the sequence.
Solution:
Let hn be the harmonic progression and let an = h1n . Then a5 = 19 and a9 = 35. As an ’s from an
arithmetic progression, we have a + 4d = 19 and a + 8d = 35. Solving these two equations, we
get a = 3 and d = 4. Thus a12 = a + 11d = 47. Thus the 12th term of the harmonic progression
1
is 47 .
What can we say about constant sequences? All constant sequences other than the zero sequence
are harmonic progressions also.
5.4.4 Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Mean

We know the concept of “average”. There are many “averages”. Arithmetic mean (AM), Geometric
mean(GM) and Harmonic mean(HM) are also some averages. Let us now recall the definitions of
arithmetic mean and geometric mean, where the terms need not in AP or GP.
Arithmetic Mean and Geometric Mean

Definition 5.3: Let n be any positive integer. Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an be n numbers . Then the number
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an
n
is called the arithmetic mean of the numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an .
The numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an need not be distinct and it is not necessary that the numbers
are positive. It easily follows from the definition that 16 is the arithmetic mean of the numbers
14, 14, 17, 20, 15.
Taking the multiplication in place of addition and nth root in place of division by n in the definition
of arithmetic mean we get the definition of geometric mean.
Definition 5.4: Let n be any positive integer. Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an be n non-negative numbers. Then
the number √n
a1 a2 a3 . . . an
is called the geometric mean of the numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an .

Here also the numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an need not be distinct √
but it is necessary that the numbers
are non-negative. The geometric mean of the numbers 4, 6, 9 is 3 216 = 6. The arithmetic mean of
these three numbers is 19 3
= 6 13 . Observe that the arithmetic mean is greater than the geometric mean
in this case. Is this true always?
It can be proved that “For any set of n non-negative numbers, the arithmetic mean is greater than
or equal to the geometric mean”. That is, if AM denotes the arithmetic mean and GM denotes the
geometric mean, then AM ≥ GM .
Let us prove this inequality AM ≥ GM for two non-negative numbers.
Theorem 5.2: If AM and GM denote the arithmetic mean and the geometric mean of two
nonnegative numbers, then AM ≥ GM . The equality holds if and only if the two numbers are equal.
Proof. Let a and b be any two nonnegative numbers. Then
√
a+b
AM = 2
and GM = ab.
√
We have, (a +√b)2 − 4ab = (a − b)2 ≥ 0 Thus, (a + b)2 − 4ab ≥ 0 which gives (a + b) ≥ 2 ab.
Hence a+b2
≥ ab.
In other words, AM ≥ GM .
Moreover, the equality holds if and only if (a+b)2 −4ab = 0. This holds if and only if (a−b)2 = 0
which holds if and only if a = b. Thus AM = GM if and only if a = b.
Geometrical Proof for AM ≥ GM

Let a and b be any two nonnegative real numbers. If at least one of them is zero, then GM is 0
and hence we have nothing to prove. So let us assume that a > 0 and b > 0. We draw a straight
line segment AB of length a + b and a semi-circle having AB as diameter. Let M be the midpoint
of AB. Then M is the center of the semi-circle drawn. Since M is the midpoint of AB, we have
AM = M B = a+b 2
. So the radius of the circle is a+b
2
. Let D be the point on AB so that AD = a;
then DB = b.
Figure 5.2
Through D we draw the perpendicular to AB and let it to meet the semi-circle at C. We draw straight
lines CA, CB and CM . Since M is the center CM = radius = a+b 2
. Clearly M D = a+b 2
− a. Using
CD BD 2
√ triangles ∆ACD and ∆CBD we have AD = CD and hence√
the similar CD = AD × BD = ab. So
CD = ab. (Using Pythagoras theorem also we can prove that CD = ab.) Since √ the length of any
half chord is less than or equal to the radius, we have CD ≤ CM . In other words, ab ≤ a+b 2
. This
means GM ≤ AM .
The length of the half chord DC is equal to the radius if and only if D = M . Thus equality
AM = GM holds if and only if a = b.
Result 5.1: If a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an is an arithmetic progression, every term ak (k > 1) is the arithmetic
mean of its immediate predecessor ak−1 and immediate successor ak+1 .
Proof. Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an be an arithmetic progression with initial term a and common difference
d. Then
ak = a + (k − 1)d, ak−1 = a + (k − 2)d and ak+1 = a + kd.
Thus
ak−1 + ak+1 a + (k − 2)d + a + kd 2a + (2k − 2)d
= = = a + (k − 1)d = ak .
2 2 2
Therefore, ak is the arithmetic mean of ak−1 and ak+1 .
Result 5.2: If a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an is a geometric progression, every term ak (k > 1) is the geometric
mean of its immediate predecessor ak−1 and immediate successor ak+1 .
Proof. Let a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an be a geometric progression with initial term a and common ratio r. Then
ak = ark−1 , ak−1 = ark−2 and ak+1 = ark .
Thus √ √
√
ak−1 ak+1 = ark−2 ark = a2 r2k−2 = ark−1 = ak .
Therefore, ak is the geometric mean of ak−1 and ak+1 .
Example 5.14 Find seven numbers A1 , A2 , . . . , A7 so that the sequence 4, A1 , A2 , . . . , A7 , 7 is in

arithmetic progression and also 4 numbers G1 , G2 , G3 , G4 so that the sequence 12, G1 , G2 , G3 , G4 , 83
is in geometric progression.
Solution:
Since a = 4 and 4 + 8d = 7 we get d = 38 . So the required 7 numbers are
4 83 , 4 86 , 5 18 , 5 48 , 5 87 , 6 28 , 6 85 .
Since a = 12 and ar5 = 38 we get 32 1
and hence r = 12 . Thus the required 4 numbers are
1 3
6, 3, 1 2 , 4 .
Example 5.15 If the product of the 4th , 5th and 6th terms of a geometric progression is 4096 and if
the product of the 5th , 6th and 7th -terms of it is 32768, find the sum of first 8 terms of the geometric
progression.
Solution:
Let a, ar, ar2 , . . . be the geometric series having the given properties. Since the 4th , 5th and 6th
terms are ar3 , ar4 and ar5 , their product is a3 r12 . Thus a3 r12 = 4096. Similarly a3 r15 = 32768.
a3 r15 32768
Therefore 3 12 = . Hence r3 = 8. This implies that r = 2. a3 r12 = 4096 we have a3 = 1.
ar 4096
Therefore a = 1.
a(1 − r8 ) 1 − 28
The sum of the first 8 terms is = = 255.
1−r 1−2
Harmonic Mean
The harmonic mean of a set of positive numbers is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean of the
reciprocals of the set of numbers. That is, if h1 , h2 , . . . , hn are positive numbers, then their reciprocals
1
are , 1 , . . . , h1n ;
h1 h2
the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals is
1 1 1
h1
+ h2
+ ··· + hn
n
and the reciprocal of this arithmetic mean, that is the harmonic mean of the numbers h1 , h2 , . . . , hn is
n
1 1 1 .
h1
+ h2
+ ··· + hn
Definition 5.5: The harmonic mean of a set {h1 , h2 , . . . , hn } of positive numbers is defined as
n
1 1 1 .
h1
+ h2
+ ··· + hn
In particular, the harmonic mean of two positive numbers a and b is 1 +2 1 which is equal to a+b
2ab
.
a b
It can be proved that “For any set of n positive numbers, the geometric mean is greater than or
equal to the harmonic mean”. That is, GM ≥ HM .
Let us prove this inequality GM ≥ HM for two non-negative numbers.
Theorem 5.3: If GM and HM denote the geometric mean and the harmonic mean of two non-
negative numbers, then GM ≥ HM . The equality holds if and only if the two numbers are equal.
Proof. Let a and b be any two positive numbers. Then
√ 2ab
GM = ab and HM = .
a+b
√ 2ab
GM − HM = ab −
√ a+b
ab(a + b) − 2ab
=
√ a+b √
ab((a + b) − 2 ab)
=
√ √ a +√b 2
ab( a − b)
=
a+b
≥ 0
Thus GM − HM ≥ 0 and hence GM ≥ HM .

We have already proved that AM ≥ GM and now we have GM ≥ HM . Combining these two,
we have an important inequality AM ≥ GM ≥ HM .
Result 5.3: For any two positive numbers, the three means AM , GM and HM are in geometric
progression.
Proof. Let a and b be any two positive real numbers. Then
a+b √ 2ab
AM = , GM = ab, and HM = .
2 a+b
Now
√

a+b 2ab
AM × HM = = ab = ( ab)2 = GM 2 .
2 a+b
That is, AM × HM = GM 2 and hence AM , GM and HM are in geometric progression.

We note the following interesting results.
• If b is the arithmetic mean of a and c, then a, b, c is an arithmetic progression.

• If b is the geometric mean of a and c, then a, b, c is a geometric progression.
• If b is the harmonic mean of a and c, then a, b, c is a harmonic progression.
Note: If a vehicle travels at a speed of x kmph. covering certain distance and it returns the same
distance with a speed of y kmph., then the average speed of the vehicle in the whole travel is the
harmonic mean of the upward and downward speeds. Indeed, if d is the distance, then time taken for
upward journey is xd and the time taken for downward journey is yd .
2d 2xy
Thus average speed is = .
d d x+y
+
x y
For example if a vehicle travels at a speed of 60 kmph. covering certain distance and it returns the
same distance with a speed of 40 kmph., then the average speed of the vehicle in the whole travel is
the harmonic mean of 60 and 40. That is 2×60×40
60+40
= 48 kmph. speed.
Exercise - 5.2
1. Write the first 6 terms of the sequences whose nth terms are given below and classify them
as arithmetic progression, geometric progression, arithmetico-geometric progression, harmonic
progression and none of them.
1 (n+1)(n+2) 1 n
(−1)n 2n+3 3n−2
(i) 2n+1
(ii) n+3(n+4)
(iii) 4 2
(iv) n
(v) 3n+4
(vi) 2018 (vii) 3n−1
2. Write the first 6 terms of the sequences whose nth term an is given below.

1 if n = 1
n + 1 if n is odd
(i) an = (ii) an = 2 if n = 2
n if n is even a
n−1 + a n−2 if n>2
n if n is 1, 2 or 3
(iii) an =
an−1 + an−2 + an−3 if n > 3
3. Write the nth term of the following sequences.
i. 2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 6, . . . ii. 21 , 23 , 43 , 45 , 56 , . . .
iii. 12 , 34 , 65 , 78 , 10
9
, . . . iv. 6, 10, 4, 12, 2, 14, 0, 16, −2, . . .
4. The product of three increasing numbers in GP is 5832. If we add 6 to the second number and 9 to
the third number, then resulting numbers form an AP. Find the numbers in GP.
3 5 7
5. Write the nth term of the sequence 2 2 , 2 2 , 2 2 , . . . as a difference of two terms.
12 23 34
6. If tk is the k th term of a GP , then show that tn−k , tk , tn+k also form a GP for any positive integer
k. 1
1 1
7. If a, b, c are in geometric progression, and if a x = b y = c z , then prove that x, y, z are in arithmetic
progression.
8. The AM of two numbers exceeds their GM by 10 and HM by 16. Find the numbers.
9. If the roots of the equation (q − r)x2 + (r − p)x + p − q = 0 are equal, then show that p, q and r
are in AP.
10. If a, b, c are respectively the pth , q th and rth terms of a GP, show that
(q − r) log a + (r − p) log b + (p − q) log c = 0.
5.5 Finite Series 17
5.5 Finite Series

Roughly speaking a series is the sum of terms of a sequence of numbers; a finite series is the sum
of terms of a finite sequence of numbers. If (an ) is a sequence of numbers, then the expression
n
a1 + a2 + · · · + an is called a finite series. The expression a1 + a2 + · · · + an is denoted as Σ ak .
k=1
Sometimes, depending upon the problem under consideration and for simplicity a series may be given
as a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · with first term as a0 .
5.5.1 Sum of Arithmetic, Geometric and Arithmetico-Geometric Progressions

In the earlier classes we studied about the sum of a few terms, like sum of first n terms, of arithmetic
and geometric progressions. We now recall them.
Sum of Arithmetic and Geometric Progressions

• A series is said to be an arithmetic series if the terms of the series form an arithmetic sequence.
A series is said to be a geometric series if the terms of the series form a geometric sequence.
• The sum Sn of the first n terms of the arithmetic sequence (a + (n − 1)d) is given by
Sn = na + (n−1)n
2
d = n2 [2a + (n − 1)d].
n)
• The sum Sn of the first n terms of the geometric sequence (arn−1 ) is given by Sn = a(1−r 1−r
provided r 6= 1. If r = 1, then the sequence is nothing but the constant sequence a, a, a, . . . and
n
the sum of the first n terms is clearly na. Thus, if r 6= 1, then 1 + r + r2 + · · · + rn−1 = 1−r
1−r
.
Sum of Arithmetico-Geometric Progressions

• A series is said to be an arithmetico-Geometric series if the terms of the series form an
arithmetico-Geometric sequence.
• The sum Sn of the first n terms of the arithmetico-Geometric sequence (((a + (n − 1)d))rn−1 ) is
given by
a − (a + (n − 1)d)rn 1 − rn−1

Sn = + dr
1−r (1 − r)2
for r 6= 1.
Example 5.16 Find the sum up to n terms of the series: 1 + 67 + 11

49
+ 16
343
+ ···.
Solution:
Here a = 1, d = 5 and r = 17 .
a − (a + (n − 1)d)rn 1 − rn−1

Sn = + dr
1−r (1 − r)2
1 − (1 + 5(n − 1))( 17 )n 1 (1 − 71 )n−1

= +5×
1 − 17 7 (1 − 71 )2
1 − 5n−4
7n
5 n−1
7
(7 − 1)
= 6 +
7
7n−1 ( 67 )2
7n − 5n + 4 5(7n−1 − 1)
= +
7n−1 6 7n−2 36
5.5.2 Telescopic Summation for Finite Series

Telescopic summation is a more general method used for summing a series either for finite or infinite
terms. This technique expresses sum of n terms of a given series just in two terms, usually first and
last term, by making the intermediate terms cancel each other. After canceling intermediate terms, we
bring the last term which is far away from the first term very close to the first term. So this process is
called “Telescopic Summation”.
1√ √ 1√ √ 1√
Example 5.17 Find the sum of the first n terms of the series 1+ 2
+ 2+ 3
+ 3+ 4
+ ...
Solution:
1
Let tk denote the k th term of the given series. Then tk = √k+√ k+1
. If we are successful in writing
th
the k term as a difference of two expressions, then we can solve using this technique. We have
√ √ √ √
1 k− k+1 k− k+1 √ √
tk = √ √ = √ √ √ √ = = k+1− k
k+ k+1 ( k + k + 1)( k − k + 1) k − (k + 1)
Thus
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
t1 + t2 + · · · + tn = ( 2 − 1) + ( 3 − 2) + · · · + ( n + 1 − n) = n + 1 − 1
n
1
Example 5.18 Find Σ k(k+1)
.
k=1
Solution:
1
Let tk denote the k th term of the given series. Then tk = k(k+1)
. By using partial fraction we get
1 1 1
= − .
k(k + 1) k k+1
Thus

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
t1 + t2 + · · · + tn = 1 − + − + − + ··· + − =1− .
2 2 3 3 4 n n+1 n+1
Exercise - 5.3
1. Find the sum of the first 20-terms of the arithmetic progression having the sum of first 10 terms as
52 and the sum of the first 15 terms as 77.
3 3 +23 3 +23 +33
2. Find the sum up to the 17th term of the series 11 + 11+3 + 1 1+3+5 + ···.
3. Compute the sum of first n terms of the following series:
i. 8 + 88 + 888 + 8888 + · · · ii. 6 + 66 + 666 + 6666 + · · ·
4. Compute the sum of first n terms of 1 + (1 + 4) + (1 + 4 + 42 ) + (1 + 4 + 42 + 43 ) + · · · .

4 7 10
5. Find the general term and sum to n terms of the sequence√ 1, 3√, 9 , 27 ,√
.... √
6. Find the value of n, if the sum to n terms of the series 3 + 75 + 243 + · · · is 435 3.
5.6 Infinite Sequences and Series 19
7. Show that the sum of (m + n)th and (m − n)th term of an AP. is equal to twice the mth term.
8. A man repays an amount of Rs.3250 by paying Rs.20 in the first month and then increases the
payment by Rs.15 per month. How long will it take him to clear the amount?
9. In a race, 20 balls are placed in a line at intervals of 4 meters with the first ball, 24 meters away
from the starting point. A contestant is required to bring the balls back to the starting place one at
a time. How far would the contestant run to bring back all balls?
10. The number of bacteria in a certain culture doubles every hour. If there were 30 bacteria present in
the culture originally, how many bacteria will be present at the end of 2nd hour, 4th hour and nth
hour?
11. What will Rs.500 amounts to in 10 years after its deposit in a bank which pays annual interest rate
of 10% compounded annually?
12. In a certain town, a viral disease caused severe health hazards upon its people disturbing their
normal life. It was found that on each day, the virus which caused the disease spread in Geometric
Progression. The amount of infectious virus particle gets doubled each day, being 5 particles on
the first day. Find the day when the infectious virus particles just grow over 1,50,000 units?
5.5.3 Some Special Finite Series

In this section we give some of the important formulas of summing up finitely many terms which
follows either an AP, GP, or any specific series.
1. Summation of first n natural numbers:
n n(n + 1)
Σ k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
k=1 2
[Treating this as an AP, one can find the sum.]
2. Summation of the squares of first n natural numbers:
n
2 2 2 2 2 n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Σ k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
k=1 6
[Use the identity a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 ) and try to prove this result.]
3. Summation of the cubes of first n natural numbers:
2
n
3 3 3 3 3 n(n + 1)
Σ k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = .
k=1 2
[Use the identity k 4 − (k − 1)4 = (4k 3 − 6k 2 + 4k − 1) and try to prove this result.]
Note that the above three results were proved in the earlier classes.
5.6 Infinite Sequences and Series

A finite sum of real numbers is well defined by the properties of real numbers, but in order to make
sense of an infinite series, we need to consider the concept of convergence. Consider the infinite sum:
1
2
+ 41 + 18 + · · · with each term positive. Can we assign a numerical value to the sum? While at first it
may seem difficult or impossible, we can certainly do something similar where we have one quantity
getting closer and closer to a fixed quantity.
Let us discuss an interesting problem. Let there be two plates A and B. Let a full cake be placed
on the plate A and let B as empty. Let us cut the cake in A into exactly two equal parts and place one
part on B leaving the other part in A. Let us cut the remaining part of the cake in A into exactly two
equal parts and place one part on B leaving the other part in A. Let us again cut the remaining part of
the cake in A into exactly two equal parts and place one part on B leaving the other part in A. If we
go on doing this what will happen? What will be the amount of cake “finally” in A and in B? Let us
list the stage by stage status:
Stage Plate A Plate B

0 1 0
1 1
1 2 2
1 1 1
2 4 2
+ 4
1 1
3 8 2
+ 41 + 18
1 1
4 16 2
+ 14 + 18 + 16
1
1 1
5 32 2
+ 14 + 18 + 16
1 1
+ 32
... ... ...
1 1
n 2n 2
+ 22 + 23 + 214 + · · · +
1 1 1
2n
... ... ... Figure 5.3
Intuitively we feel that “finally” nothing will remain in plate A and the full cake will be in plate
B. In other words, the cake available in A is 0 and the cake available in B is 1. That is, intuitively we
feel that
1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , , , ...
2 4 8 16 32
“goes” to 0 and
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, + , + + , + + + + ...
2 2 4 2 4 8 2 4 8 16
“goes” to 1 or equivalently
1 1 1 1
+ + + + ...
2 4 8 16
is 1. In this section let us learn the sense in which the words “finally” and “goes” are used and also let
us learn the addition of infinitely many numbers.
We intuitively fell that 1, 12 , 14 , 18 , 161 1
, 32 , . . . “goes” to 0. Similarly we feel that the sequence
1 1 1 1 1
1, 10 , 100 , 1000 , 10000 , 100000 , . . . also “goes” to 0.
If (an ) is a sequence and a is a number so that for any given small positive number, there is a
stage after which the distance between an and a is smaller than that positive number, then we may say
that an goes to a as n goes to infinity. In technical terms we may say that an tends to a as n tends to
infinity. In other words, in the limiting case an becomes a or the limit of an is a as n tends to ∞. We
also say that the sequence (an ) converges to a. If (an ) converges to a, then we write lim an = a.
n→∞
At the same time we cannot say that the sequence
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, . . .
goes to some number. In other words, this sequence do not converge to any limit. So a sequence may
not have a limit. But we can prove that a sequence cannot converge to more than one limit; that is, if
a sequence converges to a limit, then it is unique.
5.6.1 Fibonacci Sequence

The Fibonacci sequence is a sequence of numbers where a number other than first two terms, is found
by adding up the two numbers before it. Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
21, 34, and so forth. Written as a rule, the expression is xn = xn−1 + xn−2 , n ≥ 3 with x0 = 1, x1 = 1
Named after Fibonacci, also known as Leonardo of Pisa or Leonardo Pisano, Fibonacci numbers
were first introduced in his Liber abaci in 1202. The son of a Pisan merchant, Fibonacci traveled
widely and traded extensively. Mathematics was incredibly important to those in the trading industry,
and his passion for numbers was cultivated in his youth.
Knowledge of numbers is said to have first originated in the Hindu-Arabic arithmetic system,
which Fibonacci studied while growing up in North Africa. Prior to the publication of Liber abaci, the
Latin-speaking world had yet to be introduced to the decimal number system. He wrote many books
about geometry, commercial arithmetic and irrational numbers. He also helped in the development of
the concept of zero.
n = 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 · · ·
xn = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 · · ·
For example, The 8th term is sum of 6th term and 7th term. Thus, x8 = 8 + 13 = 21.
Note: There is an interesting pattern in the Fibonacci sequence.

Observe that
(i) every third number is a multiple of 2.
(ii) every fourth number is a multiple of 3.
(iii) every fifth number is a multiple of 5.
(iv) So, every nth number is a multiple of nth term.
Infinite Series
If (an ) is an infinite sequence of numbers, then the formal expression a1 +a2 +· · · is called an infinite
∞
series and is denoted as Σ ak .
k=1
In the beginning of the section we have seen the infinite series
1 1 1 1
+ + + + ···
2 4 8 16
and intuitively felt that “its sum” is 1 (in the cake problem). Actually in the cake problem, the stage
by stage availability of the cake in the plate B is given in the following sequence.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, + , + + , + + + + ···
2 2 4 2 4 8 2 4 8 16
The nth term of this sequence is
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + + ··· + n
2 4 8 16 2
2n −1
which is equal to 2n
. If sn denote this sum, then lim sn = 1. This is one of the reasons for us to
n→∞
feel that the sum
1 1 1 1
+ + + + ··· is 1.
2 4 8 16
Motivated by this we may define the sum of infinitely many numbers. Let (an ) be a sequence of
real numbers and let sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an . If the sequence (sn ) converges to a limit s, then it
is meaningful to say that the sequence (an ) is “summable” and the sum is s. In this case, we write
a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = s
It is customary to say that the series converges to s.

∞
Definition 5.6: Let Σ an be a series of real numbers and let
n=1
s n = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an , n ∈ N
∞
The sequence (sn ) is called the partial sum sequence of Σ an . If (sn ) converges and if lim sn = s,
n=1 n→∞
then the series is said to be a convergent series and s is called the sum of the series.
∞ ∞
We write Σ an = s. Let us see some examples. The series Σ (−1)n+1 does not converge because
n=1 n=1
the partial sum sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, . . . does not converge.
Note: We cannot apply algebraic rules meant for finite series to an infinite series blindly. Consider
∞
Σ (−1)n+1 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · · If S = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · · then one may argue that S = 0 or 1 or 21
n=1
according to S = (1 − 1) + (1 − 1) + · · · , S = 1 + (−1 + 1) + (−1 + 1) + · · · or 1 − S =
1 − (+1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + · · · = S) respectively.
∞
1
The series Σ xn converges if x = 2
whereas it does not converge if x = 2. This shows that
n=0
∞
series like Σ an xn converges for some values of x and does not converge for some values of x. The
n=0
problem of finding the values of x for which sequences of this form converges is beyond the scope of
this book. However in the rest of the chapter we list some series with the appropriate values of x for
which the series converges and the sum of the series whenever it converges.
5.6.2 Infinite Geometric Series

The series Σxn is called a geometric series or geometric progression. Let us start with the series:
∞ n
Σ xn , x 6= 1. If sn = x0 + x1 + x2 + · · · + xn , then sn = 1−x
1−x
. As xn tends to 0 if |x| < 1, we say
n=0
1
that sn tends to 1−x
if |x| < 1.
∞
1
• Σ xn converges for all x with |x| < 1 and the sum is 1−x . That is, for all real numbers x satisfying
n=0
|x| < 1,
1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + · · ·
1−x
∞
1
• Σ (−1)n xn converges for all x with |x| < 1 and the sum is 1+x . That is, for all real numbers x
n=0
satisfying |x| < 1,
1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + · · ·
1+x
∞
1 1
• Σ (2x)n converges for all x with |x| < 2
and the sum is 1−2x
. That is, for real numbers x
n=0
1
satisfying |x| < 2
,
1
= 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3 + · · ·
1 − 2x
∞
xn
• Σ n!
converges for all x and the sum is ex . That is,
n=0
x x2 x3 x4
ex = 1 + + + + + ···
1! 2! 3! 4!
for
∞
all real numbers x.
• Σ (−1)n x converges only for x = 0.
n=0
Let us discuss some special series. By assuming the convergence of those series let us solve some
problems.
5.6.3 Infinite Arithmetico-Geometric Series
• The sum of the arithmetico-Geometric series Σ((a + (n − 1)d))rn−1 is given by
a dr
S = lim Sn = +
n→∞ 1 − r (1 − r)2
for −1 < r < 1.
Example 5.19 Find the sum: 1 + 54 + 7

25
+ 10
125
+ ···.
Solution:
Here a = 1, d = 3 and r = 15 .
a dr
S∞ = +
1 − r (1 − r)2
1 3 × 15
= +
1 − 15 (1 − 1 )2
5
5 3 25
= +
4 5 16
35
=
16
5.6.4 Telescopic Summation for Infinite Series

We discussed about summing terms of a finite sequence using telescopic summation technique in
Section 5.5.2. The same applies for infinite series also.
∞
1
Example 5.20 Find Σ n2 +5n+6
.
n=1
Solution:
1
Let an denote the nth term of the given series. Then an = n2 +5n+6
. By using partial fraction, we get
1 1
an = − .
n+2 n+3
Let sn denote the sum of first n terms of the given series. Then

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
sn = a1 +a2 +· · ·+an = − + − + − +· · ·+ − = − .
3 4 4 5 5 6 n+2 n+3 3 n+3
1 1 1
But as n tends to infinity, n+3
tends to zero and hence 3
− n+3
tends to 31 . In other words sn tends
∞
to 13 . Thus Σ 1
n2 +5n+6
= 1
3
.
n=1
5.6.5 Binomial Series

In the discussion on geometric series we have seen that
1 1 1
= 1 + x + x2 + · · · , = 1 − x + x2 − · · · and = 1 + 2x + 4x2 + · · ·
1−x 1+x 1 − 2x
for some suitable values of x. But the expressions 1−x 1 1

, 1+x 1
and 1−2x can be written as (1 − x)−1 ,
(1 + x)−1 and (1 − 2x)−1 . This suggests us a possibility of having negative exponents, that is negative
powers, for (1 + x), (1 − x) and so on. Yes. This is possible. We can have any power, positive or
negative, integer or rational. We can even have irrational exponent for (1 + x). The binomial theorem
(Theorem 5.1) we proved already is for positive integral exponent (integral exponent means integer
power). Now let us state the binomial theorem for rational power.
Binomial Theorem for Rational Exponent

Theorem 5.4 (Binomial Theorem for Rational Exponent): For any rational number n,
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ···
2! 3!
for all real numbers x satisfying |x| < 1.
As the proof involves higher mathematical concepts, let us assume the theorem without proof and
see some particular cases and solve some problems. In the theorem
1. By taking −x in the place of x, we get
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 − x)n = 1 − nx + x − x + ··· (|x| < 1)
2! 3!
2. By taking −n in the place of n, we get
(−n)(−n − 1) 2 (−n)(−n − 1)(−n − 2) 3

(1 + x)−n = 1 + (−n)x + x + x + ···
2! 3!
Hence
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3
(1 + x)−n = 1 − nx + x − x + ··· (|x| < 1)
2! 3!
3. by taking −x and −n in the places of x and n, we get
n(n + 1) 2 n(n + 1)(n + 2) 3

(1 − x)−n = 1 + nx + x + x + ··· (|x| < 1)
2! 3!
Even though we have explicitly mentioned that n is a rational number in the theorem, some of us may
hesitate to use n in place of a general rational number. So we give the theorem using the representation
p
q
for a rational number.
p p
p p ( − 1) 2 pq ( pq − 1)( pq − 2) 3
q q
(1 + x) q = 1+ x+ x + x + ···
q 2! 3!
p p(p − q) 2 p(p − q)(p − 2q) 3
= 1+ x+ x + x + ··· (|x| < 1)
q q 2 2! q 3 3!
p p p(p − q) 2 p(p − q)(p − 2q) 3
(1 + x)− q = 1− x+ x − x + ··· (|x| < 1)
q q 2 2! q 3 3!
Though the theorem gives a formula to compute (1 + x)n , to solve numerical problems quickly we
must remember and able to write certain expansions directly. Observation of the coefficient in each of
such expansions will be very helpful in solving problems. Let us list some of them: (Try yourself!).
1. (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·
2. (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
3. (1 − x)−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 + 6x5 + · · ·
4. (1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 − 6x5 + · · ·
All the above expansions are valid only when |x| < 1.
2
Example 5.21 Expand (1 + x) 3 up to four terms for |x| < 1.
Solution:
Here n = 32 .
2 2
n(n − 1) (
3 3
− 1)
=
2! 2!
2 −1
(
3 3
)
=
2
−1
=
9
2 2
n(n − 1)(n − 2) ( − 1)( 23 − 2)
3 3
=
2! 3!
2 −1 −4
( )( 3 )
3 3
=
6
4
=
81
Thus
2 2 1 4
(1 + x) 3 = 1 + x − x2 + x3 + · · ·
3 9 81
1
Example 5.22 Expand in powers of x. Find a condition on x for which the expansion is
(1 + 3x)2
valid.
Solution:
If we take y = 3x, then
1 1
2
= .
(1 + 3x) (1 + y)2
1
Now can be expanded using binomial theorem in powers of y. The expansion is valid only
(1 + y)2
1
for values of y satisfying |y| < 1. Replacing y by 3x we can get an expansion of . The
(1 + 3x)2
expansion is valid only for values of x satisfying |3x| < 1; that is the expansion is valid only for
values of x satisfying |x| < 13 .
1
2
= (1 + 3x)−2
(1 + 3x)
2(2 + 1) 2(2 + 1)(2 + 2)
= 1 − 2(3x) + (3x)2 − (3x)3
2! 3!
2(2 + 1)(2 + 2)(2 + 3)
+ (3x)4 − · · ·
4!
1
Hence, (1+3x)2
= 1 − 6x + 27x2 − 108x3 + 405x4 − · · · , |x| < 31 .
1
Example 5.23 Expand in powers of x. Find a condition on x for which the expansion is
(3 + 2x)2
valid.
Solution:
−2 2x
(Clearly we have to use the expansion of (1 + x) . So, we have to write (3 + 2x) as 3 1 +
3
and proceed.)
1 1
=
(3 + 2x)2 2x
32 (1 + )2
3
−2
1 2x
= 1+
9 3

1 −2 2x
= (1 + y) where y =
9 3
1
= (1 − 2y + 3y 2 − 4y 3 + 5y 4 − · · · ), if |y| < 1
9 !
2 3 4
1 2x 2x 2x 2x 2x
= 1−2 +3 −4 +5 − ··· ,| | < 1
9 3 3 3 3 3

1 4 4 32 80
= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + x4 − · · ·
9 3 3 27 81
1 1 4 4 2 32 3 80 4 3
Thus, = − x+ x − x + x − · · · , |x| <
(3 + 2x)2 9 27 27 243 729 2
The expansion is valid if |y| < 1. So, the expansion is valid if |x| < 23 .
We can find square root, cube root and other roots of any positive number by using binomial
theorem. Let us see one such problem.
√
3
Example 5.24 Find 65.
Solution:
We know that for |x| < 1,
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...
2! 3!
√
3 1
65 = 65 3
1
= (64 + 1) 3
1
1 1 3
= 64 3 1 +
64
1
1 3
= 4 1+
64
2 !
1 1
1 1 − 1 1
= 4 1+ × + 3 3 × + ···
3 64 2! 64
1 1 1 1
= 4+ −4× × × + ···
48 9 64 64
1 1
= 4+ − + ···
48 36864
1
≈ 4 + 0.02 since + · · · is very small
36864
√
3
65 = 4.02 (approximately).
√
3
√
3 1
Example 5.25 Prove that x3 + 7 − x3 + 4 is approximately equal to x2
when x is large.
Solution:
√ 1
x3 + 7 = (x3 + 7) 3
3
31
3 7 7
= x 1+ 3 , (| | < 1 as x is large)
x x3
1
7 3
= x 1+ 3
x
2 !
1 1
1 7 − 1 7
= x 1+ × 3 + 3 3 + ···
3 x 2! x3

7 1 49 1
= x 1+ × 3 − × 6 + ···
3 x 9 x
7 1 49 1
= x+ × 2 − × 6 + ···
3 x 9 x
√ 1
x3 + 4 = (x3 + 4) 3
3
31
3 4
= x 1+ 3
x
1
4 3 4
= x 1+ 3 (| 3 | < 1)
x x
2 !
1 1
1 4 − 1 4
= x 1+ × 3 + 3 3 + ···
3 x 2! x3
4 1 16 1
= x+ × 2 − × 6 + ···
3 x 9 x
1
√
Since x is large,
√ x
is very small and hence higher powers of x1 are negligible. Thus 3
x3 + 7 =
x + 73 × x12 and x3 + 4 = x + 43 × x12 . Therefore
3
√ √

3 3 3 3
7 1 4 1 1
x +7− x +4 = x+ × 2 − x+ × 2 = 2
3 x 3 x x
√
Note: The binomial theorem is true for all real numbers n. For example, when n = 2, we have
√ √ √ √ √
√
2
√ 2( 2 − 1) 2 2( 2 − 1)( 2 − 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + 2x + x + x + · · · , |x| < 1.
2! 3!
5.6.6 Exponential Series

∞ n
The series Σ xn! is called an exponential series. It can be proved that this series converges for all
n=0
values of x. ∞ n
For any real number x, Σ xn! = ex where
n=0
1 1 1 1
e=1+ + + + + ··· .
1! 2! 3! 4!
We have
x x2 x 3 x4
ex = 1 + + + + + ··· (5.1)
1! 2! 3! 4!
for all values of x. By taking −x in place of x in (5.1) we get
x x2 x3 x4
e−x = 1 − + − + − ··· . (5.2)
1! 2! 3! 4!
In particular,
1 1 1 1 1
= e−1 = 1 − + − + − · · · .
e 1! 2! 3! 4!
From (5.1) and (5.2) we get
ex + e−x x2 x4 x6 ex − e−x x x3 x5
=1+ + + + · · · and = + + + ···
2 2! 4! 6! 2 1! 3! 5!
In particular we have
e + e−1 1 1 1 e − e−1 1 1 1
= 1 + + + + · · · and = + + + ···
2 2! 4! 6! 2 1! 3! 5!
By taking 2x in place of x in (5.1) we get
2x (2x)2 (2x)3 (2x)4

e2x = 1 + + + + + ··· .
1! 2! 3! 4!
On simplification we see that
2x 4x2 8x3 16x4

e2x = 1 + + + + + ··· .
1! 2! 3! 4!
5.6.7 Logarithmic Series
∞ n
The series Σ (−1)n+1 xn is called a logarithmic series. This series converges for all values of x
n=1
satisfying |x| < 1. This series converges when x = 1 also.
For all values of x satisfying |x| < 1, the sum of the series is log(1 + x). Thus
x2 x3 x4
log(1 + x) = x − + − + ···
2 3 4
for all values of x satisfying |x| < 1. By taking −x in place of x we get
x2 x3 x4
log(1 − x) = −x − − − − ···
2 3 4
for all values of xsatisfying |x| < 1.
1+x
Now log 1−x = log(1 + x) − log(1 − x). Using this we get
x3 x5

1+x
log =2 x+ + + ··· .
1−x 3 5
Suppose we want to write log(1+2x) in a series, then we can replace 2x by y and use the expansion
y2 y3 y4
log(1 + y) = y − + − + ···
2 3 4
for all values of y satisfying |y| < 1. But if |y| < 1, then |2x| < 1 and hence |x| < 12 . So if |x| < 21 ,
then
(2x)2 (2x)3 (2x)4
log(1 + 2x) = 2x − + − + ··· .
2 3 4
4x2 8x3 16x4
Thus log(1 + 2x) = 2x − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ · · · for all values of x satisfying |x| < 21 .
Exercise - 5.4
1. Expand the following in ascending powers of x and find the condition on x for which the binomial
expansion is valid.
1 2 2 23 − 23
i. ii. iii. (5 + x ) iv. (x + 2)
√ 5+x (3 + 4x)2
3
2. Find 1001 √ approximately
√ (two decimal places).
3. Prove that q3
x3 + 6 − 3 x3 + 3 is approximately equal to x12 when x is sufficiently large.
2
4. Prove that 1−x 1+x
is approximately equal to 1 − x + x2 when x is very small.
1
5. Write the first 6 terms of the exponential series (i.) e5x , (ii.) e−2x , (iii.) e 2 x .
1+3x

6. Write the first 4 terms of the logarithmic series (i.) log(1+4x), (ii.) log(1−2x), (iii.) log 1−3x ,
1−2x
(iv.) log 1+2x . Find the intervals on which the expansions are valid.
2 3 4 2 3 4
7. If y = x + x2 + x3 + x4 + · · · , then show that x = y − y2! + y3! − y4! + · · · . q
q
8. If p − q is small compared to either p or q, then show that n pq ' (n+1)p+(n−1)q
(n−1)p+(n+1)q
. Hence find 8 15
16
.
3−4x+x2
9. Find the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of e2x
.
∞
1 1 1

10. Find the value of Σ 2n−1 9 n−1 + 92n−1 .
n=1
th
11. After striking the floor a certain ball rebounds 54 of the height from which it has fallen. Find
the total distance that it travels before coming to rest, if it is gently dropped from a height of 120
meters.
Exercise - 5.5
1. The value of 2 + 4 + 6 + · · · + 2n is
(1) n(n−1)
2
(2) n(n+1)
2
(3) 2n(2n+1)
2
(4) n(n + 1)
2. The coefficient of x6 in (2 + 2x)10 is
10
(1) C6 (2) 26 (3) 10
C6 (4) 10
C6 210 .
3. The coefficient of x8 y 12 in the expansion of (2x + 3y)20 is
(1) 0 (2) 28 312 (3) 28 312 + 212 38 (4) 20
C8 28 312 .
4. If n C10 > n Cr for all possible r, then a value of n is
(1) 10 (2) 21 (3) 19 (4) 20.
5. If a is the arithmetic mean and g is the geometric mean of two numbers, then
(1) a≤g (2) a≥g (3) a=g (4) a > g.
2 2 n 2 n+4
6. If (1 + x ) (1 + x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x + · · · + x and if a0 , a1 , a2 are in AP, then n is
(1) 1 (2) 2 (3) 3 (4) 4.
7. If a, 8, b are in AP, a, 4, b are in GP, and if a, x, b are in HP then x is

(1) 2 (2) 1 (3) 4 (4) 16.
8. The sequence √1 , √ 1 √ , √ 1 √ , · · · form an
3 3+ 2 3+2 2
(1) AP (2) GP (3) HP (4) AGP.

9. The HM of two positive numbers whose AM and GM are 16, 8 respectively is
(1) 10 (2) 6 (3) 5 (4) 4.
10. If Sn denotes the sum of n terms of an AP whose common difference is d, the value of
Sn − 2Sn−1 + Sn−2 is
(1) d (2) 2d (3) 4d (4) d2 .
11. The remainder when 3815 is divided by 13 is
(1) 12 (2) 1 (3) 11 (4) 5.
12. The nth term of the sequence 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, · · · is
n(n+1)(n+2) n2 −n+2
(1) n3 + 3n2 + 2n (2) n3 − 3n2 + 3n (3) 3
(4) 2
.
13. The sum up to n terms of the series √1+1 √3 + √3+1 √5 + √5+1 √7 + · · · is
√ √
2n+1
√ √
2n+1−1
(1) 2n + 1 (2) 2
(3) 2n + 1 − 1 (4) 2
.
th 1 3 7 15
14. The n term of the sequence 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , · · · is
(1) 2n − n − 1 1 − 2−n (3) 2−n + n − 1
(2) (4) 2n−1 .
√ √ √ √
15. The sum up to n terms of the series 2 + 8 + 18 + 32 + · · · is
n(n+1) n(n+1)
(1) 2
(2) 2n(n + 1) (3) 2
(4) 1.
1
16. The value of the series 2
+ 47 + 13
8
+ 19
16
+ · · · is
(1) 14 (2) 7 (3) 4 (4) 6.
17. The sum of an infinite GP is 18. If the first term is 6, the common ratio is
1 2 1 3
(1) 3
(2) 3
(3) 6
(4) 4
.
18. The coefficient of x5 in the series e−2x is
2 3 −4 4
(1) 3
(2) 2
(3) 15
(4) 15
.
1 1 1
19. The value of 2!
+ 4!
+ 6!
+ · · · is
e2 +1 (e+1)2 (e−1)2 e2 +1
(1) 2e
(2) 2e
(3) 2e
(4) 2e
.
1 2 1 2 2 2 3
− 41

20. The value of 1 − 2 3
+ 3 3 3
+ · · · is
(1) log 35 3 5 5 5 2 2

(2) 2
log 3
(3) 3
log 3
(4) 3
log 3
.
Summary
• Binomial theorem for any n ∈ N,
(a + b)n = n C0 an b0 + n C1 an−1 b1 + · · · + n Cn a0 bn .
n
• C0 + n C1 + · · · + n Cn = 2n .
n
• C1 + n C3 + + n C5 · · · + = n C0 + n C2 + + n C4 · · · + = 2n−1
• AM ≥ GM ≥ HM
• The nth term of an AP is given by Tn = a + (n − 1)d.
• The nth term of an GP is given by Tn = arn−1 .
• The nth term of an AGP is given by Tn = (a + (n − 1)d)rn−1 .
• For any positive numbers a and b, we have
a+b √ 2ab
AM = , GM = ab, HM = .
2 a+b
n
• The sum of first n terms of an AP is given by Sn = (2a + (n − 1)d).
2
a(i − rn )
• The sum of first n terms of an GP is given by Sn = for r 6= 1.
1−r
a − (a + (n − 1)d)rn n−1
• The sum of first n terms of an AGP is given by Sn = + dr 1−r
(1−r)2
for
1−r
r 6= 1.
n n(n+1)
• Σ k = 1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n = 2
.
k=1
n n(n+1)(2n+1)
• Σ k 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = 6
.
k=1
n 2
n(n+1)
• Σ k 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3 = 2
.
k=1
• Fibonacci sequence 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, · · ·
• Binomial theorem for rational exponent
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + x + ···
2! 3!
for all real numbers x satisfying |x| < 1.
• (1 + x)−1 = 1 − x + x2 − x3 + · · ·
• (1 − x)−1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · ·
• (1 − x)−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 + 6x5 + · · ·
• (1 + x)−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 − 6x5 + · · ·
x x2 x3 x4
• ex = 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ ···.
x2 x3 x4
• e−x = 1 − x
1!
+ 2!
− 3!
+ 4!
− ··· .
ex +e−x x2 x4 x6 ex −e−x x x3 x5
• 2
=1+ 2!
+ 4!
+ 6!
+ · · · and 2
= 1!
+ 3!
+ 5!
+ ···.
x2 x3 x4
• log(1 + x) = x − 2
+ 3
− 4
+ · · · for all values of x satisfying |x| < 1.
2 3 4
• log(1 − x) = −x − x2 − x3 − x4 − · · · for all values of x satisfying |x| < 1.
h i
1+x x3 x5

• log 1−x = 2 x + 3 + 5 + · · · .
Two Dimensional
Chapter 6 Analytical Geometry
“My powers are ordinary. Only my application brings me success ”.
Sir Isaac Newton
6.1 Introduction
Francois viete(1540-1603) introduced the first systematic algebraic

notation and contributed to the theory of equations.Two French y
mathematicians-philosophers René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat
independently founded analytical geometry in the-1630s by adapting P
Francois viete’s algebra to the study of geometric loci. Descartes
established analytical geometry as“a way of visualizing algebraic
formulas” and developed the coordinate system as “a device to locate
points on a plane”. His main achievement was to bridge the gap between
algebra and geometry. With regard to algebra, he explained in detail that
how algebraic equations can be expressed and explained through the
O x
use of geometrical shapes. Analytical geometry is a great invention of
Descartes and Fermat. Cartesian geometry, the alternative term used for
analytical geometry is named after him.
From the17th century onwards, mathematics is being developed in two directions: pure and applied
mathematics. One of the first areas of applied mathematic studied in the 17th century was the motion
of an object in a straight line. The straight line graphs can be used in the fields of study as diverse as
business, economics, social sciences, physics, and medicine. The problem of the shortest line plays a
chief and historically important role in the foundations of geometry.
Given a real-world problem, our first task is to formulate the problem using the language of
mathematics. Many techniques are used in the construction of mathematical models. Let us see
how linear equations (models) can be constructed from a given set of information and solved using
appropriate mathematical techniques. Consider some of the real-world, simple problems as illustrated
below:
Real life situation 6.1: When a student walks from his house, at an average speed of 6 kmph, reaches
his school by ten minutes before school starts. When his average speed is 4 kmph, he reaches his
school five minutes late. If he starts to walk to school every day at 8.00 A.M, then how to find (i) the
distance between house and the school (ii) the minimum average speed to reach the school on time
and time taken to reach the school (iii) the time at which the school starts (iv) the pair of straight lines
of his path of walk (Combined equation of two straight lines).
Real life situation 6.2: Suppose the Government has decided to erect a new Electrical Power Trans-
mission Substation to provide better power supply to two villages namely A and B. The substation has
1
2 Two Dimensional Analytical Geometry
to be on the line joining P and Q. The distances

of villages A and B from the points P and Q
are 3 km and 5 km respectively and the distance B
between P and Q is 6 km. How to calculate the
smallest length of cable required to connect the A l
two villages (or the roads that connect the villages Q
as well as the power station) from the power P ?
station and to find the equations of the cable lines
(or roads) that connect the power station to two Figure 6.1
villages.
Real life situation 6.3:
Consider a hollow cylindrical vessel, with circumference 24 cm and height 10
cm. An ant is located on the outside of vessel 4 cm from the bottom. There is a
drop of honey at the diagrammatically opposite inside of the vessel, 3 cm from
the top. What is the shortest distance the ant would need to crawl to get the
honey? What is the equation of the path traced out by the ant. Here is a picture
that illustrates the position of the ant and the honey.
Figure 6.2
Real life situation 6.4: The quantity demanded of a certain type of Compact Disk is 22,000 units
when a unit price is | 8. The customer will not buy the disk, at a unit price of | 30 or higher. On
the other side the manufacturer will not market any disk if the price is | 6 or lower. However, if
the price is | 14 the manufacturer can supply 24,000 units. Assume that the quantity demanded and
quantity supplied are linearly proportional to the price. How to find (i) the demand equation (ii)
supply equation (iii) the market equilibrium quantity and price. (iv) The quantity of demand and
supply when the price is | 10.
The equation of the straight line for each of the problems stated above, not only solves the specific
case of solutions but also helps us get many information through it. Later, in this chapter, let us try
to solve these types of problems by using the concepts of straight lines. In order to understand the
straight line, we need to get acquainted with some of its basic concepts. Let us discuss those in detail
Learning Objective
On completion of this chapter, the students expected to know
• the equation of a line in different forms
• whether two given lines are parallel or perpendicular;
• the distance of a given point from a given line and between two parallel lines,
• the family of straight lines for a given condition
• the equation of pair of straight lines, angle between them and angle bisectors
6.2 Locus of a point

Definition 6.1: A point is an exact position or location on a plane surface. It is important to
understand that a point is not a thing, but a place. We indicate the position of a point by placing
a dot. In plane analytical geometry, points are defined as ordered pairs of real numbers, say, (x, y)
with reference to the coordinate system.
Generally, a horizontal line is called the x-axis; and the line vertical to the x-axis is called the
y-axis. Intersection of these two axes is called the origin. Any point P in the plane can be located by
a unique ordered pair of numbers(x, y) where x gives the distance between the point P and the y-axis
6.2 Locus of a point 3
and y denote the distance between the point P and the x-axis. Note that if x is negative it lies left of
y − axis, similarly if y is negative it lies below the x-axis. In applications, often letters other than x
and y are used, and different scales are chosen in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Definition 6.2: The path traced out by a moving point under certain conditions is called the locus of
that point. Alternatively, when a point moves in accordance with a geometrical law, its path is called
locus. The plural of locus is loci. The following illustrations shows some cases of loci and its different
uses.
Illustration 6.1: In cricket, when a ball is bowled by a bowler, the path traced out by the ball is the
locus of the ball. Whenever there is dispute between batsmen and the fielders for leg before wicket
(LBW) decisions, the locus of the ball
solves the crises, raised by the players Image courtesy of
for review, through the third umpire. The ESPNcricrifo
likely path of the ball can be projected
forward, through the batsman’s legs, to
see whether it would have hit the stumps
or not. Consultation of the third umpire,
for conventional slow motion or Hawk-
Eye, the probable decision will be taken.
This method is currently sanctioned in
international cricket.
https://www.hawkeyeinnovations.com/sports Figure 6.3
Illustration 6.2: Suppose P be a point on the rim (circumference) of a circular wheel. When the
circle is rolling without slipping along a straight line, the locus of the point P on the rim is shown in
figure. The path traced out by the point P is known as cycloid. (Try yourself by taking a point inside
the circle. Find the names of the curve from the web site: www.mathworld.wolfram.com
https://www.geogebra.org/b/bd2ADu2I
P P
P P
Figure 6.4
Illustration 6.3: A missile is launched from the army ship to attack and another from the land to
intercept it. The loci of the missiles are shown in figure.
Locus of missiles play a vital role in
many wars. During the Gulf War (2
Aug1990-28 Feb 1991), Iraq attacked
Israeli cities with Scud missiles. To
defend from Scud attack, Israel used
Patriot missiles to shoot down enemy
missiles. To launch a satellite or space
shuttle successfully, the determination
Locus of intercepting missiles
of path plays an crucial role in space
research.
Figure 6.5
An equation in the two variables x and y will ordinarily be satisfied by infinitely many pair of
real value of x and y. Every such pair is called a real solution of the equation. Each real solution of
the equation will have its graph. The collection of all these graphs is called the locus of the given
equation.
The following table shows some important loci in mathematics

A moving point P under the given condition Graph Name of the path
A point P moves such that it is equidistant from Perpendicular bisector
y
two fixed points A and B P of the line segment AB
O x
Figure 6.6
A point P moves such that it is equidistant from Angle bisector of the
two fixed lines ox and oy P
angle∠xoy
A B
Figure 6.7
A point P moves equidistant from a fixed point O Circle

r P
O
Figure 6.8
Now let us discuss the ways of finding the locus of the points. The equation of the locus is the
relation that exists between the coordinates of all the points strictly lying on the path.
Procedure for finding the equation of the locus of a point
(i) If we are finding the equation of the locus of a point P, assign coordinates, say (h, k) to P
(ii) Express the given conditions as equations in terms of the known quantities and unknown
parameters.
(iii) Eliminate the parameters, so that the resulting equation contains only h, k and known quantities.
(iv) Replace h by x, and k by y, in the resulting equation. The resulting equation is the equation of
the locus of point P.
Example 6.1 Find the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from the x-axis is equal
to the distance from the y-axis.
Solution:
Let P (h, k) be a point on the locus.
y
Let A and B be the foot of the perpendiculars drawn
from the point P on the x-axis and the y-axis respec- B
P(h, k)
tively.
Therefore P is (OA, OB) = (BP, AP ) = (h, k)
x
Given that AP = BP y=
⇒k=h
O A x
replacing h and k by substituting h = x and k = y
The locus of P is, y = x , is a line passing through the Figure 6.9
origin
6.2 Locus of a point 5
c
Example 6.2 Find the path traced out by the point ct, , here t 6= 0 is the parameter and c is a
t
constant
Solution: c
Let P (h, k)be a point on the locus. From the given information, we have h = ct and k = .
t
To eliminate t, taking product of these two equations
c
(h) (k) = (ct) ⇒ hk = c2
t
Therefore, the required locus is xy = c2
Example 6.3 Find the locus of a point P moves such that its distances from two fixed points
A (1, 0) and B (5, 0) , are always equal.
Solution:
Given that A (1, 0) and B (5, 0) y
P(h, k)
Let P (h, k) be any point on the required path.
From the information we have AP = BP
That is
x=3
q q
2 2
(h − 1) + (k − 0) = (h − 5)2 + (k − 0)2 ⇒ h = 3
O A(1, 0) B(5, 0) x
Therefore the locus of P is x = 3, which is a straight
line parallel to the y-axis. Figure 6.10
Example 6.4 If θ is a parameter, find the equation of the locus of a moving point, whose coordinates
are (a sec θ, b tan θ).
Solution:
Let P (h, k) be any point on the required path. From the given information we have
h = a sec θ and k = b tan θ
h k
⇒ = sec θ and = tan θ
a b
To eliminate the parameter θ, squaring and subtracting, we get
2 2
h k
− = sec2 θ − tan2 θ
a b
2 2
h k
− = 1
a b
Therefore the locus of the given point is
x2 y 2
− 2 = 1.
a2 b
https://www.geogebra.org/geometry
Note: Whenever the parameters are in trigonometric form, try to use trigonometric identities to
eliminate θ
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1, cosec2 θ − cot2 θ = 1.
Example 6.5 A straight rod of the length 6 units, slides with its ends A and B always on the x and
y axes respectively. If O is the origin, then find the locus of the centroid of ∆OAB .
Solution:
Let the coordinates of the points O, A and B
are(0, 0) , (a, 0) and (0, b) respectively.
Observed that the points A and B are moving points. B
Let(h, k) be a centroid of ∆OAB.

Centroid of ∆OAB is
P

0+a+0 0+0+b
, = (h, k). O A
3 3
a b
= h ⇒ a = 3h, = k ⇒ b = 3k
3 3
From right ∆OAB, OA2 + OB 2 = AB 2
(3h)2 + (3k)2 = (6)2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 = 4 Figure 6.11
Locus of (h, k) is a circle, x2 + y 2 = 4.
Example 6.6 If θ is a parameter, find the equation of the locus of a moving point, whose coordinates
are (a(θ − sin θ) , a(1 − cos θ)).
Solution:
Let P (h, k) be any point on the required P P
path. From the given information we have
h = a(θ − sin θ) (6.1) P P

k = a(1 − cos θ) (6.2) Figure 6.12
Let us find the value of θ and sin θ from equation (6.2)
k = a(1 − cos θ)
√
a−k a − k 2ak − k 2
cos θ = ⇒ θ = cos−1 and sin θ =
a a a
√

a−k
Substituting above values in (6.1) we get h = a cos−1 − 2ak − k 2
a
The locus of (h, k) is p
−1 a−y
x = a cos − 2ay − y 2 (6.3)
a
https://www.geogebra.org/b/bd2ADu2I#material/zCKMj8kE
6.3 Straight Lines 7
Note: Though, the parametric form given above is converted to Cartesian form, in some cases the
parametric form may be more useful to work with than the cartesian form.
Exercise - 6.1
1. Find the locus of P , if for all values of α, the co-ordinates of a moving point P is
(i) (9 cos α , 9 sin α) (ii) (9 cos α , 6 sin α).
2. Find the locus of a point P that moves at a constant distant of (i) two units from the x-axis (ii)
three units from the y-axis.
3. If θ is a parameter, find the equation of the locus of a moving point, whose coordinates are
x = a cos3 θ, y = a sin3 θ.
4. Find the value of k and b, if the points P (−3, 1) and Q(2,b) lie on the locus of x2 − 5x + ky = 0.
5. A straight rod of length 8 units slides with its ends A and B always on the x and y axes respectively.
Find the locus of the mid point of the line segmentAB
6. Find the equation of the locus of a point such that the sum of the squares of the distance from the
points (3, 5), (1, −1) is equal to 20
7. Find the equation of the locus of the point P such that the line segment AB, joining the points
A(1, −6) and B(4, −2), subtends a right angle at P .
8. If O is origin and R is a variable point on y 2 = 4x, then find the equation of the locus of the
mid-point of the line segment OR.
a b
9. The coordinates of a moving point P are (cosecθ + sin θ) , (cosecθ − sin θ) , where θ is a
2 2
variable parameter. Show that the equation of the locus P is b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b2 .
10. If P (2, −7) is a given point and Q is a point on 2x2 + 9y 2 = 18, then find the equations of the
locus of the mid-point of P Q.
11. If R is any point on the x-axis and Q is any point on the y-axis and P is a variable point on RQ
with RP = b, PQ = a. then find the equation of locus of P .
12. If the points P (6, 2) and Q(−2, 1) and R are the vertices of a ∆P QR and R is the point on the
locus y = x2 − 3x + 4, then find the equation of the locus of centroid of ∆P QR
13. If Q is a point on the locus of x2 + y 2 + 4x − 3y + 7 = 0, then find the equation of locus of P
which divides segment OQ externally in the ratio 3:4,where O is origin.
14. Find the points on the locus of points that are 3 units from x-axis and 5 units from the point (5, 1).
15. The sum of the distance of a moving point from the points (4, 0) and (−4, 0) is always 10 units.
Find the equation of the locus of the moving point.
6.3 Straight Lines

Linear equations can be rewritten using the laws of elementary algebra into several different forms.
These equations are often referred to as the “equations of the straight line.”
In the general form the linear equation is written as:
ax + by + c = 0 (6.4)
where a and b are not both equal to zero. The name “linear” comes from the fact that the set of
solutions of such an equation forms a straight line in the plane. In this chapter “line”, we mean a
straight line unless otherwise stated.
There are many ways to write the equation of a line which can all be converted from one to another
by algebraic manipulation. These forms are generally named by the type of information (data) about
the line that is needed to write down the form. Some of the important data are points, slope, and
intercepts
6.3.1 The relationship between the angle of inclination and slope

y y
Definition 6.3: The angle of inclination of a straight
line is the angle, say θ, made by the line with the x-axis
measured in the counter clockwise (positive) direction. θ θ
O x O x
Figure 6.13
Definition 6.4: The slope or gradient of a straight line is a number that measures its ”direction and
steepness”. The slope of a line in the plane containing the x and y axes, is generally represented by
the letter m. It can be measured in many ways as given below:
(i) When θ is the angle of inclination of the line with the x-axis measured in the counter clockwise
direction then the slope
m = tan θ.
π π
When θ is , ⇒ m = tan is undefined.
2 2
(x2, y2) B
(ii) When (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) are any two points on the line with
∆y = y2 − y1
x2 6= x1 , then the slope is the change in the y coordinate divided
by the corresponding change in the x coordinate. θ
(x1, y1) A
This is described by the following equation. ∆x = x2 − x1
θ
∆y y2 − y 1 vertical change x
m= = =
∆x x2 − x1 horizontal change
Figure 6.14
(iii) When the general from the linear equation ax + by + c = 0 is given, then the slope of the line is
a
m = − , b 6= 0.
b
m is undefined when b = 0
The slope of a line can be a positive or negative or zero or undefined as shown below:
y y y y
π π
(0 ≤ θ < ) ( < θ < π)
2 2
θ=0 θ=π
2
O x O x O x O x
Positive slope Negative slope Zero slope Undeﬁned slope
y increases y decreases y does not change y changes

as x increases as x increases as x increases x does not change
Figure 6.15
Definition 6.5: In a plane three or more points are said to be collinear if they lie on a same straight
line.
Let A, Band C be any three points on a plane. If the slope of AB is equal to the slope of BC (or
AC), then they are collinear.
6.3.2 Intercepts of a Line

Definition 6.6: The intercept of a line is the point at which the
line crosses either the x-axis or the y-axis.The x-intercept is a y
point where the y value is zero, and the y-intercept is a point where B
the x-value is zero.
y-intercept
Therefore the intercepts of a line are the points where the line A
intersects, or crosses, the horizontal and vertical axes. O x
x-intercept
Therefore it is clear that
(i) the equation of the y-axis is x = 0. Figure 6.16
(ii) the equation of the x-axis is y = 0.
In the figure OA is the x-intercept and OB is the y-intercept.
Different types of x and y Intercepts:
y y y y
B B
O A x A O x A O x O A x
B B
positive x-intercept negative x-intercept negative x-intercept positive x-intercept

positive y-intercept positive y-intercept negative y- intercept negative y- intercept
Figure 6.17
We have learnt the definition and detailed information about the points, slope and intercepts. Using
these information, let us recall the different forms of an equation of a straight line.
6.3.3 Different Forms of an equation of a straight line
Two conditions are sufficient to determine uniquely the equation of a straight line. Using the
combination of any two information from slope, intercepts and points, we can now form different
types of straight lines such as
(i) Slope and intercept form
(ii) Point and Slope form
(iii) The two Point form
(iv) Intercepts form and two more special types are
(v) Normal form
(vi) Parametric form
Now let us look at an important way of describing the relationship between two quantities using
the notion of a function.
(i) Slope and Intercept form
y
Proportional linear functions can be written in the form
y = mx, where m is the slope of the line. Non
proportional linear functions can be written in the form y = mx + b
b
y = m x + b, b 6= 0 (6.5)
x
This is called the slope-intercept form of a straight line

because m is the slope and b is the y-intercept. Figure 6.18
Note:
(1) when b = 0 and m 6= 0, the line passes through the origin and its equation is y = mx.
(2) when b = 0 and m = 0, the line coincides with the x-axis and its equation is y = 0.
(3) when b 6= 0 and m = 0, the line is parallel to the x-axis and its equation is y = b.
(ii) Point - Slope form:
Let m be the slope of the line and A (x1 , y1 ) be the given y
y − y1 = m(x − x1)
point on the line. Let P (x, y) be any point other than A
on the given line. Slope of the line joining A (x1 , y1 ) and P(x, y)
y − y1
P (x, y) is given by m =
x − x1 A(x1, y1)
⇒ y − y1 = m(x − x1 ), (6.6) x
which is known as point-slope form. Figure 6.19

Note: Since, the slope m is undefined for lines parallel to the y-axis, the point-slope form of the
equation will not give the equation of a line through A (x1 , y1 ) parallel to the y-axis. However,
this presents no difficulty, since for any such line the abscissa of any point on the line is x1 .
Therefore, the equation of such a line is x = x1 .
(iii) Two Points form
If (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) are any two points on the line with x2 6= x1 and y1 6= y2 , then the slope
(y2 − y1 )
is m = .
(x2 − x1 )
y2 − y1
The equation using point- slope form, we get y − y1 = (x − x1 ).
x 2 − x1
Rewriting the above equation, we get
(x2, y2)
y − y1 x − x1 y
= (6.7)
y2 − y 1 x 2 − x1
y − y1 x − x1
(x1, y1) y2 − y1= x2 − x1
This equation is called two points form.
Two points form can also be represented
in terms of the determinant as O x

x − x1 y − y1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 = 0. Figure 6.20

(iv) Intercepts form:

If the intercepts of a line on thex-axis and the y-axis are
known then the equation of the line can also be found y
x y
using intercepts. Suppose x-intercept OA = a and y- a + b =1
intercept OB= b, where a and b are non-zero, then the B
line passes through two points A (a, 0) and B (0, b) is
b
y−0 x−a A
= x
b−0 0−a O a
x y
+ = 1 (6.8)
a b
Figure 6.21
The above equation is called an intercept form.
Lines that pass through the origin or which are horizontal or vertical or violate the nonzero
condition on a or b cannot be represented in this form.
In most of the cases this form is used to draw the graph of the line in easy way.
(v) Normal form

Let A and B be the intercepts made by the line.
Let p be the length of the normal OP drawn from the
origin to a line AB, which makes an angle α with the
x-axis.
OP
In right ∆OP A, = cos α and y
OA
OP π
in right ∆OP B, = cos − α = sin α B
OB 2
x cosα + y sinα = p
1 cos α
⇒ =
OA p P
1 sin α
and = p
OB p
α
O A x
Using the above data in intercepts form
x y
+ = 1
OA OB Figure 6.22
x cos α y sin α
We get, + = 1
p p
⇒ x cos α + y sin α = p (6.9)
is called the normal form of equation.

If p is positive in all positions of the line and if α is always measured from x-axis in the
positive direction, this equation holds in every case as shown in the figure
y y y y
α α
B B A O x O A x
p
p
P
P P P
p
p α
α
B B
O A x A O x
Figure 6.23
(vi) Parametric form:

Parametric equations of a straight line is of the form
x = ar + x1 and y = br + y1
where a and b are constants and r is the parameter.
x − x1 y − y1
= = r, (a 6= 0, b 6= 0) .
a b
Suppose we have the equation of the line
passing through the point Q (x1 , y1 ) and mak- y
, y)
ing an angle θ with x-axis. Let P (x, y) be a
P(x
1)
1,y
point on the line at a distance r from Q. Drop r
y − y1
x
perpendiculars QN and PM respectively from
Q(
θ
Q andP to the x-axis and perpendicular QR R
x − x1
to PM.
From the right ∆QRP θ
N M x
x − x1 = QR = P Q cos θ = r cos θ
x − x1 Figure 6.24
Therefore = r (6.10)
cos θ
Similarly, y − y1 = RP = QP sin θ = r sin θ
y − y1
⇒ =r (6.11)
sin θ
From (6.10) and (6.11) we get
x − x1 y − y1
= =r (6.12)
cos θ sin θ
where the parameter r is the distance between (x1 , y1 ) and any point (x, y) on the line. This is
called the symmetric form or parametric form of the line.
Note: The co-ordinates of any point on this line can be written as (x1 + r cos θ , y1 + r sin θ).
Clearly coordinates of the point depend on the value of r. This variable r is called parameter.
Since r is a parameter the equations, x = x1 + r cos θ, y = y1 + r sin θ, is called the parametric
equations of the line. The value of 0 r0 is positive for all points lying on the line one side of the
given point and negative for all points lying on the line other side of the given point.
(vii) The general form of the equation of the straight line is
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are all not zeros
The below table summarizes the types of straight lines related to the given information.
S.No Information given Equation of the lines

1 Slope(m) and y-intercept (b) y = mx + b
2 Slope (m) and point (x1 , y1 ) y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
y − y1 x − x1
3 Two points(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) =
y2 − y 1 x2 − x1
x y
4 x-intercept (a) and y-intercept(b) + =1
a b
5 Normal length (p) , angle (α) x cos α + y sin α = p
x − x1 y − y1
6 Parametric form: parameter-r = =r
cos θ sin θ
7 The general equation ax + by + c = 0
If we have two variable quantities, then each can be represented by a variable. If the rate of change
of one variable with respect to the other variable is constant, then the relationship between them is
linear.
In linear equation, the choice of one as independent and other as a dependent may represent the
physical reality or may be convenient fiction. The independent variable is normally plotted on the
horizontal axis (x-axis), the dependent variable on the vertical axis (y-axis). That is the values of x
are always independent and y is dependent on those values of x.
The number scales on the two axes need not be the same. Indeed, in many applications different
quantities are represented by x and y. For example, x may represent the number of mobile phones
sold and y the total revenue resulting from the sales. In such cases it is often desirable to choose
different number scales to represent the different quantities. However, that the zero of both number
scales coincide at the origin of the two-dimensional coordinate system.
From the given information, to solve the problem using the concepts of straight lines, we have to
select suitably one of the six equations given above.
Example 6.7 Find the slope of the straight line passing through the points (5,7) and (7,5). Also find
the angle of inclination of the line with the x-axis.
Solution:
Let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be (5,7) and (7,5) respectively. Let θ be y
the angle of inclination of the line with the x-axis
y2 − y 1 5−7
Slope of the line m = = = −1 (5, 7)
x2 − x1 7−5
(7, 5)
We know that m = tan θ 3π
3π
That is, tan θ = −1 ⇒ θ = or 135◦ 4
4 O x
Slope and angle of inclination of the line with the x-axis are
3π Figure 6.25
respectively m = −1 and θ =
4
Example 6.8 Find the equation of a straight line cutting an intercept of 5 from the negative direction
of the y-axis and is inclined at an angle 150◦ to the x-axis.
Solution: y
Given that the negative y intercept is 5 i.e., b = −5 and θ = 150◦
1 150°
slope m = tan 150◦ = tan(180◦ − 30◦ ) = − tan 30◦ = − √
3
O x
Slope and intercept form of the equation is y = mx + b.
1 −5
That is y = − √ x − 5.
3
√ √
x + 3y + 5 3 = 0
Figure 6.26

3 1
Example 6.9 Show the points 0, − , (1, −1) and 2, − are collinear.
2 2
Solution:
3 1
Let A, B and C be 0, − , (1, −1) and 2, − respectively.
2 2
3
−1 +
The slope of AB is 2 =1
1−0 2
1
− +1 1
The slope of BC is 2 =
2−1 2
Thus, the slope of AB is equal to slope of BC.
Hence, A, B and C are lying on the same line.
Note: If the rate of change of one variable with respect to the other variable is constant, then
this constant rate of change can be taken as slope.(such as speed, constant increase or constant
decrease. . . ). Also equations of straight lines depend on the coordinate axes how we define it. Thus in
real world problems the equations are not necessarily identical but the path and distance will always
be the same.
Example 6.10 The Pamban Sea Bridge is a railway bridge of length about 2065 m constructed
on the PalkStrait, which connects the Island town of Rameswaram to Mandapam, the main land of
India. The Bridge is restricted to a uniform speed of only 12.5 m/s. If a train of length 560 m starts
at the entry point of the bridge from Mandapam, then
(i) find an equation of the motion of the train.
(ii) when does the engine touch island
(iii) when does the last coach cross the entry point of the bridge
(iv) what is the time taken by a train to cross the bridge.
Solution:
y
Let the x-axis be the time in seconds the y-axis be the distance Distance in metres
in metres. Let the engine be at the origin O. Therefore the length

of the train 560 m is the negative y-intercept.
The uniform speed 12.5 m/s is the slope of the motion of the y = 12.5x − 560
distance
train. speed = time
O Time in seconds x
Since we are given slope and y-intercept, the equation of the
line is − 560
y = mx + b (6.13)
Figure 6.27
(i) The equation of the motion of the train,
when m = 12.5 and b = 560,

is y = 12.5x − 560
(ii) When the engine touches the other side of the bridge (island)
y = 2065 and b = 0
2065 = 12.5x
x = 165.2 seconds.
(iii) When y = 0, the last coach cross the entry point of the bridge,
0 = 12.5x − 560
x = 44.8 seconds.
(iv) When y = 2065, the time taken for the train to cross the other end of the bridge is given by
2065 = 12.5x − 560

x = 210 seconds.
(One may take the tail of the train as the origin and can find the equation of the straight line. It need
not be identical with the above equation, but the path traced out by the train, distance, time, etc.,will
be the same. Try it.)
Example 6.11 Find the equations of the straight lines, making the y- intercept of 7 and angle
between the line and the y-axis is 30◦
Solution:
There are two straight lines making 30◦ with the y-axis.
y
From the figure, it is clear that the two lines make the angles 30°
60 and 120◦ with the x-axis
◦
B
√
Let m1 be tan 60◦ = 3 and
√ 30°
m2 be tan 120◦ = tan(180◦ − 60◦ ) = − tan 60◦ = − 3
√ √ 7
m1 = 3, m2 = − 3 and b = 7 60° 120°
Equations of lines are y = m1 x + b and y = m2 x + b O A x
√ √ C
y = 3x + 7 and y = − 3x + 7
Figure 6.28
Note: Whenever two points are given, one can apply two points form or point and slope form.
Also when two intercepts are given, one can apply intercepts form or two points form
The following example, is solved in chapter V, using the concepts of sequence and series. Let us
solve this problem here, using the concepts of straight lines.
Example 6.12 The seventh term of an arithmetic progression is 30 and tenth term is 21.
(i) Find the first three terms of an A.P.
(ii) Which term of the A.P. is zero (if exists)
(iii) Find the relation ship between Slope of the straight line and common difference of A.P.
Solution:
Since there is a constant increase or decrease in arithmetic progression, it is a linear function.
Let the x-axis be the number of the term and the y-axis be the value of the term.
Let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be (7,30) and (10,21) respectively, using the equation
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) we get
21 − 30
y − 30 = (x − 7)
10 − 7
y = −3x + 51 (6.14)
(i) Substituting x = 1, 2 and 3 in the equation (6.14) we get the first three terms of AP as 48, 45,
and 42.
(ii) Substituting y = 0 in equation (6.14) we get
0 = −3x + 51 ⇒ x = 17.
That is seventeenth term of A.P. is zero.

(iii) clearly the slope of the line−3 is equal to the common difference A.P.
From this example, slope of the line is equal to common difference of A.P. (Try to prove it)
Example 6.13 The quantity demanded of a certain type of Compact Disk is 22,000 units when a
unit price is | 8. The customer will not buy the disk, at a unit price of | 30 or higher. On the other
side the manufacturer will not market any disk if the price is | 6 or lower. However, if the price
| 14 the manufacturer can supply 24,000 units. Assume that the quantity demanded and quantity
supplied are linearly proportional to the price. Find (i) the demand equation (ii) supply equation (iii)
the market equilibrium quantity and price. (iv) The quantity of demand and supply when the price
is | 10.
Solution:
Let the x-axis represent the number of units in thousands and the y-axis represent the price in
rupees per unit.
y
yS = 1 x + 6
3
(i) For demand function, let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be (22,8) price in rupees
and (0,30) respectively.
Using two point form, we get the demand function as
yD = −x + 30
y−8 x − 22
=
30 − 8 0 − 22
⇒ yD = −x + 30 (demand function). O number of units x
Figure 6.29
(ii) For supply function, let (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) be (0,6) and (24,14)
respectively.
Using two point form, we get the supply function as
y−6 x−0
=
14 − 6 24 − 0
1
yS = x + 6(supply function).
3
(iii) At the market equilibrium the demand equals to supply,
1
That is, yD = yS ⇒ −x + 30 = x + 6
3
x = 18 and y = 12.
Market equilibrium price is Rs12 and number of quantity is 18,000 units.
(iv) when the price y = 10, from the demand function yD = −x + 30, we get x = 20.
That is, the demand is 20,000 units.
1
Similarly from the supply function yS = x + 6, we get x = 12.
3
Hence, the supply is 12,000 units.
Example 6.14 Find the equation of the straight line passing through (− 1, 1) and cutting off equal
intercepts, but opposite in signs with the two coordinate axes.
Solution:
y
Let the intercepts cut off from the axes be of lengths a and −a.
∴ Equation of the line is of the form 2
x y
− = 1 ⇒ x − y = a.
a a
Since it passes through (−1, 1) −2 O x
(1) ⇒ (−1) − (1) = a ⇒ a = −2.
Equation of the line is x − y + 2 = 0.
Figure 6.30
Example 6.15 A straight line L with negative slope passes through the point (9, 4) cuts the positive
coordinate axes at the points P and Q. As L varies, find the minimum value of |OP | + |OQ|, where
O is the origin.
Solution:
Let m be the slope of the line L. Since it passes through the point (9, 4) the equation of the line
L is y − 4 = m(x − 9).
4
The points P and Q are respectively (9 − , 0) and (0, 4 − 9m) .
m

4
(m < 0) |OP | + |OQ| = 9 − + |4 − 9m|
m

4
= 9 + + |4 + 9k| (m < 0, take m = −k, k > 0)

k
4
= (9 + ) + (4 + 9k) (all terms are positive)
k
4
= (4 + 9) + ( + 9K)
r K
4
≥ 13 + 2 × 9K (Arithmetic mean ≥ Geometric mean)
K
|OP | + |OQ| ≥ 25
Therefore, the minimum absolute value of |OP | + |OQ| is 25.
Example 6.16 The length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to a line is 12 and makes an
angle 150◦ with positive direction of the x-axis. Find the equation of the line.
Solution:
Here, p = 12 and α = 150◦ , So the equation of the required line is of the form
x cos α + y sin α = p
That is, x cos 150◦ + y sin 150◦ = 12
√
⇒ 3x − y + 24 = 0
Example 6.17 Area of the triangle formed by a line with the coordinate axes, is 36 square units.
Find the equation of the line if the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the line makes an angle
of 45◦ with positive the x-axis.
Solution:
Let p be the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the required line.
The perpendicular makes 45◦ with the x-axis.
The equation of the required line is of the form,
x cos α + y sin α = p
⇒ x cos 45◦ + y sin 45◦ = p
√
⇒ x + y = 2p
√ √
This equation cuts the coordinate axes at A ( 2p, 0) and B(0, 2p) .
Area of the ∆OAB is
1 √ √
× 2p × 2p = 36 ⇒ p = 6 (∵ p is positive)
2
Therefore the equation of the required line is
√
x+y =6 2
Example √ 6.18 Find the equation of the lines make an angle 60◦ with positive x-axis and at a
distance 5 2 units measured from the point (4, 7), along the line x − y + 3 = 0.
Solution:
The angle of inclination of the line x − y + 3 = 0 is 45◦ , and a point on the line is (4, 7).
Using parametric form
x − x1 y − y1
= = r,
cos θ sin θ
the above equation can be written as

x−4 y−7 √ √
= = ±5 2 (for either side of (4,7) at a distance r = ±5 2)
√1 √1
2 2
That is x − 4 = y − 7 = ±5. √
The points on the lines at a distance 5 2 units either side of (4, 7) are
(4 + 5, 7 + 5) and (4 − 5, 7 − 5). √
The points on the lines are (9, 12) and (−1, 2) and the given slope is m = tan 60◦ = 3.
Therefore the required equations, using slope and a point form, we get
√ √
3x − y + (12 − 9 3) = 0 and
√ √
3x − y + (2 + 3) = 0
6.3.4 General form to other forms

Ax + By + C = 0, where A, B and C being real numbers and A and B cannot be simultaneously
equal to zero, can be expressed in terms of A, B and C of the general form into other forms.
(i) Slope and intercept form: (B 6= 0): The given equation can be written as
A C A C
y =− x− ⇒ slope = − and y-intercept = −
B B B B
(ii) Intercepts form: The given equation can be written as
x y
+ = 1 (A, B and C are all non-zero)
C C
− −
A B
Comparing with intercept form, we get
−C −C
x -intercept (a) = and y -intercept (b) =
A B
(iii) Normal form: Here A and B are not equal to zero,
Comparing Ax + By + C = 0, with x cos θ + y sin θ = p
−A −B |C|
We get √ x +√ y =√
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
−A −B |C|
Here cos α = √ , sin α = √ and p = √
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
√
Example 6.19 Express the equation 3x − y + 4 = 0 in the following equivalent form:
(i) Slope and Intercept form
(ii) Intercept form
(iii) Normal form
Solution:
(i) Slope and intercept form

It is given that √
3x − y + 4 = 0
√
⇒ y = 3x + 4 (6.15)
Comparing the above equation with the equation y = mx + b, we have
√
Slope = 3 and y-intercept = 4
(ii) Intercept form
√ √
3x − y + 4 = 0 ⇒ 3x − y = −4
√
− 3 y
x+ = 1
4 4
x y
That is + = 1 (6.16)
4 4
−√
3
x y
Comparing the above equation with the equation + = 1
a b
4
We get, x-intercept = − √ and y-intercept = 4
3
(iii) Normal form:

√
3x − y + 4 = 0
√
(− 3)x + y = 4, (6.17)
Comparing the above equation with the equation Ax + By + C = 0.

√ √
Here A = − 3, and B = 1, A2 + B 2 = 2
Therefore, dividing the above equation by 2, we get

√
− 3x y
+ =2 (6.18)
2 2
Comparing the above equation with the equation x cos α + y sin α = p
If we take
√
− 3 1
cos α = and sin α = and p = 2
2 2
5π
⇒ α = 150◦ = and length of the normal (p) = 2
6
5π 5π
The normal form is x cos + y sin =2
6 6
Note: To express the given equation to the required form, some times, it is more convenient to use
property the proportionality of the coefficients of like terms.
√
Example 6.20 Rewrite 3x + y + 4 = 0 in to normal form.
Solution:
√ x cos α + y sin α = p
The required form
Given form − 3x − y = 4 (∵ p is always positive)
Since both represent the same equation, the coefficients are proportional. We get,
cos α sin α p
√ = =
− 3 −1 4
√ 2

In componendo and dividendo,

cos α sin α p 2
cos α + sin α 1
√ = = =q √ =  whenever a term is square off, 
− 3 −1 4 2 2 2 then it should be square root off it.
− 3 + (−1)
√
− 3 −1 4
cos α = , sin α = and p =
2 2 2
◦ 7π
α = 210 = and p = 2
6
Normal form of the equation is
7π 7π
x cos + y sin =2
6 6
Note: Finding the shortest path between two points on a curved surface can often be difficult.
However, the length of a path on the surface of a cylinder is not changed if the curved surface is
flattened. For the following problem, by unrolling the hollow cylinder and flattening it into a rectangle,
a single reflection allows us to determine the ant’s path.
Example 6.21
Consider a hollow cylindrical vessel, with circumference 24 cm and height
10 cm. An ant is located on the outside of vessel 4 cm from the bottom. There
is a drop of honey at the diagrammatically opposite inside of the vessel, 3 cm
from the top. (i) What is the shortest distance the ant would need to crawl to
get the honey drop?. (ii) Equation of the path traced out by the ant. (iii) Where
the ant enter in to the cylinder?. Here is a picture that illustrates the position
of the ant and the honey.
Figure 6.31
Solution:
By unrolling the hollow cylinder and flat-
tening it into a rectangle, and with a single
H(12, 13)
reflection allows us to determine the ant’s
path, as shown the figure. Let the base line 3
H H
x-axis in cm. and the vertical line through A E
(initial position of the ant) be the y-axis. Let
H be the position of honey drop and E be the 10
A A A(0, 4)
entry point of ant inside the vessel. From the
given information we have 12
Let A(x1 , y1 ) and H(x2 , y2 ) be (0,4) and
(12,13) respectively Figure 6.32
(i) The shortest distance between A and H is

q √
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 = 122 + 92 = 15
the ant would need to crawl 15 cm to get the honey.

y−4 x−0
(ii) The equation of the path AH is =
13 − 4 12 − 0
y = 0.75x + 4 (6.19)
(iii) At the entry point E, y = 10 ⇒ x = 8
E = (8, 10)
Note: Taking the orign at different location, different form of equation can be obtained, but the path
and distance are the same as above.
Exercise - 6.2
1. Find the equation of the lines passing through the point (1,1)
(i) with y-intercept (−4)
(ii) with slope 3
(iii) and (-2, 3)
(iv) and the perpendicular from the origin makes an angle 60◦ with x- axis.
2. If P (r, c) is mid point of a line segment between the axes, then show that
x y
+ = 2.
r c
3. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (1, 5) and also divides the co-ordinate axes
in the ratio 3:10.
4. If p is length of perpendicular from origin to the line whose intercepts on the axes are a and b, then
1 1 1
show that 2 = 2 + 2 .
p a b
5. The normal boiling point of water is 100◦ C or 212◦ F and the freezing point of water is 0◦ C or
32◦ F . (i) Find the linear relationship between C and F
Find (ii) the value of C for 98.6◦ F and (iii) the value of F for 38◦ C
6. An object was launched from a place P in constant speed to hit a target. At the 15th second it was
1400 m away from the target and at the 18th second 800m away. Find (i) the distance between the
place and the target (ii) the distance covered by it in 15 seconds.(iii) time taken to hit the target.
7. Population of a city in the years 2005 and 2010 are 1,35,000 and 1,45,000 respectively.
Find the approximate population in the year 2015. (assuming that the growth of population is
constant)
8. Find the equation of the line, if the perpendicular drawn from the origin makes an angle 30◦ with
x-axis and its length is 12.
9. Find the equation of the straight lines passing through (8, 3) and having intercepts whose sum is 1

1
10. Show that the points (1, 3), (2, 1) and , 4 are collinear, by using (i) concept of slope (ii) using
2
a straight line and (iii) any other method
5
11. A straight line is passing through the point A(1, 2) with slope . Find points on the line which
12
are 13 units away from A.
12. A 150 m long train is moving with constant velocity of 45 km/h. Find (i) the equation of the motion
of the train, (ii) time taken to cross a pole. (iii) The time taken to cross the bridge of length 850 m
is?
13. A spring was hung from a hook in the ceiling. A number of different weights were attached to the
spring to make it stretch, and the total length of the spring was measured each time shown in the
following table.
Weight, (kg) 2 4 5 8
Length, (cm) 3 4 4.5 6
(i) Draw a graph showing the results.

(ii) Find the equation relating the length of the spring to the weight on it.
(iii) What is the actual length of the spring.
(iv) If the spring has to stretch to 9 cm long, how much weight should be added?
(v) How long will the spring be when 6 kilograms of weight on it?
6.4 Angle between two straight lines 23
14. A family is using Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) of weight 14.2 kg for consumption. (Full weight
29.5kg includes the empty cylinders tare weight of 15.3kg.). If it is use with constant rate then it
lasts for 24 days. Then the new cylinder is replaced (i) Find the equation relating the quantity of
gas in the cylinder to the days. (ii) Draw the graph for first 96days.
15. In a shopping mall there is a hall of cuboid shape with

dimension 800 × 800 × 720 units, which needs to be
added the facility of an escalator in the path as shown
by the dotted line in the figure. Find (i)the minimum
total length of the escalator. (ii) the heights at which
the escalator changes its direction. (iii) the slopes of the
escalator at the turning points.
Figure 6.33
6.4 Angle between two straight lines

Two straight lines in a plane would either be parallel or coincide or intersect. Normally when two
straight lines intersect, they form two angles at the point of intersection. One is an acute angle and
another is an obtuse angle or equal. Both these angles would be supplements(Sum equals 180◦ ) of
each other. By definition, when we say ‘angle between two straight lines’ we mean the acute angle
between the two lines.
Let y = m1 x + c1 and
y = m2 x + c2
be the equations of two straight lines and let these two lines make angles θ1 and θ2 with x- axis.
Then m1 = tan θ1 and

m2 = tan θ2
If φ (phi) is the angle between these two straight lines, then

y
φ
φ = θ2 − θ1 ⇒ tan φ = tan (θ2 − θ1 )
m2 − m1
⇒ tan φ =
1 + m2 m1 θ1 θ2
m2 − m1 O x
⇒ φ = tan−1
1 + m2 m1
Figure 6.34
m2 − m1
Note: If is positive then φ is the acute angle and if it is negative φ is the obtuse angle
1 + m2 m1
between the two lines
6.4.1 Condition for Parallel Lines

Lines in the same plane that do not intersect are called parallel lines.
Let y = m1 x+c1 and y = m2 x+c2 be the equations
of two straight lines
y
If these two lines are parallel, then the angle between
lines is zero or π (pi)
If φ (phi) is the angle between the lines then, φ = 0
⇒ tan φ = 0
m2 − m1 O x
⇒ = 0 ⇒ m2 − m1 = 0 ⇒ m2 = m1
1 + m2 m1
That is parallel lines have the same slope. If two non- Figure 6.35
vertical lines have the same slope, then they are parallel.
All vertical lines are parallel.
If the equation of the two lines are in general form as a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,
then the condition for lines to be parallel is
a1 b1
= or a1 b 2 = a2 b 1 .
a2 b2
Note:
(i) The lines parallel to ax + by + c = 0 are of the form ax + by + k.
(ii) The line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 and passing through a point (x1 , y1 ), then its equation is
ax + by = ax1 + by1 .
6.4.2 Condition for perpendicular Lines

π
If the lines y = m1 x + c1 and y = m2 x + c2 are perpendicular, then the angle between lines is 2
If φ is the angle between the lines then
m2 − m1 1 + m2 m1 π 1 + m2 m1 y
tan φ = ⇒ cot φ = cot =
1 + m2 m1 m2 − m1 2 m2 − m1
⇒ 1 + m1 m2 = 0
⇒ m1 m2 = −1
θ1 θ2
If the equation of the two lines are in general form O x
as
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0,
Figure 6.36
then the condition for lines to be perpendicular is
a1 a2 + b 1 b 2 = 0
Note:
(i) The perpendicular line to ax + by + c = 0 are of the form bx − ay = k.
(ii) The perpendicular line to ax + by + c = 0 and passes through the point (x1 , y1 ), then the
required equation is bx − ay = bx1 − ay1 .
Form of lines Condition for parallel Condition for perpendicular

y = m1 x + c1 and y = m2 x + c2 m2 = m1 m1 m2 = −1
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a1 b 2 = a2 b 1 a1 a2 + b 1 b 2 = 0
a2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0
Important Note: If m1 m2 = −1, then the two lines are perpendicular. But the converse is not true,
because the lines are parallel to the axes the result can not be applied, even the lines are perpendicular
when two lines are perpendicular.
6.4.3 Position of a point with respect to a straight line

Any line ax + by + c = 0 (c 6= 0),divides the whole plane in to two parts:
(i) one containing the origin called origin side of the line and
(ii) the other not containing the origin called non-origin side of the line.
A point P (x1 , y1 ) is on the origin side or non-origin side of the line ax + by + c = 0 (c 6= 0),
according as ax1 + by1 + c and c are of the same sign or opposite sign.
If c > 0, then P (x1 , y1 ) is on the origin side or non orign side of the line ax + by + c = 0 ,
according as ax1 + by1 + c is positive or negative.
Note: After rewriting the equations a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0. and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0, such that both
c1 > 0 and c2 > 0, and if
(i) a1 a2 + b1 b2 < 0, then the angle between them is acute
(ii) a1 a2 + b1 b2 > 0, then the angle between them is obtuse.
6.4.4 Distance Formulas

Let us develop formulas to find the distance between
(i) two points
(ii) a point to a line
(iii) two parallel lines
(i) The distance between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) is given by the formula
q
D = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
The above formula was already proved in lower class.

ax1 + by1 + c
(ii) The distance from a pointP (x1 , y1 ) to a line ax + by + c = 0 is √
a2 + b 2
Proof. Let AB be the given line,
ax + by + c = 0 (6.20)
P (x1 , y1 ) be the given point.

y
Draw a line CD parallel to AB through P and drop a

perpendicular from P (x1 , y1 ) to AB to meet at M . Also drop C
a perpendicular from the origin to the line AB to meet at R, Q
and meeting CD at Q. A P(x1, y1)
Let ∠AOR = α R
Therefore the normal form of the the line AB is M
O B D x
x cos α + y sin α = p (6.21)
Figure 6.37
Since the equations (6.20) and (6.21) represent the same equations the coefficients of like
terms are proportional.
√
cos α sin α p cos α sin α p cos2 α + sin2 α
= = ⇒ = = = √
a b −c a b −c ± a2 + b 2
±a ±b ∓c
cos α = √ , sin α = √ and p = √
2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2 a2 + b2
Normal equation of CD is x cos α + y sin α = p0 (6.22)
Since it passes through P (x1 , y1 ), (6.22) ⇒ p0 = x1 cos α + y1 sin α
Required distance = P M = QR = OR − OQ = p − p0
= p − p0 = p − (x1 cos α + y1 sin α)
c ax1 by1 ax1 + by1 + c
= ∓√ ∓√ ∓√ =± √
2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2 2
a +b 2 a2 + b 2

ax1 + by1 + c
Required distance = √
2
a +b 2
(iii) The distance between two parallel lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a1 x + b1 y + c2 = 0 is

|c2 − c1 |
D=√ (It can be proved using above result by taking point (x1 , y1 ) as the origin)
a2 + b 2
Note: The coordinates of the nearest point (foot of the perpendicular) on the line ax + by + c = 0
from the point (x1 , y1 ) can be found from
x − x1 y − y1 (ax1 + by1 + c)
= =− (using parametric form ) (6.23)
a b a2 + b 2
Therefore, the coordinates of the image of the point (x1 , y1 ) with respect to the line ax + by + c = 0
are given by
x − x1 y − y1 2(ax1 + by1 + c)
= =− (6.24)
a b a2 + b 2
Example 6.22 Find the equations of a parallel line and a perpendicular line passing through the
point (1, 2) to the line 3x+ 4y = 7.
Solution:
Parallel line to 3x+ 4y = 7 is of the form 3x+ 4y = 3x1 + 4y1 Let (x1 , y1 ) be (1, 2)
⇒ 3x + 4y = 3(1) + 4(2)
3x + 4y = 11
Perpendicular line to 3x+ 4y = 7 is of the form
4x − 3y = 4x1 − 3y1
Here (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 2)
⇒ 4x − 3y = 4(1) − 3(2)
4x − 3y = −2
∴ The parallel and perpendicular lines are respectively
3x + 4y = 1
4x − 3y = −2
Example 6.23 Find the distance

(i) between two points (5, 4) and (2, 0)
(ii) from a point (1, 2) to the line 5x + 12y − 3 = 0
(iii) between two parallel lines 3x + 4y = 12 and 6x + 8y + 1 = 0.
Solution:
(i) Distance between two points (x1 y1 ) = (5, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = (2, 0) is
q
D = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
= 32 + 42
D = 5
(ii) Distance between the point (x1 , y1 ) and the line ax + by + c = 0 is

ax1 + by1 + c
D= √
a2 + b 2
∴ The distance between the point (1, 2) and the line 5x + 12y − 3 = 0 is

5(1) + 12(2) − 3
D = √
52 + 122
D = 2
(iii) Distance between two parallel lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a1 x + b1 y + c2 = 0 is

|c1 − c2 |
D=p 2
a1 + b21
Given lines can be written as 3x + 4y − 12 = 0 and 3x + 4y + 12 = 0

Here a1 = 3, b1 = 4, c1 = −12, c2 = 12
−12 − 21

|c1 − c2 | = 25 = 2 .5 units.
D=p 1 = √

a2 + b 21 3 +4 2×5
2 2
Example 6.24 Find the nearest point on the line 2x + y = 5 from the origin.
Solution:
The required point is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin on the line 2x + y = 5.
The line perpendicular to the given line, through the origin is x − 2y = 0.
Solving the equations 2x + y = 5 and x − 2y = 0, we get x = 2, y = 1
Hence the nearest point on the line from the origin is (2, 1).
Alternate method:
Using the formula (6.23)

x − x1 y − y1 (ax1 + by1 + c)
= = −
a b a2 + b 2
x−0 y−0 (2(0) + 1(0) − 5)
= = −
2 1 22 + 12
x y
⇒ = = 1 ⇒ (2, 1)
2 1
Example 6.25 Find the equation of the bisector of the acute angle between the lines 3x+4y +2 = 0
and 5x + 12y − 5 = 0.
Solution:
First, let us make the constant term positives in both the equations.
The angle bisectors of the given equations are
3x + 4y + 2 −5x − 12y + 5
√ =± √ (moving point is equidistance from the lines)
32 + 42 52 + 122
Since a1 a2 + b1 b2 = −15 − 48 < 0, the equation of bisector of the acute angle between the lines is
3x + 4y + 2 −5x − 12y + 5
=+ ⇒ 64x + 112y + 1 = 0
5 13
Example 6.26 Find the points on the line x + y = 5, that lie at a distance 2 units from the line
4x + 3y − 12 = 0
Solution:
Any point on the line x + y = 5 is x = t, y = 5 − t
The distance from (t, 5 − t) to the line 4x + 3y − 12 = 0 is given by 2 units.
4(t) + 3(5 − t) − 12
∴ √ = 2
42 + 32
|t + 3|
⇒ = 2
5
⇒ t + 3 = ± 10 ⇒ t = −13, t = 7
∴ The points (−13, 18) and (7, −2).
Example 6.27 A straight line passes through a fixed point A(6, 8). Find the locus of the foot of
the perpendicular drawn to it from the origin O.
Solution:
Let the point (x1 , y1 ) be (6, 8). and P (h, k) be a point on the required locus.
Family of equations of the straight lines passing through the fixed point (x1 , y1 ) is
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) ⇒ y − 8 = m(x − 6) (6.25)

Since OP is perpendicular to the line (6.25)

k−0 h
m× = −1 ⇒ m = −
h−0 k
Also P (h, k) lies on (6.25) ⇒ k − 8 = − hk (h − 6)
⇒ k (k − 8) = −h(h − 6) ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 6h − 8k = 0
Locus of P (h, k) is x2 + y 2 − 6x − 8y = 0
This result shows from the fact that the angle in a semi circle is a right angle.
6.4.5 Family of lines

All lines follow a specific condition are called a family of lines. The following example shows some
families of straight lines.(where m.h, and k are arbitrary constants).
y y y
x
O x
O x
y = mx y=k x=h
Figure 6.38
It may seem that the equation of a straight line ax + by + c = 0 contains three arbitrary constants.
In fact, it is not so. On dividing it by b (or a, whichever is non-zero), we get
a c
x + y + = 0, which can be written as
b b
a c
Ax + y + C = 0 where A = and C = .
b b
The above equation can be written as slope and intercept form.
It follows that the equation of a straight line contains two arbitrary constants, and the number
of these arbitrary constants cannot be decreased further. Thus, the equation of every straight line
contains two arbitrary constants; consequently, two conditions are needed to determine the equation
of a straight line uniquely.
One condition yields a linear relation among two arbitrary constants and hence each arbitrary
constant determines the other. Therefore, the lines which satisfy one condition contain a single
arbitrary constant. Such a system of lines is called one parameter family of lines and the unknown
arbitrary constant is called, the parameter.
Let us now discuss the three types of families of straight lines, using y = mx + b. First two types
are one parameter families and third one is two parameters families
(i) when m is arbitrary and b is a fixed constant.
(ii) when b is arbitrary and m is a fixed constant.
(iii) when both m and b are arbitrary
6.4.6 One parameter families

(i) when m is arbitrary and b is a fixed constant
y = mx +5
Let us find the family of equations of straight lines for the y
m=4 m=1
line y = m x + b by considering m is arbitrary constant and
b is a fixed constant say b = 5. Therefore the equation, for m= 1
3
different real values of m, represents a family of lines with
y-intercept 5 units. A few members of this family are shown 5 m = −2
in figure. For example, in this diagram the slope m takes O x
m = −1
1
−1, −2, , 1 and 4
3
Figure 6.39
Example 6.28 Find the equations of the straight lines in the family of the lines y = mx + 2, for
which m and the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the lines with 2x+3y = 10 are integers.
Solution:
To find the equations of straight lines for the family of line y = mx + 2, we have to determine
the values of the parameter m.
The point of intersection of the lines y = mx + 2 and 2x + 3y = 10 is

4 10m + 4
,
3m + 2 3m + 2
It is given that the slope m and the x-coordinate are integers.
4
∴ is an integer ⇒ 3m + 2 is a divisor of 4 ( ±1, ±2 and ± 4)
3m + 2
∴ 3m + 2 = ± 1, 3m + 2 = ± 2, 3m + 2 = ± 4, where m is an integer
Solving we get, m = {−2, −1, 0}
The equations are, y = −2x + 2, y = −x + 2 and y = 2
(ii) when b is arbitrary and m is a fixed constant.

y = −2x + b
y
As discussed above, suppose b is arbitrary constant and m is a
fixed constant say m = −2,the equation y = m x + b becomes
y = −2x + b. For different real values of b, a family of lines
can be obtained with slope −2. A few members of this family are b
=
shown in the figure. For example, in this diagram b can take values 4
x
b=
−3, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.

2
b = −1
b = −3
0
b=
Two special cases family of parallel lines and family of perpendicular lines are given below
Family of parallel lines: Family of parallel lines to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form ax + by + λ = 0.
For different values of λ (call it lambda), we get different lines parallel to ax + by + c = 0.
Family of perpendicular lines: Family of perpendicular lines to ax + by + c = 0 is of the form
bx − ay + λ = 0. For different values of λ, we get different lines perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0.
6.4.7 Two parameters families

(iii) when both m and b are arbitrary
y
m=3 m=1
Suppose both m and b are arbitrary constants in y = mx +
b, we cannot visualize the family easily in graph. But some m= 1
3
cases like y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) for different real values of P(x1, y1)
m, a family of lines can be visualized. Suppose the slope
1 O x
m takes −2, −4, , 1 and 3, lines which pass through the
3
fixed point (x1 , y1 ) except the vertical line x = x1 as shown m = −4 m = −2
in the diagram.
Figure 6.40
L1 = 0
The family of equation of straight lines through the point λ=5 λ=2
y
of intersection of the two given lines L2 = 0 2
λ=
5
Let L1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and L2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0, P(x0, y0)
be the equation of two given lines. The family of equations λ = −2

of straight lines through the point of intersection of the above O x
lines is L1 + λL2 = 0 where λ is a parameter. That is, for
different real values of λ we get different equations.
Figure 6.41
Example 6.29 Find the equation of the line through the intersection of the lines 3x + 2y + 5 = 0
and 3x − 4y + 6 = 0 and the point (1,1).
Solution:
The family of equations of straight lines through the point of intersection of the lines is of the
form (a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) + λ (a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) = 0
That is, (3x + 2y + 5) + λ (3x − 4y + 6) = 0
Since the required equation passes through the point (1,1), the point satisfies the above equation
Therefore {3 + 2(1) + 5} + λ {3(1) − 4(1) + 6} = 0 ⇒ λ = −2
Substituting λ = −2 in the above equation we get the required equation as 3x − 10y + 7 = 0
(verify the above problem by using two points form)
Example 6.30 Suppose the Government has decided to erect a new Electrical Power Transmission
Substation to provide better power supply to two villages namely A and B. The substation has to
be on the line joining P and Q. The distances of villages A and
B from the points P and Q are respectively 3 km and 5 km and B
the distance between P and Q is 6 km. (i) What is the smallest
A l
length of cable required to connect the two villages. (ii) Find the Q
equations of the cable lines that connect the power station to two
P ?
villages. (Using the knowledge in conjunction with the principle
of reflection allows for approach to solve this problem.) Figure 6.42
Solution:
Take conveniently P Q as x-axis, P A as y-axis and P is the origin (instead of conventional origin
O). Therefore, the coordinates are P (0, 0), A(0, 3) and B(6, 5)
If the image of A about the x-axis is A, then A is (0, −3).

The required R is the point of intersection of the line AB and
x-axis.
AR and BR are the path of the cable (road)
Theq shortest length of the cable is AR + BR = BR + RA = y B
2 2
BA = (6 − 0) + (5 + 3) = 10 km A
5 − (−3) 5 km
Equation of the line AB is y − (−3) = (x − 0) 3 km
6−0
P R Q x
4x − 3y = 9
A
9
When y = 0, R is ,0
4 Figure 6.43
That is the substation should be located at a distance of 2.25 km
from P .
The equation of AR is 4x + 3y = 9
The equations of the cable lines (roads) of RA and RB are
4x − 3y = 9 and 4x + 3y = 9.
Example 6.31 A car rental firm has charges | 25 with 1.8 free kilometers, and | 12 for every
additional kilometer. Find the equation relating the cost y to the number of kilometers x. Also find
the cost to travel 15 kilometers
Solution:
y
Given that up to 1.8 kilometers the fixed rent is | 25.

The corresponding equation is
Rupees
y = 25, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.8 (6.26)

25
Also | 12 for every additional kilometer after 1.8 kilometers
1.8 km x
Figure 6.44
The corresponding equation is
y = 25 + 12 (x − 1.8) , x ≥ 1.8 (6.27)
The combined equation of (6.26) and (6.27), we get

(
25, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1.8
y = (6.28)
25 + 12(x − 1.8), x > 1.8
When x = 15, from (6.27), we get cost to travel 15 kilometers is | 183.40.

If you connect from your mobile phone to book a call taxi it automatically connects you to
the first available cab in your area wherever you are, as long as there’s taxi service. What
type of coordinate system used to locate and navigate? www.mapbox.com
Example 6.32 If a line joining two points (3, 0) and (5, 2) is rotated about the point (3, 0) in counter
clockwise direction through an angle 15◦ , then find the equation of the line in the new position
Solution:
Let P (3, 0) and Q (5, 2) be the given points.
y2 − y1
Slope of P Q = = 1 ⇒ the angle of inclination of
x2 − x 1
π y
the line P Q = tan−1 (1) = = 45◦
4
∴ The slope of the line in new position is 15°
√ Q(5, 2)
m = tan(45◦ + 15◦ ) ⇒ Slope = tan(60◦ ) = ( 3)
P(3, 0) x
∴ Equation
√ of the straight line passing through (3, 0) and with
the slope 3 is
√ Figure 6.45
y − 0 = 3(x − 3)
√ √
3x − y − 3 3 = 0
Exercise - 6.3
1. Show that the lines are 3x + 2y + 9 = 0 and 12x + 8y − 15 = 0 are parallel lines.
2. Find the equation of the straight line parallel to 5x − 4y + 3 = 0 and having x-intercept 3.
3. Find the equations of two straight lines which are parallel to the line 12x + 5y + 2 = 0 and at a
unit distance from the point (1, − 1).
4. Find the equations of straight lines which are perpendicular to the line 3x + 4y − 6 = 0 and are at
a distance of 4 units from (2, 1).
5. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to 2x + 3y = 10 and which is such that the sum of its
intercepts on the axes is 15.
6. Find the length of the perpendicular and the co-ordinates of the foot of the perpendicular from
(−10, −2) to the line x + y − 2 = 0
7. If p1 and p2 are the lengths of the perpendiculars from the origin to the straight lines
x sec θ + y cosec θ = 2a and x cos θ − y sin θ = a cos 2θ, then prove that p21 + p22 = a2 .
8. Find the distance between the parallel lines
(i) 12x + 5y = 7 and 12x + 5y + 7 = 0
(ii) 3x − 4y + 5 = 0 and 6x − 8y − 15 = 0.
9. Find the family of straight lines (i) Perpendicular (ii) Parallel to 3x + 4y − 12 = 0.
10. If the line joining two points A(2,0) and B(3,1) is rotated about A in anticlockwise direction
through an angle of 15o , then find the equation of the line in new position.
11. A ray of light coming from the point (1,2) is reflected at a point A on the x-axis and it passes
through the point (5,3). Find the co-ordinates of the point A.
12. A line is drawn perpendicular to 5x = y + 7. Find the equation of the line if the area of the triangle
formed by this line with co-ordinate axes is 10 sq. units.
13. Find the image of the point (−2, 3) about the line x + 2y − 9 = 0.
14. A photocopy store charges | 1.50 per copy for the first 10 copies and | 1.00 per copy after the 10th
copy. Let x be the number of copies, and let y be the total cost of photocopying. Draw graph of the
cost as x goes from 0 to 50 copies. (b) Find the cost of making 40 copies
15. Find the distance between the line 4x + 3y + 4 = 0, and a point (i) (−2, 4) (ii) (7, −3)
16. Write the equation of the lines through the point (1, −1)
(i) parallel to x + 3y − 4 = 0
(ii) perpendicular to 3x + 4y = 6
17. If (−4, 7) is one vertex of a rhombus and if the equation of one diagonal is 5x − y + 7 = 0, then
find the equation of another diagonal.
18. Find the equation of the lines passing through the point of intersection lines 4x − y + 3 = 0 and
5x + 2y + 7 = 0, and (i) through the point (−1, 2) (ii) Parallel to x − y + 5 = 0 (iii) Perpendicular
to x − 2y + 1 = 0
19. Find atleast two equations of the straight lines in the family of the lines y = 5x + b, for which b
and the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the lines with 3x − 4y = 6 are integers.
20. Find all the equations of the straight lines in the family of the lines y = mx − 3, for which m and
the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the lines with x − y = 6 are integers.
6.5 Pair of Straight Lines

The equations of two or more lines can be expressed together by an equation of degree higher than
one. As we see that a linear equation in x and y represents a straight line, the product of two linear
equations represent two straight lines, that is a pair of straight lines. Hence we study pair of straight
lines as a quadratic equations in x and y.
Let L1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and L2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0, be separate equations of two straight
lines. If P (x1 , y1 ) is a point on L1 , then it satisfies the equaiton L1 = 0. Similarly, if P (x1 , y1 ) is on
L2 then L2 = 0. If P (x1 , y1 ) lies either on L1 = 0 or L2 = 0, then P (x1 , y1 ) satisfies the equation
(L1 ) (L2 ) = 0, and no other point satisfies L1 · L2 = 0. Therefore the equation L1 · L2 = 0 represents
the pair of straight lines L1 = 0 and L2 = 0.
For example, consider the two equations
√ √ y
y + 3x = 0 and y − 3x = 0. y − √ 3x = 0
The above two equations represent the equation of two

straight
√ lines
√ passing through the origin with slopes x
− 3 and 3 respectively.
Combining the above equation, we get y + √3x = 0
√ √ Pair of straight lines y2 − 3x2 = 0

y + 3x y − 3x = 0
Figure 6.46
2 2
⇒ y − 3x = 0, represents the pair of straight lines
6.5 Pair of Straight Lines 35
6.5.1 Pair of Lines Passing through the Origin

We first consider a simple case. Both the lines in this pair pass y
through the origin. Thus, their equations can be written as
y − m1x = 0
y − m1 x = 0
y − m2 x = 0
O x
Combined equation of these two lines is y − m2x = 0
Pair of straight lines

(y − m1 x) (y − m2 x) = 0 (6.29)
Figure 6.47
y − (m1 + m2 ) xy + m1 m2 x2 = 0
2
The above equation suggests that the general equation of a pair of straight lines passing through the
origin with slopes m1 and m2 , ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is a homogenous equation of degree two,
implying that the degree of each term is 2.
Note: Nature of the homogenous equations tells us whether the lines pass through the origin.
Example 6.33 Separate the equations 5x2 + 6xy + y 2 = 0

Solution:
We factorize this equation straight away as
5x2 + 6xy + y 2 = 0
5x2 + 5xy + xy + y 2 = 0
5x (x + y) + y (x + y) = 0
(5x + y) (x + y) = 0
So that the lines are 5x + y = 0, and x + y = 0

Alternate method: since the given equation is a homogeneous equation, divide the given equation
5x2 + 6xy + y 2 = 0 by x2
y y 2
We get 5 + 6 + = 0
x x
y
Substitute = m (slope of the lines for homogenous equation)
x
The above equation becomes m2 + 6m + 5 = 0
Factorizing, we get (m + 1) (m + 5) = 0
⇒ m = −1, m = −5
y y
⇒ = −1, = −5
x x
That is, the lines are x + y = 0, 5x + y = 0
Example 6.34 If exists, find the straight lines by separating the equations 2x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 0.
Solution:
Since the given equation is a homogeneous equation, divide the given equation 2x2 +2xy +y 2 =
y
0 by x2 and substituting = m
x
We get m2 + 2m + 2 = 0
The values of m (slopes) are not real (complex number), therefore no line will exist with the
joint equation 2x2 + 2xy + y 2 = 0
We sometimes say that this equation represents imaginary lines.
Note that in the entire plane, only (0, 0) satisfies this equation
6.5.2 Angle between Pair of Straight Lines

Consider the equation of a pair of straight lines passing through the origin as:
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 (6.30)
Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of these two lines.
y
By dividing (6.30) by x2 and substituting = m
x
we get, bm2 + 2hm + a = 0
This quadratic in m will have its roots as m1 and m2 .
−2h a
Thus, m1 +m2 = and m1 m2 =
b b
If the angle between the two lines is θ Then

m2 − m1
tan θ =
1 + m2 m1
q
2
(m1 + m2 ) − 4m1 m2

=
1 + m2 m1

s 2
−2h a
−4

b b

= a

1+

b

√ 2
2 h − ab
tan θ =

a+b
As a consequence of this formula, we can conclude that
1. The lines are real and distinct, if m1 and m2 are real and distinct, that is if h2 − ab > 0
2. The lines are real and coincident, if m1 and m2 are real and equal, that is if h2 − ab = 0
3. The lines are not real (imaginary), if m1 and m2 are not real, that is if h2 − ab < 0
Also, we see that the lines represented by (6.30), are parallel (since both pass through the origin, the
lines are coincident lines) if tan θ = 0, that is h2 − ab = 0, and perpendicular if cot θ = 0 that is
a+b=0
Pair of straight lines Condition for parallel Condition for perpendicular

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 h2 − ab = 0, a+b=0
Example 6.35 Find the equation of the pair of lines through the origin and perpendicular to the
pair of lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
Solution:
Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of these two lines.
y − m1 x = 0 and y − m2 x = 0 (6.31)
Combined equation of these two lines is
(y − m1 x) (y − m2 x) = 0
y − (m1 + m2 ) xy + m1 m2 x2 = 0
2
(6.32)
Given that
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 (6.33)
−2h a
Thus, m1 + m2 = and m1 m2 = (6.34)
b b
The lines perpendicular to (6.31) are
1 1
y+ x = 0 and y + x=0
m1 m2
The combined equation is
(m1 y + x) (m2 y + x) = 0
m1 m2 y + (m1 + m2 ) xy + x2 = 0
2
a 2 2h
By using (6.34) y − xy + x2 = 0
b b
The required equation is ay 2 − 2hxy + bx2 = 0 (6.35)
6.5.3 Equation of the bisectors of the angle between the lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
Let the equations of the two straight lines be y − m1 x = 0 and y − m2 x = 0
2h a
∴ m1 + m2 = − and m1 m2 =
b b
We know that the equation of bisectors is the locus of points from which the perpendicular drawn
to the two straight lines are equal.
Let P (p, q) be any point on the locus of bisectors.
The perpendiculars from P (p, q) to the line y − m1 x = 0 is equal to the perpendicular from
P (p, q) to y − m2 x = 0
q − m1 p q − m2 p
±p 2
= ±p
1 + m1 1 + m22
(q − m1 p)2 1 + m22 = (q − m2 p)2 1 + m21

That is,

2 2 1 − m1 m2
Simplifying we get p −q = 2pq
m +m
 1 2
a
1−
⇒ p2 − q 2 = 2pq 
 b
2h 
−
b
p2 − q 2 pq
That is =
a−b h
x2 − y 2 xy
∴ The locus of P (p, q) is = (6.36)
a−b h
Example 6.36 Show that the straight lines x2 − 4xy +y 2 = 0 and x + y = 3 form an equilateral
triangle.
Solution:
Let the line x + y = 3 intersects the pair of line x2 -4xy + y 2 = 0 at A and B.
The angle between the lines x2 − 4xy +y 2 = 0 is
√ 2 √
2 h − ab 2 4 − 1 √

tan θ = = = 3
a+b 2
√
⇒ θ = tan−1 3 = 60◦
The angle bisectors of the angle AOB are given by
x2 − y 2 xy
=
a−b h
2 2
⇒x −y = 0
⇒ x + y = 0 and x − y = 0
The angle bisectors x − y = 0 is perpendicular to the given line through AB,
that is x + y = 3 ⇒ ∆OAB is isosceles.

⇒ ∠ABO = ∠BAO = 60◦
therefore the given lines form an equilateral triangle.
Example 6.37 If the pair of lines represented by x2 − 2cxy − y 2 = 0 and x2 − 2dxy − y 2 = 0 be

such that each pair bisects the angle between the other pair, prove that cd = −1.
Solution:
Given that the pair of straight lines,
x2 − 2cxy − y 2 = 0 (6.37)
x2 − 2dxy − y 2 = 0 (6.38)
The equation of the angle bisectors of (6.37) is
x2 − y 2 xy
=
2 −c
⇒ cx2 + 2xy − cy 2 = 0 (6.39)
Given that the angle bisector of (6.37) is (6.38)

Therefore equations
x2 − 2dxy − y 2 = 0
cx2 + 2xy − cy 2 = 0
represent the same equation as the angle bisector of (6.37)
Comparing the like terms of the above two equations, we get

1 −2d −1
= =
c 2 −c
⇒ cd = −1
6.5.4 General form of Pair of Straight Lines

Consider the equations of two arbitrary lines l1 x + m1 y + n1 = 0 and l2 x + m2 y + n2 = 0
The combined equation of the two lines is
(l1 x + m1 y + n1 ) (l2 x + m2 y + n2 ) = 0
If we multiply the above two factors together, we get a more general equation to a pair of straight
lines has the form
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 (6.40)
The above equation is a non homogenous equation of degree two.
a = l1 l2 2g = l1 n2 + l2 n1
in which b = m1 m2 2f = m1 n2 + m2 n1
c = n1 n2 2h = l1 m2 + l2 m1
An equation of the form (6.40) will always represent a pair of straight lines, provided it must able
to be factorized into two linear factors of the form l1 x + m1 y + n1 = 0 and l2 x + m2 y + n2 = 0.
Condition that the general second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 should
represent a pair of straight lines
Let us rearrange the equation of the pair of straight lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
as a quadratic in x, we have
ax2 + 2 (hy + g) x + by 2 + 2f y + c = 0

q
− (hy + g) ± (hy + g)2 − a (by 2 + 2f y + c)
x=
a
q
ax + hy + g = ± (hy + g)2 − a (by 2 + 2f y + c)
p
That is, ax + hy + g = ± (h2 − ab) y 2 + 2 (gh − af ) y + g 2 − ac
Since each of the above equations represents a straight line, they must be of the first degree in x
and y. Therefore the expression under the radical sign should be a perfect square and the condition
for this is
4 (gh − af )2 − 4 h2 − ab g 2 − ac = 0

Simplifying and dividing by a,

We get, abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0 or

a h g

h b f =0 (Expansion of Determinant will be studied in the next chapter)

g f c
Results without Proof:

(i) Two straight lines represented by the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 are
a h g
parallel if = = or bg 2 = af 2
h b f
(ii) If ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a pair of parallel straight lines, then
s s
(g 2 − ac) (f 2 − bc)
the distance between them is 2 or 2
a(a + b) b(a + b)
The relationship between the equations of pair of straight lines

ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
y
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 (6.41)
P
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0) (6.42)
The slope of the above pair of straight lines (6.41) and O x

(6.42) are depending only on the coefficients of 2 by2
ax + 2hxy + =0
x2 , xy and y 2 .
Figure 6.48
(i) If the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a pair of straight lines, then
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 represents a pair of straight lines through the origin parallel to the first
pair. The point of intersection (6.41) is (0, 0) and the point of intersection (6.42) is

hf − bg gh − af
P ,
ab − h2 ab − h2
(ii) If θ be the angle between the straight lines represented by the equation
ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, then it will have the same value as the angle between
the two lines represented by ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
√ 2
−1 2 h − ab

Thus θ = tan
a+b
(iii) If the two straight lines represented by the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 are
at right angles, then the two lines represented by ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 are also at right angles
and the condition is a + b = 0
Example 6.38 If the equation λx2 − 10xy + 12y 2 + 5x− 16y− 3 = 0 represents a pair of straight
lines, find (i) the value of λ and the separate equations of the lines (ii) point of intersection of the
lines (iii) angle between the lines
Solution:
(i) Comparing the given equation with the general equation of the second degree we have
5
a = λ, b = 12, c = −3, h = −5, g = , f = −8
2
Now applying the condition for pair of straight lines
abc + 2 fgh − a f 2 − bg2 − ch2 = 0

2
5 2 5
i.e. λ(12)(−3) + 2(−8) (−5) − λ(−8) − 12 − (−3)(−5)2 = 0
2 2
⇒ −36λ + 200 − 64λ − 75 + 75 = 0, ⇒ λ = 2
∴ The equation is 2x2 − 10xy + 12y 2 + 5x − 16y − 3 = 0.

Let us first factorize the terms of second degree terms from the above equation,
we get 2x2 − 10xy + 12y 2 ≡ (x − 2y)(2x − 6y)

∴ 2x2 − 10xy + 12y 2 + 5x − 16y − 3 ≡ (x − 2y + c1 ) (2x − 6y + c2 )
Equating like terms, we get
2c1 + c2 = 5, 3c1 + c2 = 8, c1 c2 = −3
Solving first two equation, we get c1 = 3, c2 = −1.
∴ The separate equations of the lines are
x − 2y + 3 = 0 and 2x − 6y − 1 = 0
(ii) Point of intersection of the lines is given by solving the two equation of the lines, we get

7 hf − bg hg − af
(x, y) = −10, − or use the formula ,
2 ab − h2 ab − h2
(iii) Angle between the lines is given by
√ 2
2 h − ab
tan θ =
a+b
√
2 25 − 24 1
= =
2 + 12
7
1
∴ θ = tan−1
7
Example 6.39 A student when walks from his house, at an average speed of 6 kmph, reaches his
school ten minutes before the school starts. When his average speed is 4 kmph, he reaches his school
five minutes late. If he starts to school every day at 8.00 A.M, then find (i) the distance between his
house and the school (ii) the minimum average speed to reach the school on time and time taken
to reach the school (iii) the time the school gate closes (iv) the pair of straight lines of his path of
walk.
Solution:
Let x-axis be the time in hours and y-axis be the distance in kilometer.
From the given information, we have
10
y = 6(x − ) ⇒ y = 6x − 1 (6.43)
60
5 1
y = 4(x + ) ⇒ y = 4x + (6.44)
60 3

2
Solving the above two equations, we get (x, y) = ,3
3
2
x= hour = 40 minutes, y = 3 km
3
(i) the distance between house and the school is 3km
(ii) the minimum average speed to reach the school on time is
60
× 3 = 4.5 kmph
40
2
and time taken is hours or 40 minutes
3
(iii) the school gate closes at 8.40 AM
(iv) the pair of straight lines of his path of walk to school is

1
(6x − y − 1) 4x − y + =0
3
72x2 − 30xy + 3y 2 − 6x + 2y − 1 = 0 (6.45)
Draw the graph by using the site: https://www.geogebra.org/graphing

https://www.geogebra.org/m/fhS6HUtP
Example 6.40 If one of the straight lines of ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is perpendicular to px + qy = 0,

then show that ap2 + 2hpq + bq 2 = 0.
Solution:
Let m1 and m2 be the slopes of the pair of lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 and m be the slope of
px + qy = 0
2h a p
Therefore, m1 + m2 = − , m1 m2 = and m = −
b b q
since m is perpendicular to m1 or m2
m m1 = −1 or m m2 = −1
⇒ (m m1 + 1 ) = 0 or (m m2 + 1 ) = 0
⇒ (m m1 + 1 )(m m2 + 1 ) = 0
⇒ (m1 m2 )m2 + (m1 + m2 )m + 1 = 0
a p 2
2h

p
⇒ − + − − + 1 = 0
b q b q
⇒ ap2 + 2hpq + bq 2 = 0
Note: The pair of straight lines through the origin is a homogeneous equation of degree two
Example 6.41 Show that the straight lines joining the origin to the points of intersection of 3x −
2y + 2 = 0 and 3x2 + 5xy − 2y 2 + 4x + 5y = 0 are at right angles
Solution:
The straight lines joining the origin and the points of intersection of given equations is a second
degree homogeneous equation.
Following steps show, the way of homogenizing the 3x2 + 5xy − 2y 2 + 4x + 5y = 0 with
3x − 2y + 2 = 0
(3x − 2y)
3x2 + 5xy − 2y 2 + (4x + 5y)(1) = 0 and =1
−2
2 2 3x − 2y
3x + 5xy − 2y + (4x + 5y) = 0
−2
(−2)(3x2 + 5xy − 2y 2 ) + (4x + 5y)(3x − 2y) = 0
On simplification,
We get, 2x2 + xy − 2y 2 = 0.
Since sum of the co-efficient of x2 and y 2 is equal to zero, the lines are at right angles
Exercise - 6.4
1. Find the combined equation of the straight lines whose separate equations are x − 2y − 3 = 0 and
x + y + 5 = 0.
2. Show that 4x2 + 4xy + y 2 − 6x − 3y − 4 = 0 represents a pair of parallel lines.
3. Show that 2x2 + 3xy − 2y 2 + 3x + y + 1 = 0 represents a pair of perpendicular lines.
4. Show that the equation 2x2 − xy − 3y 2 − 6x + 19y − 20 = 0 represents a pair of intersecting lines.
Show further that the angle between them is tan−1 (5).
5. Prove that the equation to the straight lines through the origin, each of which makes an angle α
with the straight line y = x is x2 − 2xy sec 2α + y 2 = 0
6. Find the equation of the pair of straight lines passing through the point (1, 3) and perpendicular to
the lines 2x − 3y + 1 = 0 and 5x + y − 3 = 0
7. Find the separate equation of the following pair of straight lines

(i) 3x2 + 2xy − y 2 = 0
(ii) 6(x − 1)2 + 5(x − 1)(y − 2) − 4(y − 2)2 = 0
(iii) 2x2 − xy − 3y 2 − 6x + 19y − 20 = 0
8. The slope of one of the straight lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is twice that of the other, show that
8h2 = 9ab.
9. The slope of one of the straight lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is three times the other, show that
3h2 = 4ab.
10. A ∆OP Q is formed by the pair of straight lines x2 − 4xy + y 2 = 0 and the line P Q. The equation
of P Q is x + y − 2 = 0. Find the equation of the median of the triangle ∆OP Q drawn from the
origin O.
11. Find p and q, if the following equation represents a pair of perpendicular lines
6x2 + 5xy − py 2 + 7x + qy − 5 = 0
12. Find the value of k, if the following equation represents a pair of straight lines. Further, find
whether these lines are parallel or intersecting, 12x2 + 7xy − 12y 2 − x + 7y + k = 0
13. For what value of k does the equation 12x2 + 2kxy + 2y 2 + 11x − 5y + 2 = 0 represent two straight
lines.
14. Show that the equation 9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 − 12x + 16y − 12 = 0 represents a pair of parallel lines.
Find the distance between them.
15. Show that the equation 4x2 + 4xy + y 2 − 6x − 3y − 4 = 0 represents a pair of parallel lines. Find
the distance between them.
16. Prove that one of the straight lines given by ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 will bisect the angle between
the co-ordinate axes if (a + b)2 = 4h2
17. If the pair of straight lines x2 − 2kxy − y 2 = 0 bisect the angle between the pair of straight lines
x2 − 2lxy − y 2 = 0, Show that the later pair also bisects the angle between the former.
18. Prove that the straight lines joining the origin to the points of intersection of
3x2 + 5xy − 3y 2 + 2x + 3y = 0 and 3x − 2y − 1 = 0 are at right angles.
Exercise - 6.5
Choose the correct or more suitable answer
1. The equation of the locus of the point whose distance from y-axis is half the distance from origin is
(1) x2 + 3y 2 = 0 C (2) x2 − 3y 2 = 0 (3) 3x2 + y 2 = 0 (4) 3x2 − y 2 = 0
2. Which of the following equation is the locus of (at2 , 2at)
x2 y 2 x2 y 2
(1) − = 1 (2) + 2 =1 (3) x2 + y 2 = a2 (4) y 2 = 4ax
a2 b2 a2 b
3. Which of the following point lie on the locus of 3x2 + 3y 2 − 8x − 12y + 17 = 0
(1) (0, 0) (2) (−2, 3) (3) (1, 2) (4) (0, −1)
2 2
x y
4. If the point (8,−5) lies on the locus − = k, then the value of k is
16 25
(1) 0 (2) 1 (3) 2 (4) 3
5. Straight line joining the points (2, 3) and (−1, 4) passes through the point (α, β) if
(1) α + 2β = 7 (2) 3α + β = 9 (3) α + 3β = 11 (4) 3α + β = 11
◦
6. The slope of the line which makes an angle 45 with the line 3x − y = −5 are
1 1
(1) 1, −1 (2) , −2 (3) 1, (4) 2, − 21
2 2
7. Equation of the straight
√ line that forms an isosceles triangle with coordinate axes in the I-quadrant
with perimeter 4 + 2 2 is
√ √
(1) x + y + 2 = 0 (2) x + y − 2 = 0 (3) x + y − 2 = 0 (4) x + y + 2 = 0
8. The coordinates of the four vertices of a quadrilateral are (−2,4), (−1,2), (1,2) and (2,4) taken in
order.The equation of the line passing through the vertex (−1,2) and dividing the quadrilateral in
the equal areas is
(1) x+ 1 = 0 (2) x + y = 1 (3) x + y + 3 = 0 (4) x − y = 3
9. The intercepts of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining (1, 2) and (3,4) with
coordinate axes are
(1) 5, −5 (2) 5, 5 (3) 5, 3 (4) 5, −4
10. √
The equation of the line with slope 2 and the length of the perpendicular from the origin equal to
5 is
√ √
(1) x + 2y = 5 (2) 2x + y = 5 (3) 2x + y = 5 (4) 2x + y = −5
11. A line perpendicular to the line 5x − y = 0 forms a triangle with the coordinate axes. If the area
of the triangle is 5 sq. units, then its equation is
√ √ √ √
(1) x+ 5y ± 5 2 = 0 (2) x− 5y ± 5 2 = 0 (3) 5x + y ± 5 2 = 0 (4) 5x − y ± 5 2 = 0
12. Equation of the straight line perpendicular to the linex−y+5 = 0, through the point of intersection
the y-axis and the given line
(1) x − y − 5 = 0 (2) x + y − 5 = 0 (3) x + y + 5 = 0 (4) x + y + 10 = 0
13. If the equation of the base opposite to the vertex (2, 3) of an equilateral triangle is x + y = 2, then
the length of a side is
q
3
√ √
(1) 2
(2) 6 (3) 6 (4) 3 2
14. The line (p + 2q)x + (p − 3q)y = p − q for different values of p and q passes through the point

3 5 2 2 3 3 2 3
(1) , (2) , (3) , (4) ,
2 2 5 5 5 5 5 5
15. The point on the line 2x − 3y = 5 is equidistance from (1,2) and (3, 4) is
(1) (7, 3) (2) (4, 1) (3) (1, −1) (4) (−2, 3)
16. The image of the point (2, 3) in the line y = −x is
(1) (−3, −2) (2) ( −3, 2 ) (3) ( −2, −3) (4) ( 3, 2 )
x y
17. The length of ⊥ from the origin to the line − = 1, is
3 4
11 5 12 5
(1) (2) (3) (4) −
5 12 5 12
18. The y-intercept of the straight line passing through (1,3) and perpendicular to 2x − 3y + 1 = 0 is
3 9 2 2
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2 2 3 9
19. If the two straight lines x + (2k − 7)y + 3 = 0 and 3kx + 9y − 5 = 0 are perpendicular then the
value of k is
1 2 3
(1) k = 3 (2) k = (3) k = (4) k =
3 3 2
20. If a vertex of a square is at the origin and its one side lies along the line 4x + 3y − 20 = 0, then
the area of the square is
(1) 20 sq. units (2) 16 sq. units (3) 25 sq. units (4) 4 sq.units
21. If the lines represented by the equation 6x2 + 41xy − 7y 2 = 0 make angles α and β with x- axis,
then tan α tan β =
(1) − 67 (2) − 67 (3) − 76 (4) 7
6
22. The area of the triangle formed by the lines x2 − 4y 2 = 0 and x = a is
√
3 2 1 2
(1) 2a2 (2) a (3) a2 (4) √ a2
2 2 3
2 2
23. If one of the lines given by 6x − xy + 4cy = 0 is 3x + 4y = 0,, then c equals to
(1) −3 (2) −1 (3) 3 (4) 1
2 cos θ + 3 sin θ
24. θ is acute angle between the lines x2 − xy − 6y 2 = 0, then is
4 sin θ + 5 cos θ
1 5 1
(1) 1 (2) − (3) (4)
9 9 9
2 2
25. The equation of one the line represented by the equation x + 2xy cot θ − y = 0 is
(1) x − y cot θ (2) x + y tan θ (3) x cos θ + (4) x sin θ +

y (sin θ + 1) = 0 y (cos θ + 1) = 0
Summary
The types of straight lines related to the information.
S.No Information given Equation of the lines
1 Slope(m) and y-intercept (b) y = mx + b
2 Slope (m) and point (x1 , y1 ) y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
y − y1 x − x1
3 Two points(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) =
y2 − y 1 x2 − x1
x y
4 x-intercept (a) and y-intercept (b) + =1
a b
5 Normal length (p) , angle (α) x cos α + y sin α = p
x − x1 y − y1
6 Parametric form: parameter-r = =r
cos θ sin θ
7 The general equation ax + by + c = 0
Form of lines Condition for parallel Condition for perpendicular

y = m1 x + c1 and y = m2 x + c2 m2 = m1 m1 m2 = −1
a1 x+b1 y+c1 = 0 and a2 x+b2 y+c2 = 0 a1 b 2 = a2 b 1 a1 a2 + b 1 b 2 = 0
A point P (x1 , y1 )is on the origin side or non origin side of the line ax+by +c = 0 (c 6= 0), according
as ax1 + by1 + c and c are of the same sign or opposite sign.
The distance between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y 2 ) is given by the formula
q
D = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

ax1 + by1 + c
The distance from a point P (x1 , y1 ) to a line ax + by + c = 0 is √
a2 + b 2
|c2 − c1 |
The distance between two parallel lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a1 x + b1 y + c2 = 0 is √
a2 + b 2
The line parallel to ax + by + c = 0 through a point (x1 , y1 ), is ax + by = ax1 + by1
and the perpendicular line is bx − ay = bx1 − ay1
The coordinates of the image of the point (x1 , y1 ) with respect to the line ax + by + c = 0 can be
obtained by the line
x − x1 y − y1 2(ax1 + by1 + c)
= =−
a b a2 + b 2
Pair of straight lines Condition for parallel Condition for perpendicular

ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 h2 − ab = 0, a+b=0
The equation of the bisectors of the angle between the lines ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is
x2 − y 2 xy
=
a−b h
.
The condition that the general second degree equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0
should represent a pair of straight lines is abc + 2f gh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch2 = 0
√ 2
-1 2 h − ab
(i) The angle between them is θ = tan
a+b
If a + b = 0, then the lines are perpendicular.
(ii) The point of intersection

hf − bg gh − af
P ,
ab − h2 ab − h2
(iii) Two straight lines represented by the equation ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 are
a h g
parallel if = = or bg 2 = af 2
h b f
(iv) If ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 represents a pair of parallel straight lines, then
s s
(g 2 − ac) (f 2 − bc)
the distance between them is 2 or 2
a(a + b) b(a + b)

Xi Maths

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Xi Maths

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Xi Maths

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Sets, Relations and

“a set is many that allows itself to be thought of as a one”

and the intersection as

1.2.1 Properties of Set Operations

1.3 Cartesian Product

Similarly, the Cartesian product A × B × C is defined by

Thus A × A = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ A}.

Is it correct to say A × A = {(a, a) : a ∈ A}?

Symbolically, R × R can be represented as R2 and R × R × R as R3 . Note that R × R is a set of

Here A × B is a subset of R × R. The number of elements in A × B is the product of the number

(i) {(x, 2x)

Example 1.1 Find the number of subsets of A if A = {x : x = 4n + 1, 2 ≤ n ≤ 5, n ∈ N}.

n(A ∩ B 0 ∩ C 0 ) = n{A ∩ (B ∪ C)0 } = n(A) − n{A ∩ (B ∪ C)}.

Thus the required number of persons is 1950.

Example 1.3 Prove that

Note: Try to simplify the above expression using Venn diagram.

Example 1.7 If n(A) = 10 and n(A ∩ B) = 3, find n((A ∩ B)0 ∩ A).

Example 1.8 If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, find n((A ∪ B) × (A ∩ B) × (A∆B)).

1.4 Constants and Variables, Intervals and

1.4.1 Constants and Variables

1.4.2 Intervals and Neigbourhoods

Interval N otation Set Diagramatic

(−∞, ∞) {x : −∞ < x < ∞}  -

Try to write the following intervals in symbolic form.

(i) {x : x ∈ R, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0} (ii) {x : x ∈ R, 0 < x < 8}

Illustration 1.2 (Geometry): Consider the following three equations

(i) 2x − y = 0 (ii) x2 − y = 0 (iii) x − y 2 = 0

Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7

Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11 Figure 1.12

1.5.1 Type of Relations

As (1, 1) ∈ / R it is not reflexive; as (1, 10) ∈ R and (10, 1) ∈ / R it is not symmetric.

R−1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) ∈ R}

is called the inverse of the relation R.

R−1 = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 2), (a, 3)}.

Z0 = {x ∈ Z : xR0} = {. . . , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, . . .}

Thus Z = Z0 ∪ Z1 ∪ Z2 and all are disjoint subsets.

(b) Graphical Representation of a Function

(c) Analytical Representation of a Function

Vertical Line Test

Figure 1.15 Figure 1.16 Figure 1.17 Figure 1.18

1.6.2 Some Elementary Functions

Figure 1.19 Figure 1.20

Figure 1.21 Figure 1.22

Figure 1.23 Figure 1.24

Figure 1.25 Figure 1.26

1.6.3 Types of Functions

Figure 1.27 Figure 1.28 Figure 1.29

(vi) There is no bijection from A to B if and only if, m 6= n.

(i) If f (n) = f (m), then n + 2 = m + 2 and hence m = n. Thus f is one-to-one. As 1 has no

Figure 1.30 Figure 1.31

(i) f (m) = f (n) ⇒ m2 = n2 ⇒ m = n since m, n ∈ N. Thus f is one-to-one. But, non-perfect

Now, we recall Illustration 1.1. In this illustration the function f : C → D is defined by

Note: f (x) = x|x| is also an increasing function.

Figure 1.32 Figure 1.33 Figure 1.34

Now we have three intervals. (−∞, 2), (2, 3) and (3, ∞)

Thus we get −2 ≤ 1 − 3 cos x and 1 − 3 cos x ≤ 4.

1.6.4 Operations on Functions

Figure 1.36 Figure 1.37

(−∞, ∞) {x : −∞ < x < ∞} -