ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

MODULE - 5

MODULE TITLE: RADIO RECEIVERS

References: Principles of Electronics Communications by Louis Frenzel Jr.
Electronic Communications Systems by Tomasi
Electronic Communications Systems by Kennedy
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/radio/radio-receivers/tuned-radio-frequency-trf-basics.php
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2012/ph250/adams1/

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

After finishing this module, you are expected to:

1. Identify the function of each component of a superheterodyne receiver.
2. Express the relationship between the IF, local oscillator, and signal frequencies
mathematically and calculate any one of them, given the other two.
3. Explain how the design of dual-conversion receivers allows them to enhance
selectivity and eliminate image problems.
4. Describe the operation of the most common types of mixer circuits.
5. Explain the architecture and operation of direct conversion and digital software-
defined radios.
6. List the major types of external and internal noise, and explain how each interferes
with signals both before and after they reach the receiver.
7. Calculate the noise factor, noise figure, and noise temperature of a receiver.
8. Describe the operation and purpose of the AGC circuit in a receiver.

TOPICS:

1. Basic Principles of Signal Reception

2. Superheterodyne Receivers
3. Frequency Conversion
4. Intermediate Frequency and Image Frequency

INTRODUCTION:

In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it

reaches the receiver, particularly when it has traveled over a long distance. The signal,
which has shared the free-space transmission media with thousands of other radio
signals, has also picked up noise of various kinds. Radio receivers must provide the
sensitivity and selectivity that permit full recovery of the original intelligence signal. This
chapter reviews the basic principles of signal reception and discusses the
superheterodyne receiver, digital software-defined receivers including direct conversion.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

LESSON PROPER:

5.1 Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction

A communication receiver must be able to identify and select a desired signal from
thou-sands of others present in the frequency spectrum (selectivity) and to provide
sufficient amplification to recover the modulating signal (sensitivity). A receiver with good
selectivity will isolate the desired signal in the RF spectrum and eliminate or at least
greatly attenuate all other signals. A receiver with good sensitivity involves high circuit
gain.

Selectivity

Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using tuned circuits and/or filters. The LC

tuned circuits provide initial selectivity; filters, which are used later in the process, provide
additional selectivity. Initial selectivity in a receiver is normally obtained by using LC tuned
circuits. By carefully controlling the Q of the resonant circuit, you can set the desired
selectivity.

 The quality factor or 'Q' of an inductor or tuned circuit is often used to give an
indication of its performance in a resonator circuit. The Q or quality factor is a
dimensionless number and it describes the damping in the circuit. It also provides
an indication of the resonator’s bandwidth relative to its centers frequency.
 The optimum bandwidth is wide enough to pass the signal and its sidebands but
also narrow enough to eliminate or greatly attenuate signals on adjacent
frequencies.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

 The ideal receiver selectivity curve would have perfectly vertical sides, as in Fig.
(a). Such a curve cannot be obtained with tuned circuits. Improved selectivity is
achieved by cascading tuned circuits or by using crystal, ceramic, or SAW filters.
 The ideal receiver selectivity curve would have perfectly vertical sides, as in Fig.
(a). Such a curve cannot be obtained with tuned circuits. Improved selectivity is
achieved by cascading tuned circuits or by using crystal, ceramic, or SAW filters.
 The bandwidth at the 60-dB down points is f4 – f3; the bandwidth of the 6-dB down
points is f2 – f1. Thus the shape factor is ( f4 - f3)/( f2 - f1). Assume, for example, that
the 60-dB bandwidth is 8 kHz and the 6-dB bandwidth is 3 kHz. The shape factor
is 8/3 5 2.67, or 2.67:1. The lower the shape factor, the steeper the skirts and the
better the selectivity.

Sensitivity

A communication receiver’s sensitivity, or ability to pick up weak signals, is mainly

a function of overall gain, the factor by which an input signal is multiplied to produce the
output signal. In general, the higher the gain of a receiver, the better its sensitivity. The
greater gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input signal necessary to produce a
desired level of output. High gain in communication receivers is obtained by using multiple
amplification stages.
Another factor that affects the sensitivity of a receiver is the signal-to-noise (S/N)
ratio (SNR). Noise is the small random voltage variations from external sources and from
noise variations generated within the receiver’s circuits. This noise can sometimes be so
high (many microvolts) that it masks or obliterates the desired signal.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

 The minimum discernable signal (MDS) is the input signal level that is
approximately equal to the average internally generated noise value. This noise
value is called the noise floor of the receiver. MDS is the amount of signal that
would produce the same audio power output as the noise floor signal. The MDS is
usually expressed in dBm.

The Simplest Receiver Configuration

The simplest radio receiver given in the figure above consists of: a crystal set
consisting of a tuned circuit, a diode (crystal) detector, and earphones. The tuned circuit

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

provides the selectivity, the diode and C2 serve as an AM demodulator, and the
earphones reproduce the recovered audio signal.

Tuned Radio Frequency Receivers

Typically a TRF receiver would consist of three main sections:

 Tuned radio frequency stages: This consisted of one of more amplifying and
tuning stages. Early sets often had several stages, each proving some gain and
selectivity.
 Signal detector: The detector enabled the audio from the amplitude modulation
signal to be extracted. It used a form of detection called envelope detection and
used a diode to rectify the signal.
 Audio amplifier: Audio stages to provide audio amplification were normally, but
not always included.

The tuned radio frequency receiver was popular in the 1920s as it provided
sufficient gain and selectivity for the receiving the broadcast stations of the day. However
tuning took a little while as each stage in the early radios needed to be adjusted
separately. Later ganged tuning capacitors were introduced, but by this time the
superheterodyne receiver was becoming more widespread.

Regenerative Receivers

The regenerative radio was developed by Edwin H. Armstrong and patented in

1914. The receiver uses a single vacuum tube for both amplification and detection,
utilizing positive feedback to both increase the gain from a single vacuum tube and to
improve the selectivity of the receiver.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

The incoming RF signal is taken from the antenna and passed through a tunable
band-pass filter tank so as to select the desired channel. That signal is then amplified by
a triode or other device. The amplifier's output signal is then fed back into the resonant
tank via the tickler coil where it is once again filtered by the tank and amplified by the
tube. The reuse of the same vacuum tube through the positive feedback loop greatly
increases the gain of the system, providing incredibly high gain which would be otherwise
unattainable with a single tube.

When operating the regenerative receiver, it is necessary to properly select the

amount of positive feedback to apply to the system; too little and there is not enough gain
or selectivity to properly receive the signal, too much and the positive feedback will cause
the entire circuit to oscillate. When oscillating, not only is it impossible to receive any
signal with the device, but those oscillations will be driven against the antenna and
reradiated into the air. Any nearby receivers attempting to tune to the same channel will
be saturated by those oscillations.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

5.2 Superheterodyne Receivers

Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower frequency,

known as the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers and filters is
used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity. Most of the gain and selectivity
in a superheterodyne receiver are obtained in the IF amplifiers. The key circuit is the
mixer, which acts as a simple amplitude modulator to produce sum and difference
frequencies. The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal to produce this
conversion.

 The weak radio signals are picked-up by the antenna and feeds it to the RF
amplifier, also called low-noise amplifier (LNA). Tuned circuits help select the
desired signal or at least the frequency range in which the signal resides. The
tuned circuits in fi xed tuned receivers can be given a very high Q, so that excellent
selectivity can be obtained. RF amplifiers improve sensitivity, because of the extra
gain; improve selectivity, because of the added tuned circuits; and improve the S/N
ratio. Further, spurious signals are more effectively rejected, minimizing unwanted
signal generation in the mixer.
 The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the mixer. The mixer also
receives an input from a local oscillator or frequency synthesizer. The mixer output
is the input signal, the local oscillator signal, and the sum and difference
frequencies of these signals. Usually, a tuned circuit at the output of the mixer
selects the difference frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF). The sum
frequency may also be selected as the IF in some applications.
 The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same modulation that
appeared on the input RF signal. This signal is amplified by one or more IF
amplifier stages, and most of the receiver gain is obtained in these stages.
Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity. Crystal, ceramic, or SAW filters
are used in most IF sections to obtain good selectivity.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

 The highly amplified IF signal is fi nally applied to the demodulator, or detector,

which recovers the original modulating information. The demodulator may be a
diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM), or a product detector (for
SSB). In modern digital superheterodyne radios, the IF signal is first digitized by
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) and then sent to a digital signal processor
(DSP) where the demodulation is carried out by a programmed algorithm. The
recovered signal in digital form is then converted back to analog by a digital-to-
analog converter (DAC).
 The output of the demodulator or DAC is then usually fed to an audio amplifier with
sufficient voltage and power gain to operate a speaker. For nonvoice signals, the
detector output may be sent elsewhere, to a TV, tablet, cell phone screen,
computer, or some other device.
 The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and filtered into a dc voltage
by a circuit known as the automatic gain control (AGC) circuit. This dc voltage is
fed back to the IF amplifiers, and sometimes the RF amplifier, to control receiver
gain. AGC circuits help maintain a constant output voltage level over a wide range
of RF input signal levels; they also help the receiver to function over a wide range
so that strong signals do not produce performance-degrading distortion. Virtually
all superheterodyne receivers use some form of AGC.

5.2 Frequency Conversion

Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a higher

or lower frequency while retaining all the originally transmitted information. Down
conversion happens when high-frequency radio signals are converted to a lower,
intermediate frequency, where improved gain and selectivity can be obtained. In satellite
communications, the original signal is generated at a lower frequency and then converted
to a higher frequency for transmission. This is called up conversion.

Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation or analog multiplication

carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function performed by the mixer is called
heterodyning.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

Mixers accept two inputs. The signal fs, which is to be translated to another
frequency, is applied to one input, and the sine wave from a local oscillator fo is applied
to the other input. The signal to be translated can be a simple sine wave or any complex
modulated signal containing sidebands. The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be
translated is the modulating signal. The output contains not only the carrier signal but also
sidebands formed when the local oscillator and input signal are mixed. The output of the
mixer, therefore, consists of signals fs, fo, fo + fs, and fo - fs or fs - fo.
For example, for an FM radio receiver to translate an FM signal at 107.1 MHz
to an intermediate frequency of 10.7 MHz for amplification and detection, a local
oscillator frequency of 96.4 MHz is used. The mixer output signals are fs = 107.1 MHz, fo
= 96.4 MHz, fo + fs = 96.4 + 107.1 = 203.5 MHz, and fo - fs = 107.1 - 96.4 = 10.7 MHz. Then a
filter selects the 10.7-MHz signal (the IF, or fIF) and rejects the others.

Mixer and Converter Circuits

 Diode Mixers. A diode mixer circuit using a single diode is shown below. The input
signal, which comes from an RF amplifier or, in some receivers, directly from the
antenna, is applied to the primary winding of transformer T1. The signal is coupled
to the secondary winding and applied to the diode mixer, and the local oscillator
signal is coupled to the diode by way of capacitor C1. The input and local oscillator
signals are linearly added in this way and applied to the diode, which performs its
nonlinear magic to produce the sum and difference frequencies. The output
signals, including both inputs, are developed across the tuned circuit, which acts
as a bandpass filter, selecting either the sum or difference frequency and
eliminating the others.

 Doubly Balanced Mixer. Balanced modulators are also widely used as mixers.
These circuits eliminate the carrier from the output, making the job of filtering much
easier. The transformers are precision-wound and the diodes matched in

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

characteristics so that a high degree of carrier or local oscillator suppression

occurs.

 FET Mixers. FETs make good mixers because they provide gain, have low noise,
and offer a nearly perfect square-law response. The input signal
is applied to the gate, and the local oscillator signal is coupled to the source. The
tuned circuit in the drain selects the difference frequency.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

Frequency Synthesizers

Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency synthesizers for the local
oscillator, which provides some important benefits over the simple VFO designs. First,
since the synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop (PLL) design, the output is
locked to a crystal oscillator reference, providing a high degree of stability. Second, tuning
is accomplished by changing the frequency division factor in the PLL, resulting in
incremental rather than continuous frequency changes. Most communication is
channelized; i.e., stations operate on assigned frequencies that are a known frequency
increment apart, and setting the PLL step frequency to the channel spacing allows every
channel in the desired spectrum to be selected simply by changing the frequency division
factor. In some advanced digital receivers, a DDS synthesizer is used for the local
oscillator and all tuning is digital.

The circuit below is a frequency synthesizer that is a traditional PLL configuration,

with the addition of a mixer connected between the VFO output and the frequency divider.
A crystal reference oscillator provides one input to a phase detector, which is compared
to the output of the frequency divider. Tuning is accomplished by adjusting the frequency
division ratio by changing the binary number input to the divider circuit. This binary
number can come from a switch, a counter, a ROM, or a microprocessor. The output of
the phase detector is filtered by the loop filter into a dc control voltage to vary the
frequency of the variable-frequency oscillator, which generates the final output that is
applied to the mixer in the receiver.

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

One of the disadvantages of very high-frequency PLL synthesizers is that the VFO
output frequency is often higher in frequency than the upper operating limit of the variable-
modulus frequency divider ICs commonly available. One approach to this problem is to
use a pre-scaler to reduce the VFO frequency before it is applied to the variable-frequency
divider. Another is to reduce the VFO output frequency to a lower value within the range
of the dividers by down-converting it with a mixer, as illustrated. The VFO output is mixed
with the signal from another crystal oscillator, and the difference frequency is selected.

As an example, assume that a receiver must tune to 190.04 MHz and that the IF
is 45 MHz. The local oscillator frequency can be either 45 MHz lower or higher than the
input signal. Using the lower frequency, we have 190.04 - 45 = 145.04 MHz. Now,
when the incoming 190.04-MHz signal is mixed with the 145.04-MHz signal to be
generated by the synthesizer, its IF will be the difference frequency of 190.04 - 145.04 =
45 MHz.

5.3 Intermediate Frequency and Image

The primary objective in using intermediate frequency (IF) is to obtain good

selectivity. Narrowband selectivity is best obtained at lower frequencies, particularly when
conventional LC tuned circuits are used. Narrowband selectivity is best obtained at lower
frequencies, particularly when conventional LC tuned circuits are used. Even active RC
filters can be used when IFs of 500 kHz or less are used. There are various design
benefits of using a low IF. At low frequencies, the circuits are far more stable with high
gain. At higher frequencies, circuit layouts must take into account stray inductances and
capacitances, as well as the need for shielding, if undesired feedback paths are to be
avoided. With very high circuit gain, some of the signal can be fed back in phase and
cause oscillation. Oscillation is not as much of a problem at lower frequencies. However,
when low IFs are selected, a different sort of problem is faced, particularly if the signal to
be received is very high in frequency. This is the problem of images. An image is a
potentially interfering RF signal that is spaced from the desired incoming signal by a
frequency that is two times the intermediate frequency above or below the incoming
frequency, or

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1
 ECE 311 – FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATIONS

Assume, e.g., a desired signal frequency of 90 MHz and a local oscillator

frequency of 100 MHz. The IF is the difference 100 - 90 = 10 MHz. The image frequency
is fi = fs + 2fIF = 90 + 2(10) = 90 + 20 = 110 MHz. If an undesired signal, the image, appears
at the mixer input, the output will be the difference 110 - 100 = 10 MHz. The IF amplifier
will pass it. When this occurs, the image signal interferes with the desired signal.

ASSESSMENT TASKS

Questions:

1. How does decreasing the Q of a resonant circuit affect its bandwidth?

2. Describe the simplest possible receiver.
3. What can happen to a modulated signal if the selectivity of a tuned circuit is too
sharp?
4. What determines the selectivity of a receiver?
5. A choice is to be made between two 10.7-MHz IF filters. One has a shape factor
of 2.3; the other, 1.8. Which has the better selectivity?
6. What type of receiver uses only amplifiers and a detector?
7. What type of receiver uses a mixer to convert the received signal to a lower
frequency?
8. What two circuits are used to generate the IF?
9. In what stage are most of the gain and selectivity in a superheterodyne receiver
obtained?
10. What circuit in a receiver compensates for a wide range of input signal levels?
11. The mixer output is usually the difference between what two input frequencies?
12. The AGC voltage controls the gain of what two stages of a receiver?
13. What do you call an interfering signal that is spaced from the desired signal by
twice the IF?
14. What is the primary cause of images appearing at the mixer input?

Engr. Vincent E. Malapo

Instructor 1