oERNSBACK5 EDUCATIONAL LIBRARY NE 8

Be a Radio Technician
As A civilian or membet of the Armed Forces,
Radio otters you opponunttles for better pay
and valuable. intelligent servhst to your Country.
Stmt. Learning Radio quickly; right in your
own home, in spare time-through the time -
',dad. well known N.R.L Course.
Shortage of Trained Radio
Technicians Already Serious
Since new ltadlog are no longer being math,Is
the service and repair of existing receivers
ABM fret
DECINNERS
lilally allegro -art work. Rut mow of the lead-
ing Radio Sertioemen In every community are
new In the Army, Navy or Marines. This ntem.
beginners must get ready fast to take over the
great volume of important. highly paid Radio
work which must be done.
Radio (Amman. worldag to produce met TWO
BILLION dollars worth of Military Radio
equipment. Deed more trained men at gond pay
and overtime. Ch1llm ltodlo 1tha are also own. you tan ready to do roytts
to men who can meet ChM Service require- few months, hot

ments, In the Anal Signal Corps and the Army kinds of Radio work. n's Tor.
Alt Forts. ay el Iliad Maintenance men and will coopetato. help ya.0 make rapid protn5..
insti actors. These days. some students complete fon-
%I. lessons a week. WC will help you do
All these great suntan Om -mortis for Radio well or bettor.
Technicians are ADLE11 to urgent calls by the As an example of Lou Quickie N.R.f. .
Army and Naty tor MORE Radio Technicians got. ready. I want to pain out that by the Iv..
to accept attractive aggiontnents of duty with YOU finish 12 lessons you should be familte
chances for advancement in rang still pay. with rower Supplies. Radio Frequeney Arno. -
1./ereater., Oyoillatocs, and Important ev
Learn Radio by the Tested, Prac- volts la a Ittelst cm:eller Oral lynn.obina.r. Itoir
is no WILVIA time to N.R I. raining.
tical N.R.I. Method
When You learn Rodin with N.A.L. you tollow Mail the Coupon for Sample
a pito hated on You now 25 gurTessrul years of
study a Cotore DrtPared Lesson and Free Book
teaching Radio.
by Radio ergots who are also teachers. Act 'reality. Mail (:ntlikei now 'or Sample Lea
You learn Radio by the method which has put son ((letting Aerittairemi with thoelter Sento
luittireda ,,f men on the road to guefe,g. From Mgr. Lad my 64 -tore book "win llteh lte-
toy students and graduates, svorktint in (tarry warda In Radio" Roth books art FREE.
field of Rodin. 1 get letters telling me of money The: Aire you an idea of what my Conroe to
they art making honors they are aiming -- like, point out Radio's opportunnley. show von
senate they are. .tendering to their orotrary tre- letters front men I trained, telling what they .0

ason. en NUJ. Training. are doing and earning. Simd put what. Radio
vireos you. MAIL COUPON in an envelope or
N.R.I. Will Help You C4et a paste on a potteard-NOW. .1,

J. E SMM1. PreFnilelLt At a It.

Quick Stari 11

National Radio Meditate

From your first N.It I. Lesson. pm will Pad Washiniton. O
pvactIcal. mousy making information. Within pert. <t l'..5 I

tr-zf-tt ..e
J. el. Smith, Theyident. Dent gld* 5 o t
National Radio Instnnte. Washumten. D. C.
Stud me FREE, without olfitgatfon. Sample !negro anti 64 -page hook "Win Rich RewardsI RCIEIVER
In Radio- which tells &boa. Iladto's spate time and (MI time opportinfitim, and hoe SENDER
can train at Imam for them. (Write PightlY
None. Age

Address
City............ . .... ...... . State. ........ arR-2
UBLICATIONS . ZS WEST R'WAY - NEW YORK, N.Y.
 Suggest A Good Book Title

WIN TEN DOLLARS! Radio for the Beginner

SINCE 1908, the name Gernsback has been synonymous By HUGO GERNSBACK
with scientific and radio literature. Since that time, many
millions of Gernsback magazines and books have been die
tributed and read by people all over the globe.
Recently, Hugo Gernsback decided to place upon the r`sek
a new, popular priced series of books under the name of GE ,10.t Chapter I
BACK'S EDUCATIONAL LIBRARY. It is the intent of th,
publisher to continuously add books to the library, from time to
time, under various titles. These books will cover a great many
subjects, which will not necessarily be restricted to radio or HISTORIC
science, but which will encompass many other arts.
It is Mr. Gernsback's plan to have all the books of uniform
size. Their price being extremely low, everyone will ultimately
be able to possess the entire library, especially since they are deavored to send a message without
purchased piece -meal as the books are published. THE true art of radio was en -
questionably discovered by Hein- wires over miles where Hertz used
Don t forget either, that Gernsback books yards. Instead of the wire hoop,
rich Hertz, a German professor, Marconi devised and used a more
and magazines always have given you your PRIZE WINNERS living at Frankfort. His first tech- sensitive apparatus. He found that
full money's worth. The present series of nical papers on his epoch-making
books again proves this. Never in the his- ALFRED CETTIE an instrument called the coherer
4115 Midvale Avenue invention were published in 1887. was enormously sensitive to the new
tory of technical publishing have you been Hertz was .the first to send electric
able to buy so much for so little money. The Seattle, Wash. electric waves, and soon was trans-
Title: ALL ABOUT AERIALS, waves through space by means of mitting signals for many hundreds
answer to this is in turning out a greater Book 4 an electric spark. His apparatus was
number of books and in large quantities. RUDY RUZICKA simple; he had an electric spark of yards on the estate of his father
In bringing out new books, we want your 3441 California Avenue coil that made intermittent sparks, in Italy. By diligent labor he in-
creased this distance and shortly
help. Perhaps you have an idea for a certain St. Louis, Mo. and by proper arrangement of this was telegraphing without wires
book title (subject for a new book) that you Title: BEGINNERS' RADIO DIC- station, he could receive sparks at
TIONARY. Book 5 across the English channel. Not
think we should publish in one of these 10c
KENNETH WARNER a distance by the simple arrange- many years later, he transmitted
volumes. If you have such an idea, commu-
R. F. D. No. 2 ment of cutting a single wire hoop the letter "S" in telegraphic code
nicate it to us; we will pay $10.00 for each and leaving a small gap. Between across the Atlantic by means of
new book title which we accept. If you sub- Burbank, Ohio small sparks
Title: HOW TO READ RADIO the two free ends,
wireless.
mit more than one title, write each one on a DIAGRAMS. Book 7 jumped whenever sparks were made
separate sheet of paper. In case of a tie, CLYDE SORREL:. to jump on his spark coil a few Radio telephony, contrary to pop-
identical prizes will be paid to the contest- 504 North 10th Street yards away. ular opinion is not a new invention
ants. Rockyford, Colo. Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian either. It was first invented by Val-
Address all letters to Title: RADIO FOR BEGINNERS, youth, read of these experiments demar Poulsen, the "Danish Edi-
Book 8 and being gifted along these lines,
(Watch the List Grow) son." Instead of using a crashing
RADIO TITLE EDITOR he duplicated Hertz's experiments. spark at his sending station, he used
RADIO PUBLICATIONS Soon his mind conceived the idea of
Copyright 1938, by H. Gerns1,... , a silent electric arc, with certain
using the invention for transmitting
25 West B'way NEW YORK City. Printed in U.S. intelligence over a distance. He en - adjuncts.
1
2 Radio for the Beginner Radio for the Beginner 3

Chapter II the opposite end, where the other

platform is built.
On the other platform, located
WAVE ANALOGIES at the other end of the tank, we
have a smaller paddle, on the handle
The analogy between water waves of which a hammer has been ar-
and radio waves can be carried a ranged to strike a gong. It is ob-
step further. We have seen how vious that the waves moving the
waves may be produced; now let us paddle will cause the gong to ring,
study how they may be received. informing the operator on that plat-
Take, for instance, a tank of water form that the operator on the other
platform is moving the paddle and
20 or 30 feet in length. At the two creating waves on the surface of
opposite ends, platforms have been the water. By skillful manipulation
built, as illustrated in Fig. 2. On the larger paddle, it is possible
one of these platforms a large of
paddle has been arranged, so that to cause the smaller paddle to ring
a person may operate its handle. the bell periodically, as desired; and
are set up in the air in all directions
Now, if the paddle is moved back if a series of signals has been pre-
the operator with the from the bell. Whether you are on
and forth, a series of waves extend- arranged, the street level, 100 feet below, or
ing in all directions from this source larger paddle may communicate cer-
in a building on the same level as
What is a radio wave? It is not of creation will be formed. The tain information handle.
by properly oper-
This represents he bell-in all these positions you
any different physically than a sound ating its
waves spread further and further both the transmitting will clearly hear the ringing of the
wave or a wave in the ocean. If receiving
away from the paddle in concentric stations of the wireless telegraph, the bell (Fig. 3). The sound waves are
we throw a heavy stone in a still rings until their strength is com- larger paddle being the transmitter, propagated in every direction in
lake, it makes a splash. This wave pletely expended. In this instance and the conducting medium being the form of waves, invisible to the
rapidly extends in the form of cir- the tank is small, and the waves the water, while the smaller paddle eye, but "visible" to the ear. These
cles, as shown in Fig. 1. are sufficiently powerful to reach is the receiver. It is exactly so in waves are exactly of the same shape
radio. If, by means of certain elec- as are the ocean waves or water
trical apparatus connected to an waves, with the difference that the
TRANSMITTER ReCETVER I)" aerial, we excite this aerial elec- sound waves go out in the air in
tricWly, waves are set up in the the form of spheres. In other words,
space exactly as water waves are the first sound wave leaving the
set up on the lake. Radio waves, bell would be a sort of invisible
just as do the water waves, branch globe all around it. The wave rap-
out in all directions. With the water idly spreads out, becoming larger
waves this is not so true. A true and larger, always remaining, how-
water wave, as we know, is carried ever, in the form of a sphere. If
along only upon the surface of the the sound waves did notitgo out
water. A few feet below the water in the form of spheres, would
SIGNALS and immediately above the water, not be possible for us to hear them
no water waves are found. A better in all directions as we have seen
analogy would be sound waves. in Sound Fig. 3.
waves that leave a bell
Take, for instance, a church bell.
By giving it a blow with a hammer. branch out, above, below, sideways;
2 we excite this bell. Sound waves in fact in all directions. It is exactly
4 Radio for the Beginner Radio for the Beginner
so in radio. The aerial of the broad- it at all. The reason is that the vi- ways be practical to make the aerial
casting station, or other radio trans- brations that reach our ears norm- tremendously large in order to hear
mitting station radiates as does a ally are too weak to be intercepted greater distances, also would
bell. Both are transmitters of waves. by our small ears. By enlarging our not expect to hear our bell 20 miles
We can hear a bell even if win- ears, as shown in Fig. 4, we inter- away by means of even large horns.
dows are closed. The invisible sound cept many more weak sound waves, We would have to devise some
waves pass through the window and these waves, all being collected other more sensitive means
panes. Radio waves do exactly the into our ears-bunched together, so the bell, and there are such to hear
means
same thing, except that they pass to speak-are sufficient to impress at hand today in super -sensitive
through solids far better than do the diaphragm in the ear, This holds electrical microphones which mag-
sound waves. Radio waves even pass true in radio as well. If we have a nify the very weakest sounds. So cause it embraces the total make-up
through mountains, providing these transmitting station, or a broad- too in radio it is not necessary to of one complete wave.
mountains do not contain ores or casting station, we can hear it only build a larger and larger aerial, the In radio we have the same sort
other metallic substances. Radio up to a certain distance with a given more we remove ourselves from the of waves, and these waves go out
waves also pass through the water apparatus. If we take a small aerial broadcasting or transmitting station. into space in all directions, as we
just as sound waves do. But, as we which we can liken to a normal Instead, we use more sensitive ap- have learned before. In radio we
all know, the farther away we go ear, we can use it only for a given paratus which will magnify the can make a wave length from a
from a ringing bell, the more dif- distance, let us say 25 miles. If we sounds in an electrical manner, so fraction of one meter up to several
ficult it is to hear it. The reason is move this aerial 30 miles away that we can hear the station even thousand meters and over. This all
that the original wave, as we increase from the radio broadcasting station though we are removed thousands depends upon the apparatus we use.
the distance between ourselves and we can no longer hear it. The case of miles from it. RADIO TELEGRAPH AND
the bell, becomes larger and larger here is exactly as with the sound RADIO TELEPHONE WAVES
azd soon covers a tremendous area. waves. The radio waves now have Let us now return to our stone In radio telegraphy we simply
Finally there comes a point where to cover much larger areas, and which we dropped into the water. hear the plain wave in our telephone
we no longer caa hear the bell. there are not enough waves, so to If we were to place our eye on a receivers. If the operato,r in the
speak, to leave any impression upon level with the water, and someone transmitting station presses his key,
our small aerial. If, however, we was to throw a stone into a quiet groups of waves are sent out into
were to double or triple the size surface of water, what would we as long as the key is de-
of the aerial, we would do physically see? Fig. 5 shows this. Any water Space
the same thing as we were doing wave is composed of two distinct pressed. At the receiving side we
when we attached the two horns parts, the crest and the trough. In hear the waves making a buzzing
to our ears. By having a larger other words, the water first comes sound for the length of time that
or increased aerial with more wires, up, then dips below the original the key is depressed at the sending
we would, by means of this, inter- surface, then up again above the station. If the key is pressed down
cept more waves than we could with original surface etc. In, our illustra- for a second, we hear a buzz for
a small normal aerial; consequently tion, we have shown in dotted lines a second. If the key is depressed
with such an aerial we could hear the original surface of the water. for two seconds we hear the buzz
the broadcasting station again, even The disturbance of the stone has for two seconds, and by means of
though we were removed 35 miles caused the water to expand into this buzzing sound the telegraphic
If, now we were to take two from it. The analogy between the waves. Now then, the wave length signals are reproduced. Usually a
horns and point them in the direc- sound wave and the radio wave is that portion which extends Iron. code such as the Morse or the
tion of the bell, as shown in Fig. 4, holds pretty true, all the way crest to crest. In Fig. S we see what Continental is used. For instance. a
and apply the ear pieces to our ears, through. Of course, in radio we a wave length consists of. It starts short buzz will be the letter "E"
we would be able to hear the bell have other means to bring in the at the top of the crest, covers the while "SOS" would stand for the
again, although without these appli- signals even if we are removed still trough and again up to the crest. following --------- (a short
ances, we would not be able to hear greater distances. It would not al- This is exactly one wave length, be- dash being a short buzz, a long
dash being a long buzz).
 7
Radio for the Beginner Radio for the Beginner
also. Exactly the same thing hap- if we have six players sitting down A or E. In other words the two
pianos are now transmitting at dif-
pens when the human speech is im- at the pianos and each hits the same ferent sound wave lengths, the wave
pressed upon the radio carrier wave. key, we will only hear that one note, length of E being different from
By certain means too technical to let us say A. You could not pos- the wave length of A, and vice
go into here, the vibrations made sibly detect it if five were striking
by the voice are carried along upon the key A, because all of the players versa. It is exactly so in radio, only
are transmitting on the same sound we have better means in radio be-
the carrier wave, exactly as the cause we can tune out entirely one
cork is carried upon the water wave. wave length which transmits only station or another by means of
At the receiving side we only hear the note A. Suppose, however, that tuning appliances so that we can
the words or music, for the reason one operator is striking the key A
while another strikes the key E. We hear either one at will. That is the
that the carrier wave is inaudible. can immediately eliminate one or reason why different transmitting
Hence, nothing hut the words or stations send on different wave
speech are heard by us in our loud the other, and by a little concentra-
tion of our ear, we can hear either lengths.
speakers.
Radio waves travel with the speed
of light, namely, the enormous speed
of 186.000 miles per second. We, Chapter III
In radio telephony (broadcasting) therefore, can understand that if a
however, we have a different and message is sent out anywhere on
more complicated action. words,
In the first
and our globe, it will be received at any TRANSMITTING
place, we hear sounds, place almost instantaneously; the
music exactly as they are produced greatest distance that a radio wave
at the broadcasting or transmitting or a message could travel would General
station. Two distinct things happen. be 12.000 miles, for the reason that
The aerial is made to send out a the circumference of the earth is There are several ways of trans- length of the longest string of his
radio wave that is continuous. This 24,000 miles. You will see, therefore, mitting by radio; the oldest and piano is, so the radio engineer will
wave cannot be heard by the human that a radio wave would travel historical method is shown in Fig. know on what wave length a given
ear with ordinary receiving appa- around the earth at the rate of al- 7. Here we have an ordinary spark aerial will send.
ratus. It is what is technically called most eight times in one second. coil such as is used in automobiles, Roughly speaking, an aerial 100
C.W. or Continuous Wave. It is POPULAR MISCONCEPTION a few dry cells, a key and the so- feet long will give a wave length of
also used to carry along the human AS TO RADIO WAVES called spark gap which may con- about 140 meters, while an aerial
speech. At this point we must re- Many people have an idea that sist of wire nails or better two zinc 200 feet long will give a wave length
sort again to our water wave. Sup- radio waves broadcast by a trans- balls. Every time we press the key of exactly twice the length of the
pose we throw a stone into a river. shorter one or 280 meters.
At the same time that the stone is mitting or broadcasting station, a spark jumps across the open space Suppose, with our little outfit
thrown we also throw a cork into change their form as they are sent in the spark gap. By connecting shown in Fig. 7, we wish to send
the water, at the same spot. What out into space. The length of the one end of an aerial to the ground, out a wave length of a thousand
happens? The cork is carried along wave never changes between the which may be a water pipe, or a meters; we could do this by making
by the current as shown in Fig. 6. transmitting and the receiving sta- steam radiator, radio waves are sent an aerial 833 feet in length. That
First we see the cork in position 1. tions. out into space. We might compare however, would not be practicable
A little later we see it in position 2. It stands to reason that if all this to a string held between two because not in all instances could
Still later in position 4 as shown stations were to send at exactly the nails and plucked with the finger, we find that much room for the
on the dotted lines. The cork, there- same wave length, we would get when we would hear some sort of aerial.
fore, is carried along by the wave nothing but a jumble. noise.
We, therefore, resort to another
as well as by the current. As the Suppose you have six pianos in Just exactly as a manufacturer of means, and we build an aerial in-
waves progress, the cork progresses one room, which are all tuned alike; a piano knows what the sound wave
 Radio for the Beginner 9
8 Radio for the Beginner
the operator at his transmitter
PIA/
further down his fingers slide, the presses down his key for a short
higher and higher the note becomes. duration, this is interpreted as a dot
He does here exactly the same thing at the receiving side, and when he
IBErrrIPLES as the slider does on our sending presses his key down for a longer
tuning coil, that is, he changes his period this becomes a dash on the
sound wave length. Fig. 9. other end. By means of dots and
IP 11 In other words, if he wants a long dashes,,the telegraphic code is made
sound wave he slides his finger up.
down the small end of the violin, 'n Fig. 10B, must be better and
and if he wants a short sound wave, In Fig. 7, we showed a simple clearer than the interrupted waves
Fla 7
KEY
SPARK CEO. 'ATER EIRE 6RGE+ he slides his finger towards his chin. sender. Of course, it goes without sent out in Fig. 10A. This is the
This changes the sound wave length saying that soon after Marconi day of the Continuous Wave com-
doors which we attach to the orig- in exactly the same way as our started his experiments, more com- monly called C. W. It is the Con-
inal aerial-a sort of sending tuning sending coil changes the radio wave plicated sending apparatus was de- tinuous Wave that makes broad-
coil, which we show in Flip 8. This length. Both are fundamentally the signed. casting possible.
tuning coil is the same wire which same. There are now many different Let us make a comparison again,
we use for the aerial, wrapped transmitters in use, as for instance, which can be easily understood, and
around a frame or tube, as shown the vacuum tube which may be used which may serve to make the inter-
in Fig. 8. This coil means simply for transmitting. This has the ad- rupted wave and the Continuous
the additional wire which is neces- vantage of giving rise to what is Wave clear in our minds. Take a
sary to lengthen our aerial in order called continuous waves; this is number of pipes as shown in Fig.
to make it long enough to give us made clear by the diagram shown 11A; one person stands at one end
our thousand meters. By means of in Fig. 10A. When we press the key and another at the other end. One
the slider, which runs up and down of the old Marconi outfit, we send talks into this interrupted pipe,
the wire convolutions, we now have out into space radio waves which which may he 100 feet long, and as
the means of changing the wave have somewhat the form shown in will be readily seen the person at
length merely by adding more or Fig. 10A. These waves start with a the other end will have a great dis-
less wire. If this is not entirely high pitch, as we might say, and advantage in hearing the speaker
plain, take a violin as an example.. FIG.9
die out rapidly. This happens a because the pipe, being interrupted
When the violinist wishes to trans- great many thousand times each se many times, breaks up the
mit a certain sound wave he plucks When Marconi first rigged up his second, but these waves are not speech. This is the analogy for
his string first without touching his little sending station, as shown in continuous. They are small wave- spark waves. Now turn to Fig. 11B;
hand to it. As he presses down on Fig. 7, he naturally could only send lets, as we might term them, which here we have a long pipe the same
the string, he automatically makes out radio telegraphic signals. Every are disrupted and do not form a as we use in our speaking tubes,
it shorter and shorter, and the time he pressed the key, radio waves continuous line. Look at Fig. 10B;
were sent out. When he pressed this is what we might term a con-
AERIAL
xl
the key for a second, a buzzing tinuous wave and is a wave which
wasuSTANCE
noise was heard for a second in the is sent out by a vacuum tube trans-
BATTERLCS
SPARK
BALLS
distant receiving telephone receiv- mitter such as is now used univers-
ers. If he pressed the key for two ally at broadcast stations. As long
------ "sr
seconds, a buzzing sound for two as the sending set is transmitting,
seconds was heard. By this means a continuous wave is sent out into
the telegraphic code is made up. At space which does not vary. It does
a' the present time, the Continental not take a technical mind to know BIG 115

K -ER PIPR ML. code is used almost exclusively, and that the waves sent out, as shown
F1 O. 8
GROLJ D
today, as in Marooni's time, when
 Radio for the Beginner 11
Radio for the Beginner
10
his are not correct, we will hear Presence of steel buildings also
through. This continuous long pipe the signals faintly, and often not tend to cut down the receiving
which is fret from interruptions, stands for a continuous wave. This
and is continuous all the way at all. Receiving radio waves is not range. Thus, for instance, if a crystal
through. You can readily understand of course, is not a strict analogy, any different from receiving light of moderate sensitivity is located
why the person at the other end will but may serve to implant in the waves. If you go to the opera you in the heart of the New York
have no troulte in hearing what the reader's mind the difference between would not think of using the opera downtown district, we will hear
speaker say.., ior the reason that the an interrupted spark wave and a ?lass unless it was properly ad- practically nothing from the neigh-
pips is continuous all the way continuous wave. justed - tuned - to your particular boring broadcast stations, unless of
eye. You also would not have the course the aerial extends above the
lenses covered with finger marks. buildings. All these facts should be
You know in advance that you borne in mind when erecting a good
would not see much of the opera if receiving station.
Chapter IV you were to do that. The same thing Another point to be remembered
holds true of your receiving set. We is that reception during the night
must have perfect insulation; all time as a rule is better than during
RECEIVING metal parts that carry the current the day. The reason for this is that
must make good contact-all parts during the day time the sun's rays
General must be perfectly adjusted. Only ionize the air, which means that the
in this case will the receiving be sunlight makes the air partly con-
100 per cent., or rather approaching ductive. That cuts down the receiv-
No matter what receiving station instrument a broadcasting station it, because we have not as yet
could possibly be heard five to ten ing range as well. It is not a rare
you have, it can receive either radio miles, but no further. Next came reached the stage where we can occurrence that distant stations are
telegraphy or radio telephony. The the crystal detectors; with a good receive 100 per cent. heard twice as far during the night
receiving station has the exact coun-
one we may hear the broadcast sta- We have mentioned before that time as during the day.
terpart in your ear, which receives tion at a distance of 25 miles or radio waves pass as readily through
any and all sound and noises that more. Still later came the audion
a stone wall as through the air. It, STATIC
are floating about in the air. So it or vacuum tube. This instrument,
therefore, does not surprise us that
is with the radio receiving station; we can have a modern radio receiver A few words as to this greatest
with it you can hear, if properly ad- being enormously more sensitive in our library without an outdoor nuisance that the radio man has to
justed, any and all disturbances that than a crystal detector, at once in- aerial at all and the waves will be contend with. Static disturbance is
creased the range up to a thousand
are flung out into space by the miles and over.
received just as well as if the radio nothing but atmospheric electricity.
various broadcast stations. Receiv- set was stationed on top of the roof We are not bothered much with sta-
ing instruments are becoming more How do we get more sensitive or out in the yard. This is true only ticin the winter time, but during
and more sensitive for which reason radio receivers? A single vacuum If the detecting apparatus of the set the months of May, June, July.
we can hear the sending station tube is only able to detect radio is very sensitive, otherwise we will August and September, there is
If we signals for a given distance. By add- plenty of it, particularly, if we have
further and further away.which is ing more vacuum tubes, more
not be able to detect the waves, al-
have a broadcast station "stages" as we call them in radio though they are there. an aerial extending up into the air.
sending out a band concert, and if parlance, we step up the faint sig- As a general thing, it has been Static makes itself heard in our re-
we were to use Marconi's first in- nals until finally a radio signal that found in receiving that the higher ceivers in a sort of irregular noise
strument, the coherer, for receiving could not be heard at all with a up our receiving aerial is, the better that cannot be controlled today.
purposes, it would not be possible we can receive. It also has been Very often we hear sharp clicks in
for us to receive this concert at all pair of telephone receivers, and a found that one can receive further our receivers which vary up to a
crystal detector, will roar out of
because Marconi's coherer is totally the loud -speaker with ear-splitting
with a given receiver over water loud roar particularly when a thun-
unsuited to receive broadcast radio strength. If conditions are not right, than over land. Roughly speaking, der storm is approaching. Some-
music. After Marconi's coherer came one can hear twice as well over times the air, even on a perfectly
the auto-coherer a somewhat more for instance, if our insulation is bad, water as over land. clear day, is so highly charged with
sensitive instrument. With such an or if the adjustments of the appara-
 13
Rale far the Iheehemor Rollie ler the Beginner
12
aerial. for best results. A 75 -ohm receiver,
electricity that if we bring the lead- ty Is collecting upon thehave not such as is used in house phones,
These static noises so far should never be used in connection
in from our aerial, close to the been corrected, as no way has been with radio waves. The results are
ground wire, small sparks will jump found to weed out or entirely tune
from the aeri,1 to the ground, prov- very poor.
that static electrici- out these disturbances, Soon after the silicon detector was
ing conclusi
invented, Greenleaf W. Pickard, the
inventor of the silicon detector, in-
vented a host of other detectors all
of which use a native mineral crys-
Chapter V tal, such as, for instance iron pyrite,
copper pyrite, bornite, etc. All of
these detectors are used similarly
RECEIVING INSTRUMENTS to the silicon detector, the crystal
being cast into a soft metal in pellet whisker, as explained above, is used
form. This pellet is used in the same with the galena crystal and the
the crystal part of this round pellet amount of pressure has to be found
The earliest instrument for detect- is afterwards placed in contact with way as the silicon detector; some-
by experiment. Ordinary galena is
ing radio waves was the coherer. the contact member as shown in times a sharp brass contact point is
not sensitive on every spot, but
This was a rather complicated little used with some minerals and at
instrument, and one that was dif- Fig. 13. other times a fine wire is used, there are certain grades which are
The galena and other common equally sensitive over the entire sur-
ficult to keep adjusted. Furthermore, crystals of today are similarly which latter is termed a Catwhisker.
it was not at all sensitive, compared Such a detector is shown in Fig. 13. face; this is known as Argentiferous
mounted. The contact member to This detector uses as a sensitive means that it is silver
with the detecting instruments of the silicon detector is nothing but crystal bearing. On the other hand not all
member the mineral or
One of the earlier detectors, still a piece of brass. which is not very known as the iron pyrite. As with argentiferous galena is equally sen-
in use today, is the crystal detector. sharp at the end, but rather blunt. all other crystal detectors, no battery sitive, and there is no hard and fast
The amount of pressure upon the rule about it. It must be found by
Dunwoody was perhaps the first pellet is varied by a spring. In de- is used in connection with it. In
man to use such a crystal, viz., car- this detector no sharp point is used, experiment. A good connection for
tectors of this kind, not every point the crystal is shown in Fig. 26. No
borundum. This particular crystal of the silicon is equally! sensitive. but rather a fine wire catwhisker.
battery is used with galena, and as
is seldom used today. Some points are very sensitive while A catwhisker is a piece of fine wire
Another of the early detectors, the sensitive about No. 26 or No. 28 B & S a matter of fact a battery will de-
others are not. Some of gauge phosphor bronze. This is stroy the usefulness of it by burning
which has almost entirely vanished points require more pressure than
from the radio picture is the silicon usually attached to some sort of out the sensitive points. With ga-
others. All this is found out by ex- lena, a fine brass wire No. 24 or
detector. Silicon is a manufactured periments. The silicon detector is handle or other adjusting means so
substance, which is a by-product of that the pressure of the wire upon No. 26 B & S gauge is used; a stiff
the electric oven in the manufacture quite sensitive; it was the first de- the surface of the mineral may be gold wire of the same dimension
tector invented that required no may also be used, as it is non -
of abrasives; it is a cousin to car- battery whatsoever to detect radioa varied.
borundum. Silicon is a hard rock- signals, and for that reason was One of the most sensitive and oxidizing.
All crystals are sensitive only if
like substance of a dark silver-gray favorite instrument with early ex- most widely used detectors is made absolutely clean, and their useful-
color. A small piece of silicon silicon detector of Galena, a lead ore of which there
broken from a larger piece by means perimenters. The advantage ness becomes destroyed immediately
had also the great in that are different grades. It is known upon being handled with bare fin-
of a hammer or in a vice, about it was not easily "knocked out," as under many trade names as well.
inch by Y4 inch, is first imbedded most other detectors are, nor did A good piece of galena is probably gers.
Although we have stated a little
into a soft solder. The idea of this it burn out easily. When connected, as sensitive as any crystal yet dis- further back that most crystal de-
pellet is that contact is made on
as in Fig. 12, a set should
of receivers of covered, but it is not stable. A cat -
five sides with the metal, which is at least 1,000 ohms be used
*imply cast around the silicon, and
 Radio for the Beginner IS
Radio for the Beginner
14
highly charged electrical particles tive varies the amount of current that
-tectors have the sensitive mineral called "electrons" travel constantly flows from the hot filament to the
SAFETY from the filament to the cold plate. plate, decreasing, and even stopping
embedded in a metal pellet, the am- PIN it entirely. The grid simply acts as
ateur or experimenter does not al- a gate valve which controls the
ways require this, and Fig. I3A plate current. The curious thing
shows several simple home-made about the grid is that it uses no
detectors. The illustrations are so great amount of power. A modern
self-explanatory, that no further de- CRYSTAL vacuum tube is exhausted to a very
tails need be given. Base boards high degree, because it was found
may be of wood, hard rubber or
any good insulator. As will be seen CAT-WRICKE
gua that unless the vacuum was perfect,
the sensitivity of the tube was very
in these illustrations, the detector BRASS OR
poor. It is not necessary here to
mineral is clamped by simple hold- COPPER
go into a very technical discussion
ing devices; anything that will hold CLIP
of the vacuum tube, as we are mere-
the crystal down so that it will not ly interested in its functioning. The
move, and at the same time make study of the vacuum tube, however,
good contact with it, may be used. is a science in itself today, and for
The catwhisker wire is best, a No. that reason it can only be treated
24 or No. 26 B & S brass gauge, or It was soon found that the vacuum
CRYSTAL generally here. We must, however,
phosphor bronze wire. It may be FIG ube acted as a sort of valve for
add that the vacuum tube is far
straight, or coiled in pig -tail fashion, he electrical current, allowing the
either will work equally well. The high frequency currents as they more sensitive than other detectors,
ent sort of detector, namely the came over the aerial to travel in one particularly when used in connec-
clever experimenter can change the tion with other vacuum tubes. It
design to suit his own individual Audion, or as it is commonly called, direction in a vacuum tube but not
tastes, and the chances are that the the "Vacuum Tube." This detector in the other. In this respect the was found, for instance, that this
device will work well. The trouble works upon an entirely different vacuum tube is the same as a crystal was the case when several tubes
with most mineral detectors is that principle from any of the former detector, which also acts as a valve,
their adjustment does not keep for ones described, and is in general permitting currents to pass one way
any length of time. Jars, or static use today for reasons which we shall only.
surges in the aerial will cause the 14 shows a
learn presently. Fig. The vacuum tube was first in-
detector to become inoperative, of standard vacuum tube where we ented by Dr. Fleming, to whom
ter which it must again be adjusted have the filament, which is the same belongs the honor of using it first
We now come to a vastly differ as that used in an incandescent is a detector for radio. He was
lamp; this is heated by means of using only a two -element tube, viz.,
a battery of from two to six volts n exhausted bulb containing a fila-
or by means of current from the ment and a plate. Dr. Lee De Forest
house lighting lines. We next have conceived the idea of introducing a
the grid which may be in the form third electrode into the tube, as ex-
of a gridiron or a spiral, it making plained above. The purpose of this
little difference which. Opposite the electrode which he called the grid
filament and with the grid in the serves only to control the flow of
middle, we find the plate, usually the electrons attracted by the cold
a small piece of nickel or other plate. It is the grid that makes the
metal. The connection of the sim- vacuum tube the exceedingly sensi-
plest audion is shown in Fig. 15. If tive apparatus that it is. Making the
we make the plate positive with Rid alternately positive and nega-
respect to the filament, we find that
 17
Radio for the &vitiator Radio for the Beginner
16
that if a radio current traversed one
tration, is simply an insulated wire coil, another tuning coil standing
were coupled together; this gives wrapped upon a cardboard tube, its close by would be affected, although
us the so-called two-step or three - size is immaterial. Tuning coils may no wire touched the first coil. This
step amplifier, which will be dis- be made in almost any size, from is termed an "inductive effect." In
cussed later on. The idea of these the smallest one wound upon a pen- other words, the energy is radiated
amplifiers is for each to step up the cil, to the largest, as big as a barrel. from one coil to another, the same
exceedingly weak current received The more wire we use, the more as a stove radiates heat to objects
from the first tube. By means ofis wave -length our tuning coil will be that are close to it.
such a stepping up process, it able to absorb, so to speak. Of
possible to bring in signals over As we just mentioned, the loose
tremendous ranges, a thing impos- course, in practice tuning coils are coupler is a transformer. The cur-
sible to do with any other detector built for a certain capacity, all de- rent that comes in over the aerial
pending upon what it is to be used in the form of radio waves is a high
known at this time. for. If, for instance, we have but frequency current. By that we mean
Tuning Devices a little aerial and wish to receive
We have seen in previous chap- that waves swing back and forth
from stations having a wave length reason that better tuning is ac- very rapidly. It is the purpose of
ters that each radio wave -length is of say 650 meters, a small coil about
dependent upon the length of wire 6 inches long and 2 inches in di'.
plished with them. the loose coupler to change this
of each aerial. If it were possible to ameter and wound with No. 24 Loose Couplers
make all aerials of exactly the same B & S gauge wire will do nicely. he Loose Coupler, Fig. 18, is
length and capacity, and' if all sta- The purpose of the slider is simply ther form of tuning coil and this
PRIMARY
tions were transmitting at exactly to add more or less wire to the rument, which was formerly used
the same wave -length, we would aerial; it is but an adjustment. It eat deal, is really one of the
not need any tuning devices. case.
Un-
goes without saying that the slider t tuning devices known. Instead
fortunately this is aerial, we can- of the tuning coil must touch the ing just one coil, as for instance
When we install an wire, as otherwise no connection tuning coil just described, a loose
not always make_ it of the length would be made. In Fig. 16, we show r uses two coils-one sliding
or capacity which we desire, but
the simplest connection for a tuning the other without touching. SECONDARY I
are hampered by physical andother
geo-
coil. This, as will be seen, duplicates loose coupler is an electrical
graphical limitations. In FIG. 18
usually a com- the connection of the crystal detec- sformer, as it has been found
words, our aerial is tor. We have here merely added
promise. On the other hand, the
all the tuning coil in order to tune the energy if:+o a more suitable form.
various transmitting stations circuit. By means of this tuning
AERIAL
We again hake recourse to an anal-
send on different wave lengths and, coil, it now becomes possible
to ogy. In Fig, 19 we show, by means
for that reason, many different tun- tune out unwanted stations merely
DETECTOR
of a lever action, the principle of
ing devices are used. One of these, by moving the slider back and forth the transformer. We are all fa-
and the oldest, is the Tuning Coil, and so connecting more or less wire miliar with the lever action whereby
shown in Fig. 16. This is nothing to the aerial. For instance, if two a man who weighs only 150 lbs.
but an aerial wound upon a card-or stations are sending at the same SLIDE can raise a weight of 1000 lbs. by
board tube or other circular time, by moving the slider back- NING
means of the lever. Is he getting
square piece of insulating material. ward and forward it becomes pos- COIL
something for nothing in this case?
The tuning coil is simply an exten- sible to tune in or out the unwanted Certainly not! You cannot get free
sion of the aerial. Even though we station, and listen only to the one energy, but the experiment in Fig.
have an aerial which is only wire 100 Fig. 17, we
we desire to hear. In coil,
GROUND
19 simply shows that force plus
feet long, by attaching more show the same tuning but with FIG.17 time may be transformed into some-
to it in the form of the tuning coil, two sliders. The two sliders are thing else. In this case the man
we thereby lengthen theinaerial. The
the illus- somewhat of an improvement, for
tuning coil, as shown
 Radio for the Beginner Radio for the Beginner 19
Is
who weighs 150 lbs. is the force and
nections) taken at every few turns windings come together, the better
the time is the interval that it takes of wire, if we so desire. On the it is. In Fig. 20, we show the sim-
him to reach from point A to point secondary also, we may have a plest connection for a loose coupler,
B. The two added together are suf- slider or taps brought out, both of crystal detector and phones. Very
ficient to raise the 1000 lb. weight, which are the same. The inner tube good results are had with this cir-
the distance from C to D. The is made to slide back and forth upon cuit, and the loose coupler is par -
longer the lever arm L, the more sliding rods so that the degree of f cularly efficient for tuning out in-
weight we can raise. Archimedes coupling, as we call it, may be terference to a certain degree. It
told us that "give him a long enough changed. If the inner tube, called lives what is called sharp tuning,
lever he could raise the earth from the secondary, is pushed into the kcause if two stations operate at a
its hinges." Always providing that outer tube, which we call the pri- *ft wave length, let us say one at
mary, we have a complete electrical NO meters and another at 320 me-
he has a sufficiently long lever and lever system, as shown in our anal- ters, the loose coupler will give very
a fulcrum, or point of19.rest which
Summing ogy Fig. 19. The energy that comes Cdresults by reason of its sharp
is shown at F in Fig. into the primary is now raised ex- in g.
not exactly accurate, for there is
actly as the weight is raised bya The Vario-coupler shown in Fig. no condensing done in radio work,
means of a lever, and we get 21 is a development of the loose but rather storing of energy.
marked effect from the secondary. coupler. In this instrument we have Consider Fig. 22. Here we have
The more we pull out the secondary in outer tube wound with a heavy a spring which we compress by
tube, the less our lever action Fig.
be- wire, while the inner tube which means of a weight. As soon as we
comes. It is as if the manthe
in rotates upon its axis is wound with take the weight away, the spring
19 were to move down to point a finer wire. returns to its original position.
F where it would become impossible circuit, in order to do What have we done? We have sim-
for him to raise the weight at all, line tuning, we must often take re- ply stored energy into the spring.
course to the condenser which in- The electrical condenser is used in
or even to budge it. By using the exactly the same way, viz., to store
loose coupler, we do not get some- strument is used to do just what electrical energy. However, that is
thing for nothing .any more than if its name implies, viz., condensing not its only purpose. Just as the
we raise a stone we perform no work. the electric current. This is perhaps spring may be used for other pur-
Reverting back to Fig. 18, the poses besides that of storing me-
tubes of the tuning coil may be of
chanical energy, so the electrical
cardboard, hard rubber or composi- condenser may be used for other
tion, or any good ironinsulating ma- AERIAL
terial. No steel or should be purposes also.
A condenser is a capacity or a
used in the construction of a good
DETECTOR
now that by
up, we understand weight loose coupler. Its size is immaterial
LOOSE
COUPLER vessel in which electrical energy
means of a small we are providing the proportions are right, is stored. The simplest form of
able to lift a much .heavier one. this being determined by experi- electrical condenser is shown in
This analogy holds with our loose Fig. 23, where we have a metal
coupler, which we have shown in ment. The important partasisclosethat
plate A, a glass plate B, and another
the secondary must come '^r11, metal plate C. By means of this
Fig. 18. The loose cceipler has two
PHONES
as possible to the primary. the
In other
arrangement, we may store elec-
coils; the primary, which is usually words, the diameterthe of two
trical energy upon the surfaces, of
always wound
the outer tube, is while tubes must be so that secondary
with a coarser wire, finerthe inner FIXED glass plate B. The larger we make
tube, when moved inside the pri- CONDENSER
S4,
tube is wound with a havewire. As
mary will take up the entire air the metal plates, the more electrical
in the tuning coil we if weadoslider
not space without, however, touching GROUND
F1G.20
energy may be stored.
The form shown in Fig. 23, is
upon the primary, orhave taps (con - the outer tube. The closer the two
use a slider we may
20 Radio for the Bettieste, Radio for the B164110? 21

used in many, condensers today.

by the variable condenser. When
The metal plates A and C may be
METAL PLATE we adjust the latter, we also change
any form of metal, such as, for in-
A the relation of the tuning coil, and
stance, tin or metal foil, while the
GLASS
PLATE
in fact are changing the wave length
glass plate B may be replaced by 8
until a point is found where the sig-
a piece of paraffin paper. In other nals come in best. This is a finely
words, any good metallic conductors balanced circuit, and the amount of
may be used if coupled with a good wire on a little tuning coil should
WIRE be in direct relation to the con-
insulator. The better the insulator, METAL
denser. In other words, if there is
the better the condenser will be PLATE. C
too much wire on the tuning coil
and the greater its electrical capac- / WIRE FIG.23
ity. In the commercial condensers, and the capacity of the condenser is
paraffin paper, varnished silk, sul- they come to each other, the higher length of the aerial may be changed, small, we cannot do much tuning.
phur, sealing compounds, or mica, will be the capacity of that con- which would thus change the wave For the best results, as for instance
for receiving broadcast music on a
is usually used. In Fig. 24, is shown denser. For certain purposes we length. This is performed entirely wave length of 360 meters, we could
need only a small condenser of a
few plates, while in others we need
a larger one of a great many plates.
It is just like having a small spring
and still another very large one.
Both have their uses, and both arc
very necessary, all depending upon
what work they are required to do.
In Fig. 26, we show the simplest
elementary connection, where we
have a crystal detector, a tuning
coil without a slider, a pair of phones
and a telephone condenser. This is
a simple condenser; this is also a peculiar connection because in it
shown opened up. It is made by we wish to show that we can tune
rolling together two strips of tinfoil by means of the condenser. As will
between several strips of paraffin be seen in this tuning coil, we do
paper. The whole, when rolled to- not use any slider by which the
gether and assembled, becomes the AERIAL .0-- COIL
finished condenser. By rolling it to- WAXED
PAPER
gether, it takes up less room. In STRIPS
GROUND
radio work, where fine regulation
is required, we make use of still
another condenser, as shown in Fig. TINFOIL VARIABLE
25. This condenser, instead of being STRIPS CONDENSER
fixed, is variable. As will be seen DETECTOR
there are a number of plates which FIXED
are usually made of brass, zinc or CONDENSER
aluminum, which mesh into each COPPER PHONES FIG.26
24 RIBBON
other to a more or less degree. The TUBULAR TYPE FIG.
more plates we have and the closer
 23
22 Radio for the Beginnerlianas for the Beginner
consists of just an iron core upon
use a small coil, one inch in dia- magnify it a hundred or a thousand J-11111:UECTOR which is first wound a coarse wire
meter, wound with about 70 or 80 or a million times its original FILM .-- termed the primary, and on top of
turns of No. 18 enamel wire, while strength. It is just as if you take a this a finer wire termed the second-
the condenser should be of the com- piece of film such as is used in a ary. The ratio of these transform-
mercial variety known as a 23 -plate
condenser. Then, all we have to do
moving picture theatre and examine
it with your eye. The figures are so
small that you can hardly distin-
W A-
re-
(WEAK
AMPLIFIED
ers is usually such that, electrically
speaking, the value of the secon-
is simply adjust the condenser until WAVE)
WAVE dary is from three to ten times as
the signals are heard best. guish them. The regular film which SWEPT) FIG.27 much as that of the primary. The
In this illustration, we also see is about the size of a postage stamp audio frequency transformer is in
where the phone condenser is lo- here stands in our analogy as a t we have, as before, the aerial, principle the same as the loose
cated. This phone condenser stores single vacuum tube. We can, how- ground, the variable condenser, coupler, which we studied before,
the energy of the circuit, and dis- ever, take that film, and by using blocking or phone condenser and the purpose of the audio fre-
charges it into the telephone receiv- a powerful light enlarge the little led several other instruments as quency transformer is to transform
ers which enables us to hear the picture (no larger than a postage
stamp,) by projecting it upon the Well. We find for instance, that sev- the energy from a low level to a
signal more loudly. high one. The purpose of this trans
The two forms of condensers screen. We thereby amplify or mag- oral transformers are used, viz., fcrmer, as shown in Fig. 28, is to
shown here are of course not the nify the original picture several! t is technically called the Audio
thousand times. We can amplify or uency Transformer. boost up the weakest signals, trans
only ones, as many more types of AUDIO FREQUENCY forming them into stronger ones.
either fixed or variable condensets enlarge it a million times if neces- The transformer by itself could
sary all depending upon the amount TRANSFORMER
are made. is transformer (E in Fig. 28), never accomplish this, and in order
VACUUM TUBE ACCESSORIES of light we put behind a film and
We have learned something about the distance from the screen This
the vacuum tube which was described is graphically shown in Fig. 27.
previously in this article, and in Fig. We may do precisely the same o) F
15 we have shown the simplest con- thing with a vacuum tube, but we 4

nection of an audion detector. There must use additional energy, the same
are, however, a number of other as in our film where we use energy
auxiliary instruments used in vacu- (the electric current which produces
um tube systems which give certain the light) to projeCt the film upon
refinements. the screen. In other words, we can
The vacuum tube, when it is used take the detector tube and enlarge
singly, acts as a detector and detects the original small and weak signal,
the signals the same as a crystal and boost it up until the sound
detector. Also, we might state here, comes out loud from a loudspeaker,
that the crystal detector is a better which in our analogy stands for the
rectifier "valve" than the vacuum moving picture screen. The electrical
tube. connections for a vacuum tube am-
With a crystal detector, or in the plifier are shown in Fig. 28. This is
ordinary single vacuum tube circuit, what is called technically a two-ster GROUND
the incoming signals act upon the amplifier. We show this connection H)
phones and we hear the signals with simply because without it, it is al-
a certain strength. Let us now con- most impossible to bring home the !, VARIABLE CONDENSER : 8 -GRID LEAK AND CONDENSER ; C-VARIO-COUPLER:
sider the vacuum tube and the in- meaning of the vacuum tube aux- DETECTOR TUBE ; E -AMPLIFIER TRANSFORMER , F
-AMPLIFIER TUBE,
coming signal. We may indeed, by iliary instruments with which the RHEOSTAT; 14 -.STORAGE BATTERY J-11 BATTERIES . K- EARPHONES OR
certain means boost up the very reader is as yet unfamiliar. In this MAGNETIC LOUDSPEAKER FIG. 28
weakest of signals and amplify or
 Reale for the Beginner for the Beginner 25
24
to make the lever action work per- RHEOSTATS of safety valve to let the stir - amount of noise which we get in
fectly, we take recourse to a bat- In Fig 28, we also find another accumulation of electrons run the phones is tremendous. For that
tery which is connected to the new instrument, the Rheostat, The grid leak is nothing but a reason, we take recourse to what is
transformer and with the vacuum shown in detail in Fig. 29. This is high resistance, sometimes termed a Radio Frequency Trans-
tube, as shown. By means of this simply an electrical resistance and ns of ohms high. It may con - former. The radio frequency trans-
additional electrical energy we are is used solely to increase or de of only pencil lines drawn a - former may consist of only two
now in a position to boost up and crease the glowing of the vacuum. a piece of stiff Bristol board; windings, one adjacent to the other
relay the weak signal. In this con- tube filament. When signals are re- pencil lines are but slight on a cardboard tube. The simplest
nection, we have shown first a de- ceived, it has been found that the cal conductors, but the re - form is shown in Fig. 31. The wire
tector tube, while the other tubes filament must glow at a certain in- e is enormous. It suffices, used on this is usually exceedingly
are amplifier tubes. By this we tensity. Some signals come in best ever, to allow the surplus elec- fine, No. 24 B & S wire, or even
mean that the first tube receives when the filament is burning very to leak off. There are various thinner. The two windings act upon
the signal, while the other tubes are brightly, while with other tubes the and means to make grid leaks, each other by induction, and do not
merely used as pumps to boost up signals come in best when the fila- a popular form is shown in Fig. make connections physically. A
the electrical energy until the signal ment is only a cherry red. Here we have a piece of card - radio frequency stage amplifies the
finally comes from the phones so GRID LEAK d or fibre upon which is traced
loudly that if we connect the phones In Fig. 28 we have another new- e line in India ink. This line ASSEMBLED
METAL
EYELET
COPPER
RIBBON
with a loud speaker, loud signals or comer, which is termed the Gri the same as a pencil line. The GRID LEAK
music will issue from it. The bat- Leak, and its condenser. It has been le is enclosed in a tube to pre - AND CON-
tery used in this case is a so-called found that when the grid condenser moisture or dust from settling DENSER
"B" battery, or high voltage battery is used, as shown in the illustration the grid leak. Connections are
which has been found necessary to the signals will come in about twit e on the ends by metal clips. INDIA INK OR
aid in boosting up the weak signals. as well as if none was used. How 30 shows a grid leak and con - LEAD PENCIL
LINE'
As a rule batteries anywhere from ever, this condenser alone would r combined as two instru- %AXED
PAPER CONDENSER
24 to 300 volts are used, all depend- not he sufficient, for the reason that ts, which are usually used in kolETWOD OF
ing upon the circuits. the accumulation of electrons, nction. The grid leak conden- ASSEMBLING
It should be understood that the
audio frequency transformer is used
which are highly charged electrical
particles on the grid of the vacuu
small and is similar to a tele-
blocking condenser, and the Alp
only to boost up the weak signal as tube, would interfere with the nor- leak is traced by means of
it leaves the first detector tube. It mal working of the tube. We must ink upon a piece of fibre; the -01
is not in the province of this trans- provide a means to let the surplu e is enclosed in waxed paper. TINFOIL GRID
former to do anything save amplify electrons leak out without, however RADIO FREQUENCY FIG.30
LEAK COPPER
the signal which is detected by the letting 'them out too quickly. It is RIBBON

detector tube. as if we had a boiler under which TRANSFORMER

a constant fire was maintained. I Fig. 28 we have learned about weak signals as they are coming in
RESISTANCE WIRE CONTACT order to provide a remedy, we in audio frequency transformer. over an aerial. The radio frequency
WOUND ON BLADE stall a safety valve. This valve i ow that this transformer am - transformer steps up these weak
FIBER STRIP used for the purpose of giving o static and also other distur- signals, amplifying them and pass-
the surplus steam and so keep th as well as the signals. For ing them on to the detector tube.
boiler free from harm. It is th son it is not possible to use We now get the net result, with the
same with the vacuum tube. Whil such transformers, or, tech - detector tube in a position to detect
of course, the vacuum tube word termed, many steps of audio already fairly strong signals which
KNOB
not burst, even if we did not us cation. If we use more than may then be amplified in the audio
WEN the grid leak, electrically speaking such transformers and their frequency amplifiers, and boosted
FIG.29 the tube would not function proper e vacuum tubes, addition - up further by a second or a third
ly. Hence, the grid leak, which is are all asnplified, and the transformer, if so desired.
26 Radio for the Beginner *,&o for the Beginner 27

two simple types are shown in Fig. whragm is changed into sound course, not all tone amplifiers work
32; this consists of the following: waves, which are sent on to our so loudly. Those made for home or
First we have a powerful magnet Sir, where we hear them. parlor purposes do not use so much
which attracts to it a thin iron dia- LOUD SPEAKERS current, and therefore do not give
phragm. This diaphragm is clamped The dynamic loud speaker, now so much power. There are a number
tight like a drum head along its so widely used, works upon a prin- of types of tone amplifiers, but most
outer edge. Upon the magnet are ciple where a small coil, through of them work along the same elec-
mounted two pole pieces around which the received current flows, is tro-magnetic lines, and if they do
which are wound many thousand bilnenced by a powerful electro- not use the outside electric current
turns of exceedingly fine wire, al- et. It is another case of boost - in order to create a strong electro-
most as fine as the human hair. up the sound which is received magnetic field, they either use
Ordinarily when no current is the last amplifier tube. Such strong magnets to accomplish the
e amplifiers can throw the voice
sent into the telephone receiver, the same result, or necessitate the use
To resume and in a few words, diaphragm is pulled down some- music over distances of one-half of a high tension current in the am-
we may say that the radio frequency what to the pole pieces, although e and more, and if a person plifier. Such tone amplifiers are
transformer boosts up the very it must never touch them. If it ads in front of one of these giant nothing but transformers or relays,
does, no sound will be received. If, s, the amount of sound that transforming or relaying a weak
weak radio frequency currents so s from it is simply terrific. Of sound into a loud one.
that the detector gives maximum however, a weak electrical current
results, whereas the audio frequency passes through these spools th
boosts up the audible signals. The diaphragm will either be pull
radio frequency transformers, in down more if the current is in the
right direction, or if the current is
Chapter VI
other words, amplify signals that
would be lost otherwise, while the in the wrong direction, it will weak TUNING
audio frequency transformers give en the magnetism on the pol
volume to signals which are already pieces. In this case, the diaphragm former chapters we learned ial to the same wave, namely, 360
audible. is not attracted. These little varia- thing about tuning; this is meters. If we have an aerial which
TELEPHONE RECEIVERS tions make the, diaphragm vibrate ding but resonance. We all know is 260 meters long, electrically
In order to receive signals or more or less. These vibrations are experiment of standing near the speaking, it stands to reason that
broadcast entertainment by ear, we passed on to the air, and the air and singing a certain note in- we must add 100 meters to this aer-
use a telephone receiver, of which vibrating in unison with the dia ; when we reach the correct or
amental note, the piano begins
POLE POLE sound that particular note in
CAP PIECE DIAPHRAGM PI aces CAP athy. We may then say that
are in tune with that particular
which sounds in our ears.
wise in radio, we make use of
ilar system, except that we
electrical
.
tuning instead of a-
PERMANENT cal tuning. Tuning consists as
MAGNET e in merely attuning our aerial
CASING *cally to the same length as
aerial that is transmitting to us.
FIG. 32 ther words, if a broadcasting
n is transmitting on a wave of
ters, we must attune our aer-
 -Jr
29
28 Radio for the Beginner Radio for the Beginner
ial In order to receive the wave at ment house. The only available ing station operating on a short
ing nicely. Take the musical in- wave length of 360 meters. The
all. We have learned in other chap- strument, the trombone shown in ground would be the water pipe. only way you could then tune in
ters how this may be accomplished. Fig. 33. You all have seen this in- This water pipe, however, would would be in the former case of the
If we have a receiving outfit, all we strument, as nearly every orchestra be so long that it would add extra long aerial, to put a variable con-
have to do is move the slider of our boasts 01 one or more. It is known meters to your wave length, and denser in the aerial circuit, or in
tuning coil backward and forward by all of us that while the musician something must be done to de- the other case where you have a
until the signals come in at maxi- blows into the mouth piece, he var- long ground to interpose the con-
mum strength. When that point is ies the length of the trombone by crease it, if you wish to receive
reached, we know that our aerial, signals sent out from a broadcast- denser in the ground lead.
moving the sliding member back
electrically speaking, must be 360 and forth. If he wants to get a deep
meters long. We have also seen in note, he pulls the sliding member
Fig. 26 that we need not have slid- almost all the way out, and this
ers on the tuning coil in order to gives him a long sound wave. If he
tune. We may use a condenser for wishes a high note, he must have Chapter VII
tuning purposes because its electri- a short sound wave. This means
cal equivalent is the same as a tun-
ing coil slider. By adding more or
that he must push the sliding mem- AERIALS, LOOP AERIALS, GROUNDS
ber all the way in. It is literally, as
less capacity to the condenser and well as scientifically, true that the
therefore to the tuning coil, we lengthened trombone gives a long An aerial is used to intercept 50 feet long gives excellent results.
changed the electrical value of the wave length, while the shortened radio waves; that is its sole func- Illustrations 34 and 35 show such
tuning coil, and also its wave length. trombone gives a short wave length. tion in the receiving set. It does a type of aerial.
This is not literally true, technically These are, of course, sound waves not amplify or make the signals Unless you wish to go to a great
speaking, but we must use this Ian- with which we have to do here. In come in clearer by itself. Hundreds deal of inconvenience, make your
gu2ge to bring home the meaning. radio we do exactly the same thing of different aerials have been in- lead-in of the same wire as the
We therefore learn that we may vented, and there is hardly anything main aerial. This may be done very
tune either by lengthening the aer- in tuning. When we wish a long simply with a single wire aerial, for
wave length, we must add more in this field that has not been tried
ial with additional wire, or by using wire or its equivalent to the aerial. out. An aerial, properly speaking, is the reason that no soldered con-
a capacity or condenser in connec- If we want a short wave length we an elevated wire that is well insu- nections are necessary. This is also
ton with a wire coil. Both, if cor- must either have a short aerial or lated, and is usually placed outside shown in Fig. 34 and Fig. 35. The
rectly apportioned, give the same subtract some wire from the aerial. of the building or house. next things to consider are the in-
results. Before we can receive sig- The reader should remember that in An aerial can be made of most sulators, which are quite important.
nals, or amplify them, it is of the order to decrease the wave length any metallic wire, but the best man The insulator serves to insulate
greatest importance that we tune of an aerial, all that is necessary is terial is copper wire. A still better the aerial, and unless we use good
in to the right wave length. An to put a condenser in series with wire to use is a stranded wire, ones, a great deal of energy will
aerial must be in electrical sym- the aerial, which actually decreases which is composed of several cop- be dissipated uselessly. We show in
pathy with the sending station be- the wave length; it does not in- per or phosphor bronze wires Fig. 36 various types of insulators
fore we hope to receive signals. In crease it as some people seem to twisted together. As a rule, we may that may be used. One of the sim-
Figs. 17 and 26, we have shown the think. The variable condenser, say that the larger the wire, the plest is the ordinary porcelain
elemental methods of tuning. Of therefore, gives us the best practical better it is for radio purposes. Very cleat, but when this type is chosen,
course, there are many other ways means to decrease the wave length; thick wires, as a rule, cost much an unglazed cleat should be avoid-
of tuning, all of which, however, are this point is quite important to re- and are very heavy, and therefore ed. Insist upon getting a glazed
along the same principles as those are not very practicable. A No. 14 cleat which is a better insulator.
just enumerated. member. Suppose you have a long When using cleats, put them in
aerial, say 200 feet, in connection B & S gauge wire is a standard as
Perhaps an analogy in tuning will with a small tuning coil, or sup- used today and gives exceilent re- tandem, two or three strung in a
not be amiss here, and we have a pose you have a short aerial and sults. For radio broadcast reception row, as shown. The more insulators
particular analogy that covers tun - live on the tenth floor of an apart- it has been found that a single wire we add, the better the insulation.
 31
Radio for the Beginner Radio for the Beginner
aerial is then run over this pulley walls, etc., until it reaches the points
and a fairly heavy weight secured where actual entrance is made into
to the open end. As the tree sways the building.
back and forth, more or less aerial We now come to an aerial which
rope is paid out or taken in, and a Is entirely different from those of
good compensation is thus had. The which we have spoken before. We
weight may be 50 to 100 pounds. refer to the loop aerial, which is
fp ERIA. When an aerial is erected in the shown in Fig. 37. It should be un-
LIGHTNING
city, let us say on an apartment derstood that a loop aerial is hard-
ARRESTER house, it should be at least 10 feet ly, if ever, used in connection with
above the roof, particularly if the a crystal set. It is used almost ex-
apartment has steel construction. clusively with a vacuum tube set,
TO SET LEAD-IN where it serves several purposes.
ANT.
The lead-in is that part of the In the first place, it does away with FIG.37
-70 aerial that goes into the building or the ground connection. Secondly,
GROUNP house to establish connection with the loop aerial may be made in any
TO
the instruments. In a single -wire size from a few inches square up to
FIG.34 TO SET GND. GRO'MD
aerial, the lead-in is simply the aer- 20 feet square. The loop aerial is points exactly in the direction from
ial wire itself leading into the house
highly directive; by that we mean which the waves are coming.
It is, however, hardly necessary to and thence to the receiver. The that it will only receive with max- GROUNDS
use more than three in a row. We imum intensity if the loop is turned
next have the small spool insulators, lead-in wire should be of the same in the direction of the coming sig- In radio, in connection with the
which are very good and may also size as the aerial. In other words, nals. This is shown clearly in Fig. usual aerial, it becomes necessary
be strung in pairs, or sets of three. about No. 14 B & S wire. It should 38. Here we see how an ordinary to use a ground, which as its name
Various other types are shown. be insulated at the point where it loop aerial is placed in a building implies, is a connection made with
When putting up art aerial, it nears the building, or if this is not and we also see how the waves are the earth. Fig. 39 shows the sim-
should be remembered always that possible in the case of a single -wire propagated from a distant sending plest and perhaps the best. It is
the aerial proper must be at least aerial, the lead-in is strung on in- station. It will be found that the simply a wire fastened to the cold
a foot away from all buildings, sulators, the wire being always at signals are strongest when the loop water pipe, which is found in al-
barns, trees and the like. In other east 2 inches away from buildings, most every house and apartment.
words, it should be away from all Iii order to make a good connec-
objects. tion, we use a ground clamp, as
The height of the aerial is often shown in Fig. 39. By means of some
important. It should always be PORCELAIN clamping arrangement, which dif-
placed at least 20 to 30 feet above CLEATS fers for every ground clamp, a
the ground. tN Ti.NDEM strong mechanical connection is
As a rule, an aerial in the country made. The ground wire is then fas-
may be stretched from the attic CORRUGATED) STEEL EYES tened to the screw or binding post
window to a flagpole, or if such is GLAZED attached to the ground clamp. The
not at hand, a barn, garage, or even INSULATOR ground wire need not be insulated.
a tree could be made use of. If a An ordinary bare No. 14 B & S
tree is used, some means must be COMPOSITION wire will do nicely; in other words,
had to compensate for the swaying INSULATOR the same wire which we use on an
of the tree. Such a method is to have aerial may be used. It is not neces-
a pulley attached to a tree by PORCELAIN STRAIN FIG. 36 shry to run the ground wire on in-
means of a ropet the end of the INSULATOR sulators, as is done with the aerial
32 Radio for the liesinrser
Hee tire IVine Adamirmat rums in
OERNSBACK'S EDUCATIONAL LIBRARY:
No. I No. 2 No. 3
gne eurrstsaaa

No. 4
I
be used, although the results may How To Make
not be as good as from the cold How To Make Alternating All
water pipe. It is against the law to The
connect a ground to a gas pipe, and Four Doerle Most Popular Current
it should therefore never be done. All -Wove About
When we are out in the country, Short Wave for
1- and 2 -Tube
for instance, when camping, it is Sets Receivers Beginners Aerials
not always possible to have a water
pipe, and in that case we have to
establish contact with Mother
Earth direct. This is usually ac-
complished by driving a metal rod
into moist earth, as is shown in
Fig. 40.

No. 9
Simple Electrical Experiments
No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 10
Beginners' How To Hove How To Read
Radio Television
Radio Fun With
Radio Diagrams
LIGHTNING ARRESTERS Dictionary
The properly installed aerial,
when used with a lightning arrester,
lead-in, but it may be attached to is the best protection a building or
the wall by means of nails which house could have against lightning.
serve the purpose equally well. Of The aerial is a lightning conductor
course, the ground wire should not itself, and will actually protect the
be longer than is absolutely neces- house, and will never endanger it if
sary. If it is not possible to find a properly installed.
cold water pipe, a radiator pipe may The lightning arrester itself is
nothing but a small spark gap either
in a vacuum or in the atmosphere, BOOKS ARE ALLEDUCATIONAL
UNIFORM LIBRARY
which gap breaks down when a cur- Every book in the GERNSBACK'S varying from SO to 68 in number.
rent of a few hundred volts strikes has 32 pages-with illustrationsover 15,000 words. POSITIVELY
Each title volume contains IN RADIO BOOKS EVER
the aerial. Instead of going through THE GREATEST 10c VALUE
the instruments which have a high OFFERED TO THE PUBLIC.
resistance, the current travels di- Order books by number - remit by check, money order,
cash
rectly to the ground, which has a POSTPAID.
or unused U. S. Postage Stamps. Books are mailed
low resistance. Secondly, the instru- N.Y.
ments are not damaged. RADIO PUBLICATIONS . 25 WEST B'WAY - NEW YORK,