Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

CE 222 - Geology for Civil Engineers

I. GENERAL GEOLOGY
GROUP 1

Acosta, Daniella Novelle Q.

Calma, Jedver

De Guzman, Jan Vincent P.

Dela Cruz, Nikko

Ercillo, Joren RR A.

Fermin, Mervin Henry L.

Fermin, Prince Jeric G.

Fernando, Michael Angelo C.

Rosales, Rvi P.

Valdez, Mary Joyce G.

Engr. Juan Paolo P. Mueca

Branches of Geology - Earth Structure and Composition - Elementary Knowledge on continental drift and
plate tectonics - Earth Processes - Weathering - Work of Rivers, wind and sea and their Engineering
importance - Origin, occurrence of earthquake - Mode of occurrence-Prospecting - Ground Water -
Importance in Civil Engineering
GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Geology (in Greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science) is a branch of science dealing with the study
of the Earth. It is also known as Earth Science. Geology is science that deals with the physical structure
and substance of the earth, their history, and the processes which act on them

A. BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
1. Physical Geology

is a scientific discipline that deals with all aspects of the Earth's physical properties and the
natural processes which bring about the change in the Earth's physical landscape.

2.Crystallography

this is the part of geology that deals with the study of crystals. Crystals are minerals that are
characterized by having an orderly shape based on a pattern. In this way, they are distinguished from
other rocks or objects associated with geology.

3.Mineralogy

in this case, we are facing the discipline of geology that studies the composition and cataloging
of minerals in all their forms and presentations in nature

4.Petrology

it is the branch of geology that studies rocks and their characteristics.

5.Paleontology

it is the branch of geology that studies the biology of the past from fossils.

6.Structural geology

branch of geology that deal with the study of the earth’s crust and the structure that it has
taken as a consequence of the movements of the tectonic plates.

7.Hydrogeology

this is the branch of geology that studies the composition, movements and structure of
groundwater , as well as its best possible use and conservation.

8.Civil Engineering Geology

a branch of geology that deal with all the geological problems that arise in the field of civil
engineering along with suitable treatment

B. EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION

The structure of the earth is divided into four major components:

the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. Each layer has a unique chemical
composition, physical state, and can impact life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by
variations in heat from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions. These natural hazards then change our landscape, and in some cases, threaten lives and
property.

Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition.

The crust makes up less than 1 percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and
continental crust is often more felsic rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth’s
mass. Finally, the core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of the Earth. Lithosphere and
asthenosphere are divisions based on mechanical properties. The lithosphere is composed of both the
crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The asthenosphere is
partially molten upper mantle material that behaves plastically and can flow.
Crust and Lithosphere

Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust is very
thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of crust, each with its own
distinctive physical and chemical properties. Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on the
seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools deeper down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro.
Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest
near the shore where it comes off the continents in rivers and on wind currents.Continental crust is
made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average
composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic crust.
Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust rises higher on the mantle than
oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form basins. When filled with water, these basins form the
planet’s oceans.The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid
solid. The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. The definition of the lithosphere is based on how
earth materials behave, so it includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since
it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act on the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an
earthquake.

Mantle

The two most important things about the mantle are: (1) it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is hot.
Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from seismic waves, heat flow, and
meteorites. The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite, which is made of the iron- and magnesium-
rich silicate minerals. Peridotite is rarely found at Earth’s surface.Scientists know that the mantle is
extremely hot because of the heat flowing outward from it and because of its physical properties. Heat
flows in two different ways within the Earth: conduction and convection. Conduction is defined as the
heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the material is
solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same temperature. The mantle is hot
mostly because of heat conducted from the core. Convection is the process of a material that can move
and flow may develop convection currents.Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot
of water on a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up.
As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly, decreasing its
density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the convection current. When the warm
material reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near the
core. It eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of
the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where
warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is complete.

Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove. Convection
currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As the core heats the bottom
layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The
rising material begins the convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads
horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and
dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels
horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where warm mantle material rises, and
the mantle convection cell is complete.

Core

At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal for a few
reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall density of the planet, as
calculated from the planet’s rotation. If the surface layers are less dense than average, then the interior
must be denser than average. Calculations indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with
nickel metal making up much of the remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be
representative of the core.If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field.
Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not.
 Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid because S-waves stop at
the inner core. The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid outer core. Convection
currents in the outer core are due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps the
outer core from solidifying is produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.

C.PLATE TECTONICS AND CONTINENTAL DRIFT

Alfred Wegener

- a German meteorologist and geophysicist who noticed something curious when he looked at a
map of the world. Wegener observed that the continents of South America and Africa looked
like they would fit together remarkably well—take away the Atlantic Ocean and these two
massive landforms would lock neatly together.

Wegener hypothesized that 250 million years ago all of the modern-day continents had previously been
clumped together in a supercontinent he called Pangaea (from ancient Greek, meaning “all lands” or “all
the Earth”).

Over millions of years, Wegener suggested, the continents had drifted apart.

He did not know what drove this movement, however. Wegener first presented his idea of continental
drift in 1912, but it was widely ridiculed. So he knew that for his idea to be accepted, he had to come up
with evidence.

Evidence of Continental Drift

1. The Apparent Fit of the Continents

Wegener provided evidence of continental drift by looking at the physical shape of continental
coastlines. The shape of continental coastlines visibly matched up like pieces of the puzzle. For example,
the continents of South America and Africa fit perfectly when brought together. This indicates that the
continents were once fixed together and drifted apart over time. Wegener did not believe that this is
just simply a coincidence. He feels like there’s no possible way the continents would have this
appearance just randomly.

2. Fossil Correlation

Fossils of creatures and plants discovered on different continents helped to him push his case that the
continents were once locked together before breaking up and drifting away. Some of the fossil evidence
discovered on the continents includes mesosaurus, lystosaurus, cygnognathus and glossopteris.

a. Mesosaurus are fossils originating from aquatic freshwater reptiles. These reptiles lived
in freshwater bodies such as lakes and rivers. If you take a look at the map before the
continents drifted away, you find that Mesosaurus is located in the southern parts of
Africa and North America. If you look at the current map after the continents drifted
away, you find that North America and Africa are far away from each other
separated by the Atlantic Ocean. So, his theory is proved by the fact that the
freshwater reptiles could not swim across the ocean waters, hence, their
distribution on every continent. The discovery of fossils on different continents
indicated that the continents were once together before they drifted away.

b. Lystrosaurus is Fossil
from land reptiles. Cygnognathus is Fossil
from another species of reptile. If you look
at the map before the continents drifted
away, you find that Cygnognathus was
situated in South America and Africa.
Lystrosaurus, on the other hand, was
located in Africa, India, and Antarctica.
 So, technically, the creature would not have traveled through the ocean to get to the
next continent. The distribution of these reptiles in different continents proves that
these separate land masses were once together before splitting. On top of that,
Lystrosaurus is situated in Antarctica, India, and Africa according to the modern map.
Again, for this creature to swim from Africa to Antarctica would have been impossible.
So, the fact that these organisms could not swim through the vast water bodies helps to
substantiate the fact that the continents were once together to allow distribution of
these organisms in various continents where their fossils were found on.

c. Glossopteris was Fossil from fern. It is a fern that was discovered in

Africa, South America, Antarctica, India, and Australia. According to the modern day
map, these continents are far apart. It’s, therefore, impossible that the seeds of the
fern were blown by wind or floated across the ocean to have that kind of population
on these 5 continents. The fact that the seeds would have been unable to be blown
or floated to these continents proves that these continents were once together.

3. Rocks and Mountain Correlation

Wegener specifically used rock composition and mountain ranges to provide

evidence of continental drift. He provided evidence that mountain ranges occurring
on opposite continents matched up pretty well when brought together. This perfect
aligning of mountain ranges indicated that the continents were once together. For example, if
you take the mountains ranges of North America and Europe, they align perfectly well.
Mountains are typically formed when two opposite land masses collide with each other
triggering the rock found at the point of collision to fold or bulge upwards.

In terms of rock composition, at locations where continents match up, the kinds of rocks on the
opposite sides of the continents were of the same kind. Since these match up points consisted
of the same kind of rock further proves that the continents were once together before breaking
away and drifting.

4. Paleoclimate Data

Wegener used climatic clues to substantiate his facts. One of the clues he used was the glacier.
Wegener, in his expedition, discovered glacier grooves in all the continents. Glacier grooves are
the gaping trenches or landmarks carved out by movement of glacier. He discovered glacier
groves in continents that were not cold enough to support snow formation in the present day.
When he brought these continents together, the glacier grooves perfectly matched up. This
suggested that these continents were once together and drifted away over time.

Despite Wegener’s effort to try to prove his theory of continental drift, it was never accepted. When he
was tasked with proving how these continents moved to different places, he couldn’t. He died of an
alleged heart attacked at the age of 50 when on an expedition to Greenland.

However, this theory of continental drift came to be accepted in the 90’s after his death.

Plate tectonics is the theory, which solidified in the 1960s, transformed the earth sciences by explaining
many phenomena, including mountain building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes.

It is a scientific theory that explains how major landforms are created as a result of Earth’s subterranean
movements.

In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere is broken into large rocky plates. These plates
lie on top of a partially molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere. Due to the convection of the
asthenosphere and lithosphere, the plates move relative to each other at different rates and directions,
from two to 15 centimeters (one to six inches) per year. And how these tectonic plates interact with one
another creates a huge impact to the Earth. Where these plates meet are called boundaries, and there
are 3 kinds.

Kinds of Plate Tectonic Boundaries

1. Covergent Boundary
 Where plates crash together. The impact of the colliding plates can cause the edges of one or
both plates to buckle up into a mountain ranges or one of the plates may bend down into a
deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often forms parallel to convergent plate boundaries
and powerful earthquakes are common along these boundaries. The Pacific Ring of Fire is an
example of a convergent plate boundary.

2. Divergent Boundary

occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each other.
Along these boundaries, earthquakes are common and magma
(molten rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle to the surface,
solidifying to create new oceanic crust. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge
is an example of divergent plate boundaries.

3. Transform Boundary

Shallow earthquakes and little volcanism occur where one

plate slides laterally past another. One of the most famous
transform plate boundaries occurs at the San Andreas fault
zone, which extends underwater. Natural or human-made
structures that cross a transform boundary are offset — split
into pieces and carried in opposite directions. Rocks that line
the boundary are pulverized as the plates grind along, creating
a linear fault valley or undersea canyon. Earthquakes are
common along these faults. In contrast to convergent and
divergent boundaries, crust is cracked and broken at transform
margins, but is not created or destroyed.

D.EARTH PROCESSES
dynamic actions that occur inside the earth or on the earth’s surface

Constructive process

Any process that builds Earth material or landforms

Destructive process

Any process that breaks down earth material or destroy landform

EXAMPLE OF EARTH PROCESS

Rock Cycle, Erosion, Volcanism, Compaction, Seafloor Spreading

E.WEATHERING
What is Weathering?

- Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the surface of
the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of
weathering. Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the bits of
rock and mineral away.

What is the difference between Erosion and Weathering?

- Erosion and weathering are the processes in which the rocks are broken down into fine
particles. Erosion is the process in which rock particles are carried away by wind and
water. Weathering, on the other hand, degrades the rocks without displacing them.

Types of Weathering

There are three types of weathering, physical, chemical and biological.

- The Physical weathering occurs when physical processes affect the rock, such as changes in
temperature or when the rock is exposed to the effects of wind, rain and waves.
 - Chemical weathering changes rock composition, often transforming them into different
chemical reactions when water interacts with minerals. Chemical weathering is a gradual and
ongoing process as the rock mineralogy adjusts to the environment near the surface.
- Biological weathering is the weakening and subsequent breakdown by plants, animals and
microbes of rock. Growing roots of plants can put stress or pressure on rock. Even though the
process is physical, a biological process (i.e. growing roots) exerts the pressure.

F.WORK OF RIVERS, WIND AND SEA AND THEIR ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE

⚫ Work of River - Attrition is the process of disintegration that happens during rock crash and
transportation. The transportation of residue chips and smooths the surfaces of bedrock; this can
be through water or wind.

There are 4 key types of river erosion:

Solution - Solution is when broken down material is conveyed by a river. This frequently occurs in
regions where the geography is limestone and is broken down in some what acidic water.

Abrasion - Abrasion is a process of erosion which can happen in four different ways. Rocks or
stones in the waterway likewise cause disintegration when they hit the channel dividers.

Hydraulic Action - This is the sheer force of the water as it crushes against the stream banks. Air
becomes caught in the breaks of the stream bank and bed, and makes the stone fall to pieces.

Attrition - This occurs as smaller rocks which are carried along by the river knock and bounce into
each other. This breaks the rocks down into smaller and more smooth and rounded rocks.

⚫ Work of Winds - The earth is encircled with wrap of gasses which is known as the air. The
development of the air an equal way to the earth surface is the wind.

Three Functions/ Process of Wind

1. Erosion - Wind erosion is a characteristic cycle that moves soil starting with one area then on
to the next by wind power.
 2. Transportation - Particles are sand-sized, in light of the fact that bigger particles are
excessively weighty for the wind to ship by suspension. As the wind goes over-top the
hindrance, it speeds up.

3. Deposition - Wind Deposition. Like water, when wind slows down it drops the sediment it's
carrying. This often happens when the wind has to move over or around an obstacle.

⚫ Work of Sea - Marine water is spread over more than two third of the earth’s surface and is classed
among the most powerful geological agents operating on the earth.

- Sea Wave

Sea waves may be defined as the disturbances produced on the sea water surface by the action of
winds.

- Constructive Wave

Constructive waves are less powerful waves which are not so high but having longer wavelength which
roll on the beach but do not erode it.

- Destructive Wave

Destructive waves are normally steep waves of high energy which collapse almost vertically on to the
shore or beach.

Terminology

Engineering Imporatance:

Rivers - Rivers supply water and construction aggregates, and they form ecological corridors and
economical axes of transportation. However, rivers also cause havoc when their floods engulf the
surrounding land.

Wind - The knowledge of wind engineering is used to analyze and design all high-rise buildings, cable-
suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges, electricity transmission towers and telecommunication
towers and all other types of towers and chimneys.

Sea - The continuous and immediate presence of the sea provides the engineer with an adversary
certain to discover any weakness in the structure built to resist it.

G.ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKE

ORIGIN

An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden movement of
rock materials below the earth’s surface.

The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. The focus is point inside the earth where the
earthquake started, sometimes called the hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth directly
above the focus is called the epicenter.

There are two ways by which we can measure the strength of an earthquake: magnitude and
intensity. Magnitude is proportional to the energy released by an earthquake at the focus. It is
calculated from earthquakes recorded by an instrument called seismograph. It is represented by Arabic
Numbers (e.g. 4.8, 9.0). Intensity on the other hand, is the strength of an earthquake as perceived and
felt by people in a certain locality. It is a numerical rating based on the relative effects to people,
objects, environment, and structures in the surrounding. The intensity is generally higher near the
epicenter. It is represented by Roman Numerals (e.g. II, IV, IX). In the Philippines, the intensity of an
earthquake is determined using the PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS).

OCCURRENCE

Earthquakes are the result of sudden movement along faults within the Earth. The movement
releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which propagate through the
Earth and cause the ground surface to shake. Such movement on the faults is generally a response to
long-term deformation and the buildup of stress.

Elastic rebound theory was originally proposed after the great San Francisco earthquake in 1906
by the geologist Henry Fielding Reid, to explain the deformation caused by earthquakes.

Before an earthquake, the buildup of stress in the rocks on either side of a fault results in
gradual deformation. Eventually, this deformation exceeds the frictional force holding the rocks
together and sudden slip occurs along the fault. This releases the accumulated stress and the rocks on
either side of the fault return to their original shape (elastic rebound) but are offset on either side of the
fault.

MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKE

Earthquakes happened when there is break of rocks underground and have a rapid motion
along the fault that causes seismic waves that make the ground shake. The plates or blocks of rock will
start to move until there are no gaps in between and they stuck again. Seismic waves can also be caused
by other forces other than the earthquakes.

Types of Earthquakes

The most common type of earthquake is a shallow event where two tectonic plates slide past
one another. Deeper earthquakes usually occur when one plate moves toward and under another plate.

Tectonic plates are always slowly moving but getting stuck due to the friction at their edges. When the
stress release and overcome the friction, energy releases that travels through the earth’s surface and
cause shaking on the ground. Most seismic activity occurs at three types of boundaries; divergent,

convergent, and transform. Other earthquakes can also occur as a result of volcanic activity, collapses
of the ground, and man-made explosions.

Three Kinds of Earthquakes

• Shallow fault earthquakes – a fault

is a break in the rocks beneath our feet.
Shallow fault occurs very close the surface.

• Subduction zone earthquakes – the

largest earthquake ever recorded. It can last
a several minutes and can caused huge
waves like tsunamis racing across the Pacific.

• Deep earthquakes – occurs in

subducting ocean slab. Deep beneath the
continental crust. A deep-focus earthquake in seismology is an earthquake with a hypocenter
depth exceeding 300 km. They occur almost exclusively at convergent boundaries in
 association with subducted oceanic lithosphere. They occur along a dipping tabular zone
beneath the subduction zone known as the Wadati–Benioff zone.

I.MODE OF OCCURRENCE - PROSPECTING

Prospecting is the first stage of the geological analysis (followed by exploration) of a territory. It
is the search for minerals, fossils, precious metals, or mineral specimens. It is also known as fossicking.
Traditionally prospecting relied on direct observation of mineralization in rock outcrops or in
sediments. Modern prospecting also includes the use of geologic, geophysical, and geochemical tools to
search for anomalies which can narrow the search area. Once an anomaly has been identified and
interpreted to be a potential prospect direct observation can then be focused on this area.
Geological prospecting
the totality of operations involved in discovering deposits of useful minerals. Geological prospecting is ca
rried out on the basis of a study of the geological structure of the terrain together with geological mappi
ng. Sometimes it is based on data from earlier geological surveying.
Geophysical prospecting - combines the sciences of physics and geology to locate ore deposits.
Familiar examples of geophysical prospecting include the use of Geiger counters for detecting
radioactive uranium deposits and magnetic surveys to find iron deposits.
Five major geophysical methods
Magnetic, gravimetric, electrical, radiometric, and seismic—are successfully utilized in
mineral exploration. Some of these methods require complex and costly instruments and highly
trained operators. Others, however, are relatively simple and inexpensive.
Geochemical prospecting - for minerals includes any method of mineral exploration based on
systematic measurement of the chemical properties of a naturally occurring material. The purpose of
the measurements is the location of geochemical anomalies or of areas where the chemical pattern
indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity.
At the present time, soil metallometry is one of the main geochemical prospecting methods,
which is used practically throughout the world. It is based on the study of the distribution of certain
chemical elements in the weathered mantle rock with the aim of localizing secondary aureoles of ore
deposits.
I.GROUND WATER

Groundwater is water stored in through aquifers. It is a critical resource for many human and natural
systems, supplying drinking water to more than half of the world's population and supporting
ecosystems and agriculture.

Aquifers

Aquifers, which are permeable rock formations that can store and transmit water, are where
groundwater is found. Aquifers are classified as either confined or unconfined. Unconfined aquifers are
found at the surface and are not confined by rock layers, whereas confined aquifers are found between
two layers of less permeable rock.

How does groundwater replenish?

Groundwater is replenished through the process of recharge, which occurs when water from
precipitation and surface water infiltrates the ground and replenishes the aquifers. Precipitation, soil
permeability, and land use all influence the rate of recharge.

How does groundwater discharge?

Groundwater is discharged through the process of discharge, which occurs when aquifer water is
released to the surface, either naturally or through human activities such as pumping. The rate of
discharge is affected by factors such as recharge rate, groundwater withdrawals, and the rate of
evapotranspiration.

• Evotranspiration
Evapotranspiration refers to the combined process of water vapor being released from
the land surface to the atmosphere through both evaporation and transpiration.
Transpiration specifically refers to the process where plants absorb water from the soil
and release water vapor into the air through their leaves.

We can protect and manage our groundwater resource by the use of hydrogeological mapping and
monitoring, as well as the implementation of sustainable management practices.

In summary, groundwater is a vital resource that is crucial for both human and natural systems. It is
important to be mindful of how human activities can affect groundwater and take measures to preserve
and manage this precious resource.

It is really important to know what is the relevance of geology in civil engineering. The majority
of civil engineering projects require loading the Earth by excavating soils and rocks or by constructing on
it. And inclined with a result of such as a freeway cutting or a reservoir, that may contain significant
amounts of rocks. In certain situations, the excavated rocks may be utilized as construction material. The
geological conditions where a project will be built may have a significant impact on its viability, planning
and design, construction and price, and safety.

J.THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Geology provides a systematic study of the structure and properties of construction materials and
their occurrence. The civil engineers need to know the properties of rocks accurately to enable them
to consider different rocks for any required purpose that is as a foundation rock, as road metal, as
concrete aggregate, as building stones, as the roofing material for decorative purpose.
2. The selection of a site is important from the viewpoint of stability of foundation and availability of
construction materials. Geology provides knowledge about the site used in the construction of
buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
3. Geology helps to identify area susceptible to failures due to geological hazards such as earthquake,
landslides, weathering effects, etc.
4. A geological survey of a site before starting a project will reduce the overall cost.
5. The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary for tunneling, constructing roads and
in determining the stability of cuts and slopes.
6. The knowledge of groundwater is necessary for connection with excavation works, water supply,
irrigation and many other purposes. Hydrological maps provide information about the distribution
of surface water channels and the groundwater depth.
7. Geological maps help in planning civil engineering projects. It provides information about the
structural deposition of rock types in the proposed area.
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⚫ https://www.mtu.edu/geo/community/seismology/learn/earthquake-cause/ -
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⚫ https://groundwater.org/what-is-groundwater/

⚫ https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/evapotranspiration-and-water-
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phere%20via%20plants.

⚫ https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Aquifer-Protection-and-Groundwater/Ground-Water/Understanding-
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⚫ https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/aquifers

⚫ https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/what-is-groundwater-and-why-is-it-so-
important#:~:text=Groundwater%20helps%20to%20keep%20our,crop%20irrigation%20and%20agric
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⚫ https://civilwale.com/importance-of-geology-in-civil-engineering/
⚫ https://www.bgs.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Chan-Sow-Lin-MRT.jpg
⚫ https://i0.wp.com/ce.udel.edu/wp-
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