SEng 2051 Lecture note

CHAPTER THREE
Transmission media

3.1. Introduction
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to a
destination. Transmission media are actually located below the physical layer and are directly controlled by the
physical layer. We could say that transmission media belong to layer zero of OSI reference model. Figure 3.1
shows the position of transmission media in relation to the physical layer.

Figure 3.1 Transmission media and physical layer

In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided and unguided.
Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided medium is free space.

3.2. Guided transmission Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable,
coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the
form of light.
3.2.1. Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together, as shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Twisted-pair cable Transmission media

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The
receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals.
If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are
at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and the other is farther). This
results in a difference at the receiver.
By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. For example, suppose in one twist, one wire is closer to the noise
source and the other is farther; in the next twist, the reverse is true. Twisting makes it probable that both wires
are equally affected by external influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates
the difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals. The unwanted signals are mostly canceled out.

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From the above discussion, it is clear that the number of twists per unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on
the quality of the cable. Twisted-pair cables can be unshielded and shielded.
Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
UTP is cheap and easy to use. However, its performance over long distances is not as good as coaxial cable.
The maximum cable length segment of UTP is 100 meters. Most telephone systems use UTP cable (with the
RJ11 connector), and many LANs nowadays also use UTP (with the RJ45 connector). IBM has also produced a
version of twisted-pair cable for its use, called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or
braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more
expensive. Our discussion focuses primarily on UTP because STP is seldom used outside of IBM.
The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify unshielded twisted-pair cable
into seven categories. Each EIA category is suitable for specific uses. Table 3.1 shows these categories.
Category Specification Data rate (Mbps) Use
1 Unshielded twisted-pair used in <0.1 Telephone
telephone
2 Unshielded twisted-pair originally 2-4 T-1 lines
used in T lines
3 Improved CAT 2 used in LANs 10 LANs
4 Improved CAT 3 used in Token 16-20 LANs
Ring networks
5 Cable wire is normally with a jacket 100 LANs
and outside sheath
5e An extension to category 5 that 125 LANs
includes extra features to minimize
the crosstalk and electromagnetic
interference
6 A new category with matched 200 LANs
components coming from the same
manufacturer.
7 Sometimes called SSTP (shielded 600 LANs
screen twisted-pair). Each pair is
individually wrapped in a helical
metallic foil followed by a metallic
foil shield in addition to the outside
sheath. The shield decreases the
effect of crosstalk and increases the
data rate.

Table 3.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

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Figure 3.3 (a) Unshielded Twisted-Pair (b) Shielded Twisted-Pair

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector
that looks like a telephone-style connector (RJ-11). A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ
stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone
industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.

Figure 3.4 RJ-45 connector

UTP connections
The transmit pin of the source device needs to ultimately connect to the receiving pin of the destination device.
There are three types of connections that are used to connect different devices.
• Straight through cables
• Crossover Cables
• Rollover cables
1. Straight through cables
They are used to connect dissimilar devices.
• Switch/Hub to PC
• Switch/Hub to Router
• Straight through cable pin out
2. Cross over cable
The crossover cable can be used to connect similar devices
• Hub to hub
• Switch to switch
• Hub to switch
• PC to PC
• PC to Router
3. Console (Rolled) Cable
Although rolled cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections together, you can use a rolled Ethernet
cable to connect a PC to a router console serial communication (com) port (used to connect a PC with console
port of a router). If you have a Cisco router or switch, you would use this cable to connect your PC running
HyperTerminal to the Cisco hardware.

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3.2.2 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the
center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from
fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Figure 3.5 Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is more resistant to signal interference and attenuation than
twisted-pair cabling. The stranded, protective sleeve absorbs stray electronic signals so that they do not affect
data being sent over the inner copper cable. For this reason, coaxial cabling is a good choice for longer
distances (i.e. it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable). The two
types of coaxial cabling are: Thicknet coaxial and Thinnet coaxial.
Thicknet coaxial cable
Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters (can carry a signal for
500 meters). Due to this, it is sometimes used as a backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center
conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One
disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.
Thicknet cabling is thicker, and a better choice for longer distances, but is more expensive and more difficult to
work with.
Thinnet coaxial cable
Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual
fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. In other word, thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a
distance of up to approximately 185 meters before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation.

Thicknet Thinnet
Has larger diameter Smaller diameter
Good noise rejection characteristics Relatively flexible, easier to lay the cable
Longer cable run Poor noise rejection
Difficult to lay the cable Supports lower bandwidth
It is rarely used in LANs No longer in use

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector. Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel
connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid
problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Figure 3.6. BNC connector

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3.2.3 Fiber Optic Cable
In fiber-optic cable, optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of modulated pulses of light. This is a
relatively safe way to send data because, unlike copper-based cables that carry data in the form of electronic
signals, no electrical impulses are carried over the fiber-optic cable. This means that fiber-optic cable cannot be
tapped, and its data cannot be stolen.
Fiber-optic cable is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data transmission because of the purity of the
signal and lack of signal attenuation.
An optical fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by a concentric layer
of glass, known as the cladding. Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.
The fibers are sometimes made of plastic. Plastic is easier to install, but cannot carry the light pulses for as long
a distance as glass.
Because each glass strand passes signals in only one direction, a cable includes two strands in separate jackets.
One strand transmits and the other receives. A reinforcing layer of plastic surrounds each glass strand, and
Kevlar fibers provide strength. The Kevlar fibers in the fiber-optic connector are placed between the two cables.
Just as their counterparts (twisted-pair and coaxial) are, fiber-optic cables are encased in a plastic coating for
protection. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens
communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of
fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify.

Figure 3.7 Fiber-optic cable

3.2.3.1 Propagation Modes
Current technology supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagating light along optical
channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics.
A. Multimode
Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the
core in different paths. Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index.

Figure 3.8 Multimode (a) Step Index (b) Graded Index

B. Single-Mode
Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range
of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much smaller
diameter than that of multimode fiber.
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Figure 3.9 Single mode

3.2.3.2 Fiber Optic Connector

There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown in Figure 3.10. The subscriber channel (SC)
connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for
connecting cable to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC. MT-RJ
is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

Figure 3.10 Fiber-Optic connectors

3.2.3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber cable
Advantages
Fiber-optic cable has several advantages over metallic cable (twisted-pair or coaxial).
- Higher bandwidth: Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data rates)
than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable. Currently, data rates and bandwidth utilization over fiber-optic
cable are limited not by the medium but by the signal generation and reception technology available.
- Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other
guided media.
- Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
- Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
- Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
- Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables.
Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages in the use of optical fiber.
- Installation and maintenance: Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation and
maintenance require expertise that is not yet available everywhere.
- Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is unidirectional. If we need bidirectional
communication, two fibers are needed.
- Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media.
3.2.4 Cable Specifications
The three parameters required for cable specification are:
• Speed
• Transmission Type – Digital (Baseband) or Analog (Broadband)
• Maximum Length – determines how far the signal can travel before getting attenuated.
The following are examples of Ethernet specifications relate to cable type:
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Specification Cable Type Maximum length
10BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters
10Base2 Thin Coaxial 185 meters
10Base5 Thick Coaxial 500 meters
10BaseF Fiber Optic 2000 meters
100BaseT Unshielded Twisted Pair 100 meters
100BaseTX Unshielded Twisted Pair 220 meters

3.3 Unguided transmission Medias

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through free
space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Figure 3.11 shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless
communication.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.11 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Figure 3.12 Propagation methods

In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of
the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the greater the
distance.
In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer
of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth. This
type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.
In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each other, and either tall

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enough or close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of sight propagation is
tricky because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.
3.3.1. Radio waves
Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves, electromagnetic waves
ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves; waves ranging in
frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel
long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. Using any part of the radio
wave band requires permission from the authorities.
In general radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems.
3.3.2. Microwaves
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.
Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart
need to be very tall. Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication. Very high-frequency
microwaves cannot penetrate walls. Use of certain portions of microwave band requires permission from
authorities. Two types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the
horn.

Figure 3.13 Unidirectional antennas (a) Parabolic dish (b) The horn
A parabolic dish antenna is based on the geometry of a parabola: Every line parallel to the line of symmetry
(line of sight) reflects off the curve at angles such that all the lines intersect in a common point called the focus.
Outgoing transmissions are broadcast through a horn aimed at the dish. The microwaves hit the dish and are
deflected outward in a reversal of the receipt path.
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (one-to-one) communication is
needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks, and wireless
LANs.
3.3.3. Infrared waves
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range communication.
Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless

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for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun’s
rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication. Infrared signals can be used for short-
range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
3.4 Installing Cable - Some Guidelines
When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules:
 Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack.
 Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be
difficult to isolate later.
 Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference.
 If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors.
 Label both ends of each cable.
 Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.

Further reading assignment

1. Pin arrangement of straight through and cross over cables
2. Cable specification of twisted-pair, coaxial and optical fiber cables
3. Types of optical fiber cables
4. Satellite communication: C, Ka and Ku bands