LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY  the study of the Earth and Earth’s interior, even the solar system and the universe

Aspects of Geology:
 ASPECT OF TIME – different changes happening in the organisms and the environment (because the Earth is
divided into several geologic time scales)
 ISSUE OF SCALE – using scales should be appropriate to your study (ex. micro-macro, small-large, etc.)
number that represents the printed distance compared to exact distance
 COMPLEXITY – doing laboratory process in studying geology

Main Branches of Geology

1. PHYSICAL  studying the composition and processes on the surface and beneath the Earth
 VOLCANOLOGY – study of volcanoes and volcanic eruptions
 SEISMOLOGY – study of earthquakes and seismic activities
 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY – application of geologic concepts and principles to solve
environmental issues and its effects to human
 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY – application of engineering projects; factoring in geologic
hazards and issues in constructions and operations
 MINING GEOLOGY – study of mineral deposits
 PETROLEUM GEOLOGY – study of oil deposits
 MINERALOGY – study of minerals
 PETROLOGY – study of rocks
 GEOMORPHOLOGY – study of Earth’s surface and land formations
 GEOPHYSICS – study of Earth especially on its magnetic field and gravitation
 GEOCHEMISTRY – study of the Earth’s chemical compositions
 PLANETARY GEOLOGY – study of planets and extraterrestial bodies
2. HISTORICAL  studying the origin and development of Earth and universe through time
 PALEONTOLOGY – study of fossils
 STRATIGRAPHY – study of rock patterns
 GEOCHRONOLOGY – study of geologic time scale

Early Views of the Formation of the Earth

 CATASTROPHISM  a view where the Earth’s landscapes are shaped by sudden great catastrophes
(and these unknown causes no longer operate today)
Made by Baron Georges Cuvier; coined by William Whelhell
 UNIFORMITARIANISM (by James Hutton)  a view where physical, chemical, and biological laws
that operate today also operated in the past (to understand the present, we should study what happened
in the past) (ex. volcanic eruptions, climate change)
LESS FORCE + TIME  BIGGER FORCE

LESSON 2: THE UNIVERSE AND THE

SOLAR SYSTEM
Models of the Solar System: (AGE OF SOLAR SYSTEM: 13.7 BILLION YEARS OLD)
 HELIOCENTRISM (Copernican Model by Nicolaus Copernicus)  sun is the center of the solar system
 GEOCENTRISM (Ptolemaic Model by Ptolemy)  Earth is the center of the solar system

Formation of the Universe and the Solar System:

1. BIG BANG THEORY  the universe is formed from a point of “singularity” (explosion of space time)
 extremely hot and dense plate explodes which expanded rapidly then slowly while cooling

EVIDENCES:
1. Hubble’s Law (RED SHIFT) – by Edwin Hubble (1929); he discovered that the stars are moving
away from a certain reference point (it goes on a lower wavelength where RED is a lower
wavelength)
2. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation – heat that is detected in the present time which is due
to the continuous expansion of the universe (ito daw yung hot and dense plate na nadedetect sa mga
planets)
3. Abundance of HYDROGEN and HELIUM – discovered that the planets and the stars, especially
the sun are composed of hydrogen and helium (which is a proof din daw na nageexpand pa rin
yung universe until now)

LIMITATIONS:
- It only explains the formation of the universe
- What was present before the Big Bang?
- How will it end? Will it ever end?

2. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS  the solar system came from a cloud of dust and gas particles called nebula
 the nebula contracts then spins and slowly it cools down and started to form bodies/ planets

NEBULA  PARTICLES SPINS (GRAVITATIONAL TO THERMAL)

The Planets of the Solar System
 MARS, VENUS, EARTH, MARS  TERRESTIAL PLANETS; ROCKY PLANETS (composed of silicon,
iron, and oxygen); largely silicate rocks and metals that they tend to attarct to the center of gravity
 JUPITER, SATURN, URANUS, NEPTUNE  GIANT/JOVIAN PLANETS; they are in gaseous or liquid in
form; composed of light elements (hydrogen, helium, argon, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen)

The Origin of the Moon  a Mars-sized asteroid collided to the proto-Earth and the remnants of the collision
cooled down and became the satellite of the Earth now

LESSON 3: THE PLANET EARTH AND

EARTH’S INTERIOR
PLANET EARTH (AGE: 4.6-4.5 BILLION YEARS OLD)
 SHAPE: Oblate Spheroid
 TILT: Around 21.5 to 24.5 degrees
  ORBITAL SPEED: 30 km/s

How Earth was formed?

NEBULA  ACCRETION  PLANETISIMALS

DIFFERENTIATION PROTOPLANETSIRON
 ACCRETION  gradual accumulation of additional layers of matter in planets CATASTROPHE
 DIFFERENTIATION  transformations of bodies whose body is divided into layers that differ from one another
 PROTO-EARTH  rocky mixture of iron, oxygen, silicon and magnesium
 IRON CATASTROPHE  the temperature of the planet surpassed and the denser elements sinks to the center while
lighter elements goes up
 PRESENT EARTH  chemically distinct layers are formed

The Origin of the Earth’s Atmosphere

 4.6 Ga  the Earth was composed of carbon dioxide
 4.5 Ga  the Earth is composed of various volcano and in the process of outgassing (where it released carbon
dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, ammonia, and water vapor)
 3.5 Ga  the Earth is cooling and sun became the primary source of heat energy
 Blue-green algae converted carbon dioxide into oxygen that supports life

The Origin of the Earth’s Oceans

 Water vapor condensed and formed clouds and rain water formed the waters of the Earth’s ocean
 Another factor is that the Earth is bombarded by comets (which are balls of ice) that collided in the Earth’s
surface and melted and formed the oceans
 The salinity is caused by the outgassing of the planet that produced acidic conditions that accelerated the rate of
weathering of Earth’s rock surfaces and oceans became the products of weathering.

The Earth’s Large Scale Features

 CONTINENTS
o SHIELDS  large stable areas of land that is composed of crystalline rocks
o STABLE PLATFORMS  shields covered by sedimentary rocks
 OCEAN BASINS
o CONTINENTAL SHELF  portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of shallow water
known as shelf sea
o SUBMARINE CANYON  submarine landslides
o MID-OCEAN RIDGE  portion where oceanic crust are formed
 OLDER BELTS – aged more than 100 million years old
 YOUNGER BELTS – aged less than 100 million years old (nasa ring of Pacific Ocean mga ito)
o CONTINENTAL SLOPE  slope between continental shelf and the ocean floor
o ABYSSAL PLAIN  underwater plain on the deep ocean floor
o GUYOT  seamount with flat top

The Earth’s Interior

 Nalaman nila ang earth’s layers through the seismic waves (S-Wave (solid) and P-Wave (solid and liquid)
 The Earth’s layers are classified because of these two tangible evidences:
o Ophiolites – exposure rocks of Earth that gives a hint of the crust (crust rocks)
o Xenoliths – foreign rocks from the mantle (volcanic products that gives mantle rocks

CRUST  MOHOROVICIC  MANTLE  GUTENBERG  OUTER

CORE  LEHMANN  INNER CORE
Layers of the Earth based on Chemical
Property:
1. CRUST  outermost layer; composed of: oceanic crust Layers of the Earth based on Physical
(basaltic, more dense, thin, younger, less silicon, composed of
iron) and continental crust (granatic, less dense, thick, older, Property:
more silicon, composed of magnesium)
1. LITHOSPHERE  crust and the uppermost mantle; solid
2. MANTLE  thickest layer; rich in perovskite (mineral) but brittle
and peridotite (rock)
2. ASTHENOSPHERE  “plastic layer”; solid but mobile;
3. CORE  composed of iron and nickel alloy weak layer resulting from temperature and pressure changes

3. MESOSPHERE  thickest layer; solid and rocky layer

4. OUTER CORE  molten iron; 2900-5100 km in depth

5. INNER CORE  solid iron; 5100 – 6370 km in depth

LESSON 4: THE PLATE TECTONICS

Models of the Layers of the Earth
ISOSTASY  the concept of the model of the Earth wherein it is a concept of a floating lithosphere in gravitational
equilibrium with the Earth’s asthenosphere such that tectonic plates “float” at an elevation that depends on thickness
and density. (named by Clarence Edward Dutton)

 Airy – Heiskanen model  the density of the crust is the same throughout; elevation is directly proportional to
the depth of the crust
 Pratt – Hayford model  the volume of the crust is the same throughout; elevation is inversely proportional to
the density

Plate Tectonics History

 Ocean basins and continents had fixed geographical positions
 A. Snider (1858)  sabi niya na there is an existence of great region of dryland after The Great Flood
  Eduard Suess (1890)  the existence of great land called it Gondwanaland and broke up into continents we have
today (and yung malaking ocean tinawag niyang Tethys Ocean)
 Alfred Wegener (1915)  created the CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (PANGAEA BREAK-UP)
o 200 Ma  there is a super continent called PANGAEA and super ocean called PANTHALASSA
o 180 Ma  the PANGAEA broke up into two continents: LAURASIA and GONDWANALAND
o 65 Ma  LAURASIA broke up and formed NORTH AMERICA, ASIA, and EUROPE while
GONDWANALAND broke up and formed SOUTH AMERICA, AFRICA, INDIA, AUSTRALIA and
ANTARTICA
 EVIDENCES OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
1. GLOBAL GEOGRAPHY
 “jigsaw fit” of South America and Africa (Wegener noticed the remarkable similarity between
the coastlines in the opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean
 In 1960, Sir Edward Bullard used continental shelf to fit South America and Africa
2. TYPE OF ROCKS  Wegener matched up mountain ranges that have the same type of rocks
and found out that there are mountain belts today fitted in a single mountain ranges before
3. FOSSILS (remains, traces, or imprints of organisms that preserved on Earth’s crust 10,000
years ago)  found fossils of Mesosaurus, Lystrosaurus, and Glossopteris in different parts of the
world (especially in South America, Africa, Antartica, Australia, and India)
4. PALEOCLIMATE  evidences of glacial deposits are found in Antartica, South America,
Africa, India, and Australia (and sinasabe na magkakasama sila noon sa iisang continent below the
Earth)
 Harry Hess (1960)  proposed that the formation of the plate tectonics is because of SEAFLOOR SPREADING 
happens at the bottom of an ocean where magma from upper mantle rises through the faults between oceanic
plates (mid-ocean ridges) and forms new crust as the plates move away from each other. (Kapag mas malapit sa
ocean ridge, mas thick and mas younger. Kapag malayo na sa oceanic ridge, mas thin and mas matanda na)
o EVIDENCES OF SEAFLOOR SPREADING HYPOTHESIS:
 HOTSPOTS  where magma pushes up from the mantle and form volcanoes (upwelling) and
dahil plates move along the surface, it creates another volcano and yung mga naiiwang volcano ay
nawawalan na ng magma kaya sila nagiging extinct (ex. Hawaii moving NW– Loihi kapag
extinct na siya)
 PALEOMAGNETISM  it formed magnetic stripes with different magnetic polarity and nag-iiba
ang polarity as the plates move along (CURIE POINT – temperature at which mineral’s
magnetism is lost)
 SEISMIC ACTIVITY  interaction of plates causing earthquakes (and seismic waves)
Three Types of Plate Boundaries
1. DIVERGENT  two plates move apart; constructive plate boundaries constructing more oceanic crusts and bodies of
water (ex. East-Pacific Rise, Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
2. CONVERGENT  two plates move together forming trenches, volcanic arcs, mountains; destructive plate boundary;
may subduction zone (forming trenches, volcanic arcs) and orogenic belts (forming mountain ranges)
 OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE – oceanic crust subducts (more dense) forming continental
volcanic arcs (ex. Andes Mountain)
 OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENCE – denser, older, and faster oceanic crust subducts forming island arcs
(ex. Philippines)
 CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE – colliding two continental crusts together forming
mountains (ex. Himalayas)
3. TRANSFORM  two plates slide-past to each other forming fault lines; conservative plate boundary (ex. San Andreas
Fault)
Driving Mechanisms of Plate Tectonics
 PLATE-MANTLE CONVECTION  process of convection current that moves the lithosphere along the mantle
 SLAB PULL AND RIDGE PUSH
o RIDGE PUSH  gravitational push of plates from the ridge to the subduction zone
o SLAB PULL  when plates move farther away from the ridge, it cools down and becomes denser then
sinks at subduction zone

LESSON 5: MINERALS
Minerals
 N-ATURALLY OCCURING  product of nature (walang synthetic processes na naganap)
 I- NORGANIC  walang carbon components ang minerals
  H- OMOGENEOUS SOLIDS  uniform in apperance because of its chemical composition
 D- EFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION  has a unique chemical composition
o POLYMORPHISM – different minerals, same composition, different structure (ex. pyrite and marcasite are
both made of iron sulfide FeS2)
o ISOMORPHISM – different minerals, different composition, same structure (ex. halite (NaCl) and pyrite
(FeS2))
 O- RDERED INTERNAL STRUCTURE  crystalline atomic structures of minerals(all minerals are crystals but
not all crystals are minerals)
* MINERALLOIDS  mineral-like substance which are either amorphous (does not demonstrate crystallinity) or
organic in nature (ex. pearl, obsidian)

Properties of Minerals
1. COLOR  caused by absorption or reflection of various wavelengths of light (but unrealiable diagnostic property of
minerals)
 IDIOCHROMATIC – observed as shades of one color
 ALLOCHROMATIC – observed as various shades of color (ex. quartz)
2. STREAK  color of minerals in powdered form and not necessarily identical to its color
 Metallic minerals have dark colored streaks
 Non-metallic minerals usually have white streaks
3. LUSTER  ability of the minerals to reflect light
 Metallic – shiny
 Sub-metallic – medyo shiny
 Vitreous – looks like a glass
 Greasy – looks oily
 Silky – looks like silk
 Pearly – looks like pearl
 Earthy- does not reflect light
 Resinous – looks like amber (ex. sphalerite)
4. DIAPHENEITY or TRANSPARENCY  how light transmission interacts with the surface of the minerals
OPAQUE  TRANSLUCENT (ADAMANTINE)  TRANSPARENT
5. HABIT  shape and aggregates that a certain mineral is likely to form
6. MINERAL STRENGTH/HARDNESS  resistance of minerals to sratch or abrasion

7. CLEAVAGE  planes where chemical bonds are weak where a mineral would tend to break (planes are repetitive or
parallel, smooth, planar, and has unequal strength)
8. FRACTURE  where chemical bonds are uniform in strength in all directions (ex. obsidian – conchordial fractures
or circular shaped fractures)
Other Properties of Minerals
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY  ratio of weight of the volume of a substance and the weight of the same volume of
water (the heaviness of the mineral)
 EFFERVERENCE  reaction of minerals to acid of carbonates forming bubbles and fizz sounds (ex. calcite 
calcium carbonate)
 MAGNETISM  magnetic property of minerals (ex. magnetite and ilmenite)
Types of Minerals
O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K  8 elements that makes up the majority of the minerals

 SILICATES (SiO4) makes up the most types of minerals and 90% of the crustal composition (silica-oxygen
tetrahedron – the unit-cell of silicate minerals)

TYPES OF SILICATE MINERALS:

o NESOSILICATES (came from the word “nesogean” meaning “island”)  isolated tetrahedron; Si-O
tetrahedron sharing with Mg, Fe, or Ca (ex. olivine and garnet)
o INOSILICATES (chain silicates)  formed a single or double bond chains; possesing a parallel single
(1:3) or double (2:5.5 or 4:11) chains (ex. pyroxene (single chain) and amphibole (double chain)
o PHYLLOSILICATES (sheet silicates)  possesses parallel sheets of silica tetrahedron (2:5) (ex. micas,
biotite, muscovite)
o TECTOSILICATES (framework silicates)  possesses a 3D framework tetrahedron; makes up the most
number of silicate minerals (ex. quartz and feldspar)

 NON-SILICATES  divided based on negatively charged ion/complex ions that the members have in common

TYPES OF NON-SILICATES:
o OXIDES  either associated to or form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted
(ex. hematite (brownish red color, brownish red streak, “specularite” metallic variety), magnetite,
corondum)
o SULFIDES  associated to or form many of the economically important ores; opaque distinct color (ex.
pyrite and galena)
o SULFATES  formed in evaporatic setting where highly saline water evaporates (ex. barite, anyhydrite,
gypsum)
o HALIDES  commonly formed in evaporated setting (ex. fluorite, halite (NaCl))
o PHOSPHATES  commonly found in living organisms (ex. apatite)
o CARBONATES  abundant in marine environment; the mineral that comprises caves (ex. calcite)
o NATIVE ELEMENTS  single element minerals (ex. gold, silver)

LESSON 6: IGNEOUS PROCESSES

Magma  completely or partially molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface
 SOLID COMPONENTS  early crystals, unmelted rock components
 LIQUID COMPONENTS  melt, ions of minerals
 GAS COMPONENTS  volatiles (H2O, CO2, SO2)

Types of Magma
FELSIC INTERMEDIATE MAFIC ULTRAMAFIC
TYPES
(granatic) (andesitic) (basaltic) (picritic)
SILICA CONTENT
IRON,
MAGNESIUM
CONTENT
VISCOSITY

ERUPTIVE
BEHAVIOR
COMMONLY
continental crust continental crust oceanic crust upper mantle
FOUND IN

Magma Generation (How Magma is Created?)

 LIQUIDUS  melt filled and start of crystallization (boundary between magma and mantle)
  SOLIDUS  complete solidification and melt + crystal (boundary between crust and magma)
 GEOTHERM  temperature gradient of Earth with depth

HOW TO MELT ROCKS:

1. INCREASE IN TEMPERATURE (hotspot volcanism) – as the temperature goes higher, the geotherm
shift to the right in the magma field
2. DECREASE IN PRESSURE (rift volcanism) – adiabatic compression; as the pressure goes down,
geotherm will shift upward towards the magma field
3. ADDITION OF VOLATILES (subduction zones)

Magma Differentiation (How Magma Evolves?)  any process which cause magma composition to
change

 ASSIMILATION OF HOST ROCKS  when molten body moves up through the “country” rocks and dislodges
(draws out) “foreign” rock fragments which then melts and is incorporated to the magma body (natutuklap yung
country rocks sa foreign rocks)
 MAGMA MIXING (MAGMA MINGLING)  a magma intrudes another magma that has different
composition (magma mixing to another magma; ito ang nagpa-trigger sa pagputok ng Mt. Pinatubo)
 FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION  changing the composition of the melt as crystallization progress (denser
minerals goes to the bottom while less dense minerals goes to the top)

Volcanism  phenomenon which magma is erupted in the surface through volcano as lava
Why do volcanoes erupt?
 INFLUX OF MAGMA  addition of new magma and magma mixing
 DEGASSING OF MAGMA  depressurization (decreasing pressure) concentrates volatiles forming bubbles ;
bubbles coalesce and expands ; fracturing occurs

Volcanic Explosivity Index  relative measures of explosiveness of volcanic eruption based on: (1) volume of
the products, (2) height of eruptive cloud, and (3) frequency (gaano kadalas pumutok ang bulkan)

Parts of the Volcano

 CONDUIT (PIPE)  channel inside the volcano that contains the magma
 *VEST 
 CRATER  bowl-shaped opening on the surface of the volcano

Products of Volcanic Eruptions

 PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS (BOMBS AND BLOWS)  fragmented crystals or rocks that are either from the
crystallizing magma or from the volcano edifice itself
 VOLCANIC GASES  released gasses of the juvenile or heated gasses of sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, and water vapor
 LAVA FLOWS  released form of magma ; cooling joints reflects the high temperature during its emplacement
o PAHOEHOE – smooth, billowy, ropy flow
o AA – high viscosity, rough or rubbly flow

Types of Volcanoes
 ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF EXPLOSIVITY
o EXPLOSIVE (from felsic and intermediate magma)  pyroclastic rocks, ash falls, pyroclastic flows,
debris avalanche
o NON-EXPLOSIVE (from mafic and ultramafic magma)  lava flows, fractures, flow basalts

 ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF MATERIAL AND ERUPTIVE TYPE

o MAGMATIC  involves magma rise
 HAWAIIAN AND ICELANDIC TYPE  lava flows from vent (circular flow; Hawaiian) or
fissures (linear flow ; Icelandic); low level of eruption
 VULCANIAN TYPE  highly viscous lava; erupts bombs and blows
 STROMBOLIAN TYPE  lava formations ; short-lived eruptions
  PELEAN TYPE  create large eruptive columns, glowing gases, lateral movement of the
volcanic products
 PLINIAN TYPE  volumnous explosive ejections, pumic and pyroclastic flows, high eruptive
clouds (PLINIAN  FAULTING  COLLAPSE  CALDERA)

o PHREATIMAGMATIC  interaction of magma and water

 SURTSEYAN  magma interacts with water
  SUBGLACIAL  lava interacting with ice

o PHREATIC  expansion of steam produced by heats of the underground or ground water

 GEYSER (water) and FUMAROLES (steam)  no magma but involves steam or hot meteoritic
fluids

 ACCORDING TO VOLCANIC ACTIVITY

o ACTIVE  within the last 10,000 years (with records of volcanic activity or eruptions)
o POTENTIALLY ACTIVE  1.65 Ma to 10, 000 years
o INACTIVE  no historical records of eruption

 ACCORDING TO ITS SHAPE OR ARCHITECTURE

o SHIELD  flat, warrior shield shaped volcano built from lava flows (ex. Mauna Kea)
o COMPOSITE OR STRATOVOLCANO  perfect cone shape; has many layers of hardened lava
o DOME  circular mound-shape volcano resulting from the new intrusion of lava (ex. Mt. St. Helens)
o PYROCLASTIC CONES  has short-lived volcanic activity ; collection of airborne ash, lapili, and block
as they fall around the vest
o *CALDERA  formed when a denser solid goes above the shallow magma (formed after a Plinian type
of eruption)

Philippine Volcanoes  24 ACTIVE VOLCANOES and MORE THAN 200 INACTIVE VOLCANOES
(most of the volcanoes are caused by subduction zones of the Philippines)