POWER SOURCES FOR N.F.C.L.

:-
The electrical power sources for N.F.C.L. can be broadly categorized as

1). GRID POWER (RECEIVED from APTransCo)

2). GENERATING SOURCES.

The Complex is receiving AP TRANSCO power from 220KV Kakinada

substation by 132KV transmission line. N.F.C.L has 6 M.V.A contract demand
with APTRANSCO to meet any exigencies. However, NFCL does not relay on
APTRANSCO power but this power is being used as a stand by power supply
incase any one generator trips. At present this power is feeding non critical loads
like bagging plant, Main stores and work shop. (where power interruption can be
tolerable).

Besides the APSEB supply, NFCL incorporates a separate power

generating system using natural gas air as fuels. This system consists of Gas
Turbine Generators A, B and C. This system distributes power to the entire plant.
As the plant requires uninterrupted supply, it essentially requires a separate
generating system for its continuous operation generated by GT A, B and C
which is then supplied to different sub stations.

These generators are connected through essential, semi essential and non
essential bus bars (depending upon the load) and circuit breakers for safety
operation.

GT A,B have a capacity of 8.6 MVA each while GT C is of capacity 33

MVA, The total captive power plants capacity altogether is 50 MVA. Normally
two generators are in running condition to meet the entire load of (Approx. 25
MW) the both the plants. Diesel generators’ power is used as an emergency
power in case of any Gas turbine generator trips. NFCL has two nos. of 1375
KVA generators of DG sets used as a Auto Mains Failure (AMFs –i.e.
Emergency power) in case of normal GT power failure.
 AC VOLTAGE LEVELS IN NFCL:

132KV- Received from A.P.Transco and step down to 11KV at MRSS

11KV - Self power generation at NFCL

GT-A - 11KV, 8.6MVA, 451.4A, 1500RPM

GT-B - 11KV, 8.6MVA, 451.4A, 1500RPM

GT-C - 11KV, 33.625MVA, 1765A, 1500RPM

3.3KV - Used for only H.T.Motors.

415V - Used for L.T.Motors, welding machines, etc.

220V - Used for lighting, temp.supply, etc.

110V - Used for DCS in process & power plants

Transformers that are being used in NFCL:

11 /3.3kV Oil type transformers: 14 Nos.

8 MVA - 2

6.3 MVA - 8

4.0 MVA – 4

11 /433 V Dry type transformers: 27 Nos.

2 MVA - 4

1.6 MVA - 19

1.75 MVA - 2

800 KVA - 2

132/11kV Oil filled transformers: 2 Nos.

Lighting transformers : 20 nos.

.
 TRANSFORMER:
Def:
Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit without change in frequency and magnitude of
power.

WORKING PRINCIPLE :
It works on the principle of faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
E.M.F is induced in the circuit on the basis of mutual induction .
e=M(dI/dt)

EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

An equation which gives the magnitude of the emf in the secondary coils is
called the EMF Equation of the Transformer.
ERMS = 4.44. Øm.f .N Øm Max.Flux
f frequency
N No. Of turns
ERMS Induced Emf

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO:

It is the ratio of the induced emf in the secondary side to the emf in the primary side. It
is denoted by K.

K = V2 / V1 = N2 / N1 = I1 / I2
Auxiliary components of Transformer:
1. Conservator tank:
It is mounted on the top of the transformer and connected through a
pipeline to the main tank for providing adequate space for expansion of oil when
the transformer is loaded and the ambient temperature changes substantially.

2. Breather:

It is connected through a pipe line to the top of the conservator tank. It contains
calcium chloride (silica gel) to absorb the moisture of the air entering in to the
conservator.

3. Radiator:

Radiators serve the purpose of cooling the oil presented in transformer by circulating
the oil through radiators

4. Buchholz Relay:

It is a gas actuated relay installed in an oil immersed transformer for protection against
some kinds of faults.

It consists of two mercury switches, one is for giving alarm in case of incipient faults
i.e., slowly developing faults and another one is for disconnecting the transformer from
supply system in case of severe internal faults.

5. Bushings:
It is a device for enclosing a high voltage conductor through it for internal and
external connection.
 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION:

The power transformer is a major and very important equipment in a power system .It
requires highly reliable protective devices .The protective scheme depends upon the
size of the transformer. For small transformers simple protective devices like fuses are
used ,for medium size transformers overcurrent relays are used and for large
transformers differential protection is used

CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS IN TRANSFORMERS:

Faults encountered in transformer are classified into two groups

i)External faults

ii)Internal faults

External faults:

In case of external faults , the transformer must be disconnected from supply

system.For external faults time graded overcurrent relays are employed as back-up
protection.

Internal faults:

Again internal faults are classified into two groups.

i)Short circuits in transformer winding and connections

ii)Incipient faults

Fault type and type of protection used :

Primary winding Phase-phase fault ---Differential; Overcurrent

Primary winding Phase-earth fault--- Differential; Overcurrent

Secondary winding Phase-phase fault---- Differential

Secondary winding Phase-earth fault ---Differential;

Restricted Earth Fault

Interturn Fault -----Differential, Buchholz

Core Fault---- Differential, Buchholz

Tank Fault -----Differential, Buchholz; Tank-Earth

Overheating -----Thermal

NEUTRAL GROUNDING:
Purpose of Earthing:-

 To ensure that no part of equipments, other than live parts, should assume a
potential which is dangerously different from that of the surrounding.

 To allow sufficient current to flow safely for proper operation of

protective devices

 To limit over voltages between Neutral & ground and between line &
ground.
Types of Neutral Earthing
1)Direct Earthing:- The main advantage is that the maximum voltage of a
healthy phases does not exceed 80% of the line to line voltage. Also arcing
grounds are eliminated and makes ground fault relaying simple and satisfactory.
2)Resistance Earthing:- In Resistance Earthing arcing ground are eliminated
and resistance value is such that the ground fault current is less than three phase
short circuit current. Due to neutral displacement the maximum voltage across
healthy phases may become equal to line to line voltage.
3)Reactance Earthing:- This is used when zero Sequence reactance of the
system is so low as to cause excessive ground fault current.
 Protection Systems for Transformers
For protection of generators, Merz-Price circulating-current
system is unquestionably the most satisfactory. Though this is largely true of
transformer protection, there are cases where circulating current system offers no
particular advantage over other systems or impracticable on account of the
troublesome conditions imposed by the wide variety of voltages, currents and
earthing conditions invariably associated with power transformers. Under such
circumstances, alternative protective systems are used which in many cases are
as effective as the circulating-current system. The principal relays and systems
used for transformer protection are :
(i) Buchholz devices providing protection against all kinds of incipient faults i.e.
slow-developing faults such as insulation failure of windings, core heating, fall of
oil level due to leaky joints etc.
(ii) Earth-fault relays providing protection against earth-faults only.
(iii) Over current relays providing protection mainly against phase-to-phase
faults and overloading.
(iv) Differential system (or circulating-current system) providing protection
against both earth and phase faults.
The complete protection of transformer usually requires the combination of these
systems. Choice of a particular combination of systems may depend upon several
factors such as (a) size of the transformer (b) type of cooling (c) location of
transformer in the network (d) nature of load supplied and (e) importance of
service for which transformer is required. In the following sections, above
systems of protection will be discussed in detail.

1. Buchholz Relay
Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated relay installed in oil immersed transformers for
protection against all kinds of faults. Named after its inventor, Buchholz, it is
used to give an alarm in case of incipient (i.e slow-developing) faults in the
transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the event of
severe internal faults. It is usually installed in the pipe connecting the conservator
 th e
main tank as shown in Fig. 22.11.
It is a universal practice to use Buchholz relays on all such oil immersed
transformers having ratings in *excess of 750 kVA.
Construction. Fig. shows the constructional details of a Buchholz relay. It takes
the form of a domed vessel placed in the connecting pipe between the main tank
and the conservator. The device has two elements. The upper element consists of
a mercury type switch attached to a float. The lower element contains a mercury
switch mounted on a hinged type flap located in the direct path of the flow of oil
from the transformer to the conservator. The upper element closes an alarm
circuit during incipient faults whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the
circuit breaker in case of severe internal faults.
Operation. The operation of Buchholz relay is as follows:
(i) In case of incipient faults within the transformer, the heat due to fault causes
the decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tank. The products of
decomposition contain more than 70% of hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being
light tries to go into the conservator and in the process gets entrapped in the
upper part of relay chamber. When a predetermined amount of gas gets
accumulated, it exerts sufficient pressure on the float to Cause it to tilt and close
the contacts of mercury switch attached to it. This completes the alarm circuit to
sound an alarm.
 (ii) If a serious fault occurs in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is
generated in the main tank. The oil in the main tank rushes towards the
conservator via the Buchholz relay and in doing so tilts the flap to close the
contacts of mercury switch. This completes the trip circuit to open the circuit
breaker controlling the transformer.

2 .Earth-Fault or Leakage Protection

An earth-fault usually involves a partial breakdown of winding insulation to
earth. The resulting leakage current is considerably less than the short-circuit
current. The earth-fault may continue for a long time and cause considerable
damage before it ultimately develops into a short-circuit and removed from the
system. Under these circumstances, it is profitable to employ earth-fault relays in
order to ensure the disconnection of earth-fault or leak in the early stage. An
earth-fault relay is essentially an over current relay of low setting and operates as
soon as an earth-fault or leak develops. One method of protection against earth-
faults in a transformer is the *core-balance leakage protection shown in Fig.
22.13.

The three leads of the primary winding of power transformer are taken through
the core of a current transformer which carries a single secondary winding. The
operating coil of a relay is connected to this secondary. Under normal conditions
(i.e. no fault to earth), the vector sum of the three phase Currents is zero and
there is no resultant flux in the core of current transformer no matter how much
the load is out of balance. Consequently, no
Current flows through the relay and it remains inoperative. However, on the
occurrence of an earth-fault, the vector sum of three phase currents is no longer
zero. The resultant current sets up flux in the core of the C.T. which induces
e.m.f. in the secondary winding. This energises the relay to trip the circuit
breaker and disconnect the faulty transformer from the system.

3. Combined Leakage and Overload Protection

The core-balance protection described above suffers from the drawback that it
cannot provide protection against overloads. If a fault or leakage occurs between
phases, the core-balance relay will not operate. It is a usual practice to provide
combined leakage and overload protection for transformers. The earth relay has
low current setting and operates under earth or leakage faults only. The overload
relays have high current setting and are arranged to perate against faults between
the phases.
Fig. 22.14 shows the schematic arrangement of combined leakage and overload
protection. In this system of protection, two overload relays and one leakage or
earth relay are connected as shown. The two overload relays are sufficient to
protect against phase-to-phase faults. The trip contacts of overload relays and
earth fault relay are connected in parallel. Therefore, with the energising of either
overload relay or earth relay, the circuit breaker will be tripped.
4. Applying Circulating current System to Transformers

Merz-Price circulating -current principle is commonly used

for the protection of power transformers against earth and phase faults. The
system as applied to transformers is fundamentally the same as that for
generators but with certain complicating features not encountered in the
generator application. The complicating features and their remedial measures are
briefed below:
(i) In a power transformer, currents in the primary and secondary are to be
compared. As these two currents are usually different, therefore, the use of
identical transformers (of same turn ratio) will give differential current and
operate the relay even under no load conditions. The difference in the magnitude
of currents in the primary and secondary of power transformer is
Compensated by different turn ratios of CTs. If T is the turn-ratio of power
transformer, then turn ratio of CTs on the l.v. side is made T times that of the
CTs on the h.v. side. Fulfilled this condition, the secondaries of the two CTs will
carry identical currents under normal load conditions. Consequently, no
differential current will flow through the relay and it remains inoperative.
(ii) There is usually a phase difference between the primary and secondary
currents of a 3-phase power transformer. Even if CTs of the proper turn-ratio are
used, a differential current may flow through the relay under normal conditions
and cause relay operation. The correction for phase difference is effected by
appropriate connections of CTs. The CTs on one side of the power transformer
are connected in such a way that the resultant currents fed into the pilot wires are
displaced in phase from the individual phase currents in the same direction as,
and by an angle equal to, the phase shift between the power-transformers primary
and secondary currents. The table below shows the type of connections to be
employed for CTs in order to compensate for the phase difference in the primary
and secondary currents of power transformer.
Thus referring to the above table, for a delta/star power transformer, the CTs on
the delta side must be connected in star and those on the star side in delta.
(iii) Most transformers have means for tap changing which makes this problem
even more difficult. Tap changing will cause differential current to flow through
the relay even under normal operating conditions. The above difficulty is
overcome by adjusting the turn-ratio of CTs on the side of the power transformer
provided with taps.
(iv) Another complicating factor in transformer protection is the magnetising in-
rush current. Under normal load conditions, the magnetising current is very
small. However, when a transformer is energised after it has been taken out of
service, the magnetising or in-rush current can be extremely high for a short
period. Since magnetising current represents a current going into the transformer
without a corresponding current leaving, it appears as a fault current to
differential relay and may cause relay operation. In order to overcome above
difficulty, differential relays are set to operate at a relatively high degree of
unbalance. This method decreases the sensitivity of the relays. In practice,
advantage is taken of the fact that the initial in-rush currents contain prominent
second-harmonic component. Hence, it is possible to design a scheme employing
second-harmonic bias features, which, being
tuned to second-harmonic frequency only, exercise restrain during energising to
prevent maloperation. While applying circulating current principle for protection
Circulating-Current Scheme for Transformer Protection

Fig. 22.15 shows Merz-Price circulating-current scheme for the protection of a 3-

phase delta/delta power transformer against phase-to ground and phase-to-phase
faults. Note that CTs on the two sides of the transformer are connected in star.
This compensates for the phase difference between the power transformer
primary and secondary. The CTs on the two sides are connected by pilot wires
and one relay is used for each pair of CTs. During normal operating conditions,
the secondaries of CTs carry identical currents. Therefore, the currents entering
and leaving the pilot wires at both ends are the same and no current flows
through the relays. If a ground or phase-to-phase fault occurs, the currents in the
secondaries of CTs will no longer be the same and the differential current
flowing through the relay circuit will clear the breaker on both sides of the
transformer. The-protected zone is limited to the region between CTs on the
high-voltage side and the CTs on the low-voltage side of the power transformer.
It is worthwhile to note that this scheme also provides protection for short-
circuits between turns on the same phase winding.
 PROTECTION OF GENERATORS

The generating units, especially the larger ones, are relatively few
in number and higher in individual
cost than most other equipments. Therefore, it is desirable and necessary to provide
protection tocover the wide range of faults which may occur in the modern generating
plant.
Some of the important faults which may occur on an alternator are :
(i) failure of prime-mover
(ii) failure of field
(iii) overcurrent
(iv) overspeed
(v) overvoltage
(vi) unbalanced loading
(vii) stator winding faults

Differential Protection of Alternators:

The most common system used for the protection of stator winding faults employs
circulating-currentprinciple In this scheme of protection, currents at the two ends of
theprotected section are compared. Under normal operating conditions, these
currents are equal but maybecome unequal on the occurrence of a fault in the
protected section. The difference of the currentsunder fault conditions is arranged to
pass through the operating coil of the relay. The relay then closes its contacts to
isolate protected section from the system. This form of protection is also known
as Merz-Price circulating current scheme.
Schematic arrangement. shows the schematic arrangement of current differential
protection for a 3-phase alternator. Identical current transformer pairs CT1 and CT2
are placed on
either side of each phase of the stator windings. The secondaries of each set of
current transformers
are connected in star ; the two neutral points and the corresponding terminals of the
two star groups
being connected together by means of a four-core pilot cable. Thus there is an
independent path for
the currents circulating in each pair of current transformers and the corresponding
pilot P.
* If the stator winding fault is not cleared quickly, it may lead to
(i) burning of stator coils
(ii) burning and welding-up of stator laminations
wires. The
relays are
generally
of

electromagnetic type and are arranged for instantaneous action

since fault should be cleared as quickly as possible.
Operation. Referring to Fig. 22.2, it is clear that the relays are connected in shunt
across each circulating path. Therefore, the circuit of Fig. 22.2 can be shown in a
impler form in Fig. 22.3. Under normal operating conditions, the current at both ends
of each winding will be equal and hence the currents in the secondaries of two CTs
connected in any phase will also be equal. Therefore,there is balanced circulating
current in the pilot wires and no current flows through the operating coils (R1, R2
and R3) of the relays. When an earth-fault or phase-to-phase fault occurs, this ondition
no longer holds good and the differential current flowing through the relay circuit
operates the relay to trip the circuit breaker.
(i) Suppose an earth fault occurs on phase R due to breakdown of its insulation to earth
as shown in Fig. 22.2. The current in the affected phase winding will flow through the
core and frame of the machine to earth, the circuit being completed through the neutral
earthing resistance. The currents in the secondaries of the two CTs in phase R will
become unequal and the difference of the two currents will flow through the
corresponding relay coil (i.e. R1), returning via the neutral pilot. Consequently, the
relay operates to trip the circuit breaker.
(ii) Imagine that now a short-circuit fault occurs between the phases Y and B as shown
in Fig. 22.2. The short-circuit current circulates via the neutral end connection through
the two windings and through the fault as shown by the dotted arrows. The currents in
the secondaries of two CTs in each affected phase will become unequal and the
differential current will flow through the operating coils of the relays (i.e. R2 and R3)
connected in these phases. The relay then closes its contacts to trip the circuit breaker.
It may be noted that the relay circuit is so arranged that its energising causes

(i) opening of the breaker connecting the alternator to the bus-bars and
(ii) opening of the *field circuit of the alternator. It is a prevailing practice to mount
current transformers CT1 in the neutral connections (usually in the alternator
pit) and current transformers CT2 in the switch-gear equipment. In some cases,
the alternator is located at a considerable distance from the switchgear. As the
relays are located close to
the circuit breaker, therefore, it is not convenient to connect the relay coils to the actual
physical midpoints of the pilots. Under these circumstances, balancing resistances are
inserted in the shorter lengths of the pilots so that the relay tapping points divide the
whole secondary impedance of two sets of CTs into equal portions.

Balanced Earth-fault Protection:

In small-size alternators, the neutral ends of the three-phase windings are often
connected internally to a single terminal. Therefore, it is not possible to use Merz-Price
circulating current principle described above because there are no facilities for
accommodating the necessary current transformers in the neutral connection of each
phase winding. Under these circumstances, it is considered sufficient
to provide protection against earth-faults only by the use of balanced earth-fault
protection scheme.
This scheme provides no protection against phase-to-phase faults, unless and until they
develop into earth-faults, as most of them will.
Schematic arrangement. Fig. 22.6 shows the schematic arrangement of a balanced
earth-fault protection for a 3-phase alternator. It consists of three line current
transformers, one mounted in each phase, having their secondaries connected in
parallel with that of a single current transformer in the conductor joining the star point
of the alternator to earth. A relay is connected across the transformers secondaries. The
protection against earth faults is limited to the region between the neutral and the line
current transformers.
Operation. Under normal operating conditions, the currents flowing in the alternator
leads and hence the currents flowing in secondaries of the line current transformers add
to zero and no current flows through the relay. Also under these conditions, the current
in the neutral wire is zero and the secondary of neutral current transformer supplies no
current to the relay.If an earth-fault develops at F2 external to the protected zone, the
sum of the currents at the terminals of the alternator is exactly equal to the current in
the neutral connection and hence no current flows through the relay. When an earth-
fault occurs at F1 or within the protected zone, these currents are no longer equal and
the differential current flows through the operating coil of the relay.
The relay then closes its contacts to disconnect the alternator from the system.

Stator Inter-turn Protection

Merz-price circulating-current system protects against phase-to-ground and phase-to-
phase faults. It does not protect against turn-to-turn fault on the same phase winding of
the stator. It is because the current that this type of fault produces flows in a local
circuit between the turns involved and does not create a difference between the
currents entering and leaving the winding at its two ends where current transformers
are applied. However, it is usually considered unnecessary to provide protection for
inter-turn faults because they invariably develop into earth-faults. In single turn
generator (e.g. large steam-turbine generators), there is no necessity of protection
against inter-turn faults.

However, inter-turn protection is provided for multi-turn generators such as hydro-

electric generators. These generators have double-winding armatures (i.e. each phase
winding is divided into two halves) owing to the very heavy currents which they have
to carry. Advantage may be taken of this necessity to protect inter-turn faults on the
same winding. Fig. 22.7 shows the schematic arrangement of circulating-current and
inter-turn protection of a 3-phase double wound generator. The relays RC provide
protection against phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase faults whereas relays R1
provide protection against inter-turn faults. Fig. 22.8 shows the duplicate stator
windings S1 and S2 of one phase only with a provision against inter-turn faults. Two
current transformers are connected on the circulating-current principle. Under normal
conditions, the currents in the stator windings S1 and S2 are equal and so will be the
currents in the secondaries of the two CTs. The secondary current round the loop then
is the same at all points and no current flows through the relay R1. If a short-circuit
develops between adjacent turns, say on S1, the currents in the stator windings S1 and
S2 will no longer be equal. Therefore, unequal currents will be induced in the
secondaries of CTs and the difference of these two currents flows through the
relay R1. The relay then closes its contacts to clear the generator from the system