Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

University Town, Catarman, Northern Samar

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Secondary Teacher Education Department
1st Semester SY: 2021-2022

Module in Major 12a: EARTH SCIENCE

vscSCIENCE

This module is prepared by:

Christine M. Adlawan, LLB, MPA

BSTed Faculty
Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Module 4 The EARTH’s Structure

OVERVIEW

Understanding what lies beneath the surface of the Earth is particularly

difficult for students because it is beyond their direct observational experience.
While students have seen images of erupting volcanoes and aware of
earthquakes, the idea that rocks and continents are constantly moving as part of
enormous but relatively thin tectonic plates is a very demanding one as it creates
a substantial mismatch with what students are able to see. This module will
tackle all of these things starting from what lies beneath up to its effect on the
environment, people, and property.

LEARNING PLAN

At the completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Examine the differentiated interior structure of the Earth;

2. Explain how geologic processes account for features, such as

composition of the layers of the Earth and compare its
characteristics;

3. Describe the characteristics of a Mineral and explain how it is formed;

4. Identify the mineral resources in the Philippines;
5. Cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result
from the exploitation, extraction, and the use of mineral resources;
6. Distinguish rocks from minerals;
7. Discuss how rocks are formed; and
8. Name the types of rocks and its examples

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ABSTRACTION

The Earth works in mysterious ways but Geophysicists are up to the

challenge. Although the deepest well ever drilled, the Kola well in Russia, only
penetrated 0.2% of the Earth's depth; geophysicists have mapped interior
structures and layers throughout the entire Earth using information derived from
earthquakes, gravity, heat flow, electrical currents generated by lightning storms,
and the Earth's magnetic field. These studies, combined with our knowledge of
the materials found in igneous rocks and meteorites, are combined to tell us
about the processes that take place in the deep interior of the earth.

The Earth is consist of four major spheres: atmosphere, biosphere,

hydrosphere, and the geosphere. Lying beneath the atmosphere and the ocean
is the solid Earth or the geosphere. The geosphere is not uniform in thickness

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and is divided into three layers based on compositional differences

1. Crust and Lithosphere

Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of
rock. The crust is very thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very
different types of crust, each with its own distinctive physical and chemical
properties. Oceanic crust is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to
create basalt lava flows or cools deeper down to create the intrusive igneous
rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds and the shells of tiny sea creatures, coat
the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near the shore where it comes off the
continents in rivers and on wind currents. Continental crust is made up of many
different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The average
composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks of
the oceanic crust. Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental
crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to
form basins. When filled with water, these basins form the planet’s oceans. The
lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid
solid. The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. The definition of the
lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave, so it includes the crust and
the uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when
stresses act on the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an
earthquake.

Special man-made features in the crust:

a. deepest oil well – as of 2009, is the Tiber Well which is about 35,055ft.
(10,685 meters). It is as deep as Mt. Everest is tall, not including more
than 4,000 ft. (1,200 meters) of water above it. It is about 250 miles
(400km) southeast of Houston in U.S. waters.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

b. Deepest mine shaft – as of 2008, the deepest mine in the world is Tau
Tona in Carletonville, South Africa at 3.9km.

Topographical Divisions of the Crust:

1. Continents – are great islands of rocks above the surface of the crust. The
internal parts of the continents:

o Shields are old altered rocks in the heart of continents;

o Continental shelves are extensions of continents beneath shallow
portion of ocean waters. It is also the inner margin of the continents;
o Continental slope are the outer margins of the continent which drop
steeply into the actual ocean basin.

Layers of the continent:

- Sial – made from silicon and aluminum, the upper layer of the
continent. It is also called “granitic layer” because it is composed of
granite rock. This layer is the true boundary of continent and ocean.

- Sima – made from silicon and magnesium, the lower the layer of the
crust. It is also called “basaltic substratum” because it is composed of
basalt rock. This layer is found in both continents and oceanic areas.

Surface features of Continents

- Lava flow - Mountain
- Glacial trough - Valley
- Sand dune - Fault
- Plateau - Plain
-

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2. The Mantle

The two most important things about the mantle are: (1) it is made of solid
rock, and (2) it is hot. Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on
evidence from seismic waves, heat flow, and meteorites. The properties fit the
ultramafic rock peridotite, which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate
minerals. Peridotite is rarely found at Earth’s surface. Scientists know that the
mantle is extremely hot because of the heat flowing outward from it and because
of its physical properties. Heat flows in two different ways within the Earth:
conduction and convection. Conduction is defined as the heat transfer that
occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen if the material is
solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same temperature.
The mantle is hot mostly because of heat conducted from the core. Convection is
the process of a material that can move and flow may develop convection
currents. Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on
a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core
heats up. As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move
more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material
begins the convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it
spreads horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near the core. It
eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle.
At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the
core. It reaches the location where warm mantle material rises, and the mantle
convection cell is complete.

Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a

stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core
heats up. As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move
more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material
begins the convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it
spreads horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near the core. It
eventually becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle.

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At the bottom of the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the
core. It reaches the location where warm mantle material rises, and the mantle
convection cell is complete.

Layers of rocks which composed the mantle:

a) Peridotite – is an igneous rock which contains mostly minerals olivine

and pyroxene. It is also composed almost entirely of dark silicate
materials.

b) Pallasite – are rocks which most abundantly compose the inner layer
of the mantle with specific gravity of 4.5-8.0.

3. The Core

A
t

t
h
e

p
l
a
n
et’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal
for a few reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the
overall density of the planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation. If the

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surface layers are less dense than average, then the interior must be denser
than average. Calculations indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron
metal with nickel metal making up much of the remaining 15 percent. Also,
metallic meteorites are thought to be representative of the core. If Earth’s
core were not metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field. Metals such
as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not.
Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid
because S-waves stop at the inner core. The strong magnetic field is caused
by convection in the liquid outer core. Convection currents in the outer core
are due to heat from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps the outer
core from solidifying is produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in
the inner core.

Layers of the Earth’s interior based on physical properties:

1. Lithosphere – is the outermost layer which is cool and rigid shell which
consists of the crust and uppermost mantle. It averages about 100km in
thickness.
2. Asthenosphere – is soft and weak layer found beneath the lithosphere and is
about 350km. The top portion of this layer has a temperature which may
result into melting.
3. Lower Mantle – rocks within the lower mantle are very hot and may be
capable of very gradual flow. It is from 660km deep to the top of the core at a
depth of 2,900km.
4. Inner and Outer Core – core is divided into two regions with different physical
properties. The outer core is a liquid layer which is 22,270km thick. It is the
movement of metallic iron within this zone that generates the Earth’s
magnetic field. The inner core is a sphere with a radius of 1,216km. Even if
the inner core has a higher temperature, the iron in the inner core is solid
because of the immense pressures that exist in the center of the planet
(Tarbuck,2008).

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Discontinuities Inside the Earth

Earth’s interior is made of different kinds of materials. Each of those

materials are different from each other by their physical and chemical properties,
such as temperature, density etc. Unique layers are there according to their
characteristics inside the earth. All those layers are separated from each other
through a transition zone. These transition zones are called discontinuities.

There are five discontinuties inside the earth.

1. Conrad Discontinuity: Transition zone between SIAL and SIMA.

2. Mohorovicic Discontinuity: Transition zone between the Crust and
Mantle.
3. Repiti Discontinuity: Transition zone between Outer mantle and Inner
mantle.
4. Gutenberg Discontinuity: Transition zone between Mantle and Core.
5. Lehman Discontinuity: Transition zone between Outer core and Inner
core.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Conrad Discontinuity:

The transition zone between thee upper and lower part of the lithosphere,
is called as Conrad discontinuity. The name come from the Austrian
geophysicist Vector Conrad . Up to the middle 20thcentury the upper crust in the
continental region was seen to consist of felsic rock such as granite and the
lower one consist of more magnesium rich mafic rocks such as basalt. Therefore,
the seismologists of that time considered that Conrad discontinuity should
correspond to a sharply defined contact between the chemically distinct layers
of SIAL and SIMA. In passing through the Conrad discontinuity the velocity of
longitudinal seismic waves increases abruptly from approximately 6to6.5km/sec.

Mohorovicic Discontinuity:

The transition zone between the crust and mantle is called as

mohorovicic discontinuity. The mohorovicic discontinuity was discovered by
Andrija Mohorovicic in the year of 1909. The Moho lies at the depth of 35km
beneath the continents and 8km beneath the oceanic crust. The Moho separates
both the continental crust and the oceanic crust from underlying mantle. The
Moho lies almost entirely within the lithosphere, only beneath the Mid Oceanic
Ridge does it define lithosphere and asthenosphere boundary. Immediate above
the Moho velocity of the P wave is 6km/sec and just below the Moho it becomes
8km/sec. Moho is characterised by up to 500km thick.

Gutenberg Discontinuity:

The mantle –core transition zone is called Gutenberg discontinuity. In the

year of 1912 Weichert Gutenberg was discovered this discontinuity at the depth
of 2900km beneath the earth surface. In this zone the velocity of seismic waves
changes suddenly. The velocity of P wave decreases and S wave completely
disappear at this depth. S wave shear material and cannot transmit through

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liquid. So, it is believed that the part of above the discontinuity is solid and part of
beneath then discontinuity is liquid or molten form. This molten section is thought
to be 700°c, hotter than the overlying mantle. It is also denser, probably due to
a greater percentage of iron.

It is a narrow, uneven zone and contains undulations which may be up to

5-8km wide. This undulation is affected by the heat driven convection activity
within the overlying mantle. These undulations are also affected by the
underlying eddies and current within the outer core iron rich fluids, which are
ultimately responsible for earth magnetic field. Here it must be mentioned that the
mantle core boundary does not remain constant. As the heat of the earth’s
interior constantly but slowly dissipated, the molten core within earth solidifies
and shrinks, causing the core mantle boundary to slowly move deeper and
deeper within the earth’s core.

Repiti Discontinuity:

This is the transition zone between Outer mantle and Inner mantle.

Lehmann discontinuity:

This is the transition zone between outer and inner core. The Lehmann
discontinuity is an abrupt increase of P-wave and S-wave velocities at the depth
of 220±30 km, discovered by seismologist Inge Lehmann.It appears
beneath continents, but not usually beneath oceans, and does not readily appear
in globally averaged studies. Several explanations have been proposed: a lower
limit to the pliable asthenosphere, a phase transition,[and most plausibly, depth
variation in the shear wave anisotropy.

ASSESSMENT #1

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

This test will be given through google forms. Make sure to be ready on the
scheduled date of the assessment.
Minerals

A mineral is a naturally-occurring inorganic solid element or compound

that has specific composition and crystal structure. Some minerals, such as gold
and diamonds, are made up of single elements. Other minerals – salt, for
example, are made up of compounds.

Every mineral has its own unique set of properties. One of these
properties is the shape of its crystals. A crystal is a solid with regular shapes and
flat sides. The shape of a crystal is determined by the arrangement of its atoms.
Crystals can form when a material changes from a liquid into fixed, orderly
pattern. Crystals may also form when liquids evaporate. Example, salt crystals
are formed when seawater evaporates.

Crystal shape is an important physical property used in identifying

minerals. Every mineral has a specific crystal structure. There are six basic

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crystal shapes having imaginary lines called axes. The atoms that make up a
mineral are arranged along the axes, giving the mineral its specific crystal shape.

Halite, or salt, is an example of mineral with a cubic crystal. The crystal is

made up of sodium and chloric atoms. When the atoms are grouped together,
they make an orderly pattern that repeats over and over.

Sodium Chloride

Other minerals are compounds, being made up of two or more elements

chemically combined. Quartz is an example of a mineral crystal that is form from
two of the most abundant elements in the earth’s crust: silicon and oxygen.
Minerals containing these elements are abundant in the earth’s crust.

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Identifying Minerals

One of the minerals is diamond. The

others are called zircons. The zircons look
very similar to the diamond. A zircon is
worth only a fraction of what a diamond is
worth. In order to identify a specific
mineral, examine its properties. Crystal
type, hardness, and color are examples of
some of the physical properties that can be used to identify and distinguish
between minerals. More than one property must be used to correctly identify a
mineral.

Hardness is a physical property that is useful in identifying minerals.

Hardness is the resistance a mineral shows to being scratched. Ten common
minerals are used as references in a hardness test.

The number scale for determining the hardness of minerals are

called the Mohs scale of hardness. Each of the reference minerals in the Mohs
scale is given a number between 1 to 10, and now 11 with the addition of
Netherite.

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Notice in the Mohs scale

that talc is the softest mineral; it is
given the number 1 scale. Talc
can be scratched by every other
mineral. Netherite is now the
hardest mineral; it is given the
number 11 scale. Prior to
Netherite, diamond was
considered the hardest, with 10

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

scale. Netherine just like diamond scratches all other minerals.

Mohs hardness and the rough measure of the resistance of a smooth

surface to scratching or abrasion, is expressed in terms of a scale devised (1812)
by the German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs. The Mohs hardness of a mineral is
determined by observing whether its surface is scratched by a substance of
known or defined hardness.

Not all minerals can be given exact number on the scale. For example,
any mineral that scratches orthoclase but not quartz has hardness on the scale
between 6 and 7. In doing the hardness test, it is a good idea to examine the
scratch to determine whether it is a scratch or a mark that can be rubbed off.
Some minerals can leave marks on harder minerals. A true scratch cannot be
removed. Test the unknown mineral in the known mineral and then reverse the
test.

An easy, but often misleading, clue to the identity of a mineral is color.

Some minerals are always the same color. For example, the mineral sulfur is
always bright yellow. Some minerals occur in various colors. Also, many different
minerals have the same color. A streak is the color of the powder mark made by
a mineral as it is rubbed against a piece of porcelain. The mineral hematite
produces a red streak. Iron pyrite
produces a black streak.
Luster is a physical property
that describes the way the surface of
a mineral reflects light. A mineral can
have either a metallic luster or
nonmetallic luster. A mineral with a
metallic luster shines like metal,
example a Pyrite. A mineral that
does not shine like a metal is said to

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

have a nonmetallic luster. Quartz has a nonmetallic luster. It has a glassy luster.
Other types of nonmetallic luster include pearly, waxy, and dull.

Cleavage and fracture are two other physical properties that are very
useful in identifying materials. Cleavage is a property that describes how a
mineral splits apart along one or more smooth surfaces. Cleavage can occur in
one or more directions for some minerals. Mica cleaves in one direction, forming
s
h
e
e
t
s
.

G
a
l
ena cleaves in three directions, forming cubes.

A fracture is break along an irregular surface. Iron pyrite is a mineral that

fractures. The surface of this mineral is rough and uneven. There are also
minerals that break along a curved surface like that of a piece of broken glass. A
fracture of this type is called conchoidal fracture.

Some minerals are heavier than other. Specific gravity and heft are two
tests in which size is used to identify and compare minerals. The specific gravity
of a mineral is determined by comparing the mass of them mineral with the mass
of an equal volume of water is 1g.

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The heft of a mineral is the relative weight of a mineral. To determine the

heft of two mineral by holding one mineral in one hand and the second mineral in
the other hand and then deciding which minerals feels heavier.

Groups of Minerals

Of all the elements found in the earth’s crust, eight elements are more
abundant than any others. These elements are oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron,
calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium.

The group of minerals made up of oxygen and silicon is called silicate

minerals, or silicates. More than 92 percent of the crust consist of silicates. The
feldspars made up one family of silicates. About 50 percent of the earth’s crust is

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made up of feldspars. In addition to containing silicon and oxygen, feldspars

contain the elements aluminum, sodium, potassium, and calcium. Feldspars
have a hardness of 6. Orthoclase is one example of feldspar.

The second most common silicate is quartz. Quartz is made up of only

silicon and oxygen. Quartz may be colorless, white, pink, purple, or brown. It has
a nonmetallic luster. Most sand consists of quartz grains.

A third family of silicate is mica. Mica has a hardness of about 2.5. Other
examples of silicates are hornblende, augite, olivine, garnet, and talc.

Not all minerals are silicates. Minerals do not consist of silicon and oxygen
are called

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

nonsilicate minerals. One family of nonsilicates is the sulfide minerals. Sulfides

contain sulfur and one or more metals. Galena and pyrite are examples of
sulfide.

s
e
c
o
n
d
family of nonsilicates is the
carbonate minerals. Carbonates consist of carbon and oxygen. Calcite is the
most common carbonate mineral.

Sulfate minerals makeup a third family of nonsilicate minerals. Sulfates

contain the elements sulfur and oxygen. Gypsum, or calcium sulfate, is the most
common example of a sulfate mineral.

Oxide minerals make up a fourth family of nonsilicate minerals. Oxygen is

a key element of all oxides. Two oxide minerals are magnetite and hematite.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

In a fifth family of nonsilicate minerals are the halide minerals. Halide minerals
contain the elements chlorine or fluorite, and sodium, potassium, or calcium. The
minerals fluorite and halite are halide minerals.

Minerals make up all the rocks on the earth. The silicate make up the
largest group of rock-forming minerals.

Ores

When minerals are mined or taken from the ground, they are called ores.
Aluminum, iron, and copper come from ores. There are two types of ores: native
metals and compound ores. When metals such as gold, copper and silver are
found on earth as pure metals, then they are called native metals. If metals are
mined as compounds, then they are called compound ores. Hematite is a
compound ore because it is made of iron and oxygen.

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Mineral Resources in the Philippines

The Philippines is one of the countries in the world rich in mineral

resources. Metals and non-metals and energy resources abound in its
mountains, plains, coasts, and in the off-shore areas. For the past two decades,
the Philippines have ranked among the world’s top ten producers of gold,
chromite, and copper. Benguet was the largest producer of gold and silver in
1897 while Cebu was the country’s top producer of copper especially when Alias
Mining Development Corporation was in full operation in 1987. Gold was at its
highest level in 1987. The first copper mine was opened in Carawisan, Antique in
1842.

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How to prevent or lessen the environmental impact that result from the
exploitation, extraction, and the use of mineral resources

The mining industry uses a large number of natural resources, such as

water, soil and minerals. While it is a vital industry which contributes to the

economy of many countries, it can be damaging to the environment. In order to

lessen their impact on the environment, mining companies should look into using

sustainable equipment and waste disposal procedures. They should also

consider replenishing the local environment as often as possible, which will make

the surrounding area habitable and able to return to a natural state once the mine

has closed. Reducing both input and output of the mining process can also help

to reduce the negative impact that mines have on the environment. There are

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ways that mining companies can become more environmentally sustainable as

outlined below.

1. Reduce inputs

The mining industry uses a large amount of water and land in their

operations. One solution to becoming more environmentally sustainable is to

reduce the input of the mine. By diverting surface water and pumping

groundwater, mines can reduce both the quantity and quality of water available

downstream for aquatic ecosystems and other use.

With regard to energy, a mining company can look into alternative energy

sources such as solar or wind power. By reducing the energy usage, a mine can

reduce greenhouse gases and extend the life of fossil fuel reserves. You will also

be able to reduce the cost to produce the product and thus reduce the cost of the

commodity itself.

2. Reduce outputs

Mining produces materials such as solid waste, mine water and air

particles, all of which vary in their makeup and potential for environmental

contamination. Waste management plans are required in order to prevent soil, air

and water pollution. These plans are also in place to appropriately store the large

volumes of waste produced at mine sites.

To reduce waste output, mines can look at using sustainable equipment.

Much of the modern equipment used today is geared toward being

environmentally friendly, including those provided by Babcock plant services.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Using cleaner production techniques, environmental control technologies, using

waste as raw material and process re-engineering are other ways to reduce the

waste output of mines.

3. Proper waste disposal

Correct waste disposal is vital to curbing the environmental impact of

mines, as some mining companies do not dispose of their waste according to

guidelines. Companies can invest in equipment that helps in turning waste into

reusable material, as well as adopting policies that allow for a more eco-friendly

waste disposal routine.

Water can be reused on mining sites as grey water for washing equipment

or flushing staff toilets. Mining companies should aim to reuse and recycle water

as much as possible, and be sure that all unusable water is disposed of safely

and responsibly. Scrap materials can be recycled or sold to companies who can

reuse them in order to reduce the amount of waste produced on site.

4. Improving the manufacturing process

The efficiency of the mining process can often leave much to be desired,

but improving the efficiency of this process can help towards lessening the

environmental impact. This also allows companies to regulate processes which

may be lacking in environmental friendliness.

Supervising the manufacturing processes will allow mining companies to

change elements that are inefficient or that use too many natural resources.

Conducting a material flows analysis will track the physical flows of natural

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

resources through extraction, production, fabrication, use and recycling, and final

disposal. This data will allow supervisors to develop new processes that are

more efficient and sustainable than previous ones.

5. Close and reclaim shut-down mines

Allowing shut-down mines to continue to stand open is a hazard not only

to the community but to the environment too. Often these mines still have

hazardous waste on the property which can leak into the soil and water table or

come into contact with the surrounding humans and animals living close by.

These shut-down mines can also lead to illegal mining activity, which is

why it is imperative to close and reclaim them. Mining companies can band

together to commission small decommissioning groups and contractors to take

apart the mining processing facilities and plants which will allow the pipelines to

be drained and wastes disposed of properly and safely.

6. Replenishing the environment

Mining companies sometimes overlook the importance of replenishing the

environment. This simple act can go a long way towards increasing the

environmental sustainability of mining. There are simple solutions that can be

followed, such as replenishing native soils and grasses, cleaning excess waste,

proper waste removal, site inspections and replanting trees and natural forestry.

By restoring the environment around the mine, the mining companies are

contributing to positive environmental change, rather than making the

environment more difficult to live in. The reclamation process of a shut-down

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

mine should include such steps as removing hazardous materials, reshaping the

land, planting native grasses or trees and restoring the topsoil.

ASSESSMENT #2
This test will be given through google forms. Make sure to be ready on the
scheduled date of the assessment.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

ROCKS

Rocks are the building blocks of earth’s crust. By studying rocks, scientists
can learn about earth’s processes that formed them. There is upward bend in the
rock layers, called an anticline, and the downward bend, called a syncline. Ocean
waves have eroded softer parts of the rock, leaving the harder parts. Thus the rock
we see is the result of the balance between the forces that build the land and those
that wear it down.
Rock is a mixture of minerals, mineraloids, glass or organic matter. They are
solid materials that make up the earth’s crust and are each composed of one or
more minerals. Minerals are the solid materials that make up rocks and are each
composed of a single substance.

Most rocks are mixtures of many minerals. For example, the granite, the rock
is made up of four elements. A coal is a special kind of rock, it does not contain
minerals. It is made only of remains of plants. Rocks are classified into three kinds
based on the way they were probably formed. These rock types are called
sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks, and metamorphic rocks.

Why do we study rocks?

- Rocks, like minerals, have great economic value.
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- All earth processes depend on the properties of rocks.

- Volcanic eruptions, mountain building, weathering, erosion and
earthquakes involve rocks and minerals.
- A basic knowledge of Earth materials is essential to understanding
Earth phenomena
- Rocks contain clues about the environment of which it is formed.
- Rock contains clues that indicate they formed from a volcanic eruption
or deep in the earth during mountain formation

Three Kinds of Rocks:

A. Igneous Rocks – are formed when magma cools and solidifies.

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Kinds of Igneous Rocks (according to formation)

1. Extrusive igneous rocks – are rocks formed by rapid cooling and

solidification of lava on earth’s surface. They have fine crystals and they
look glassy.
Examples:
1.1.1 Basalt – the most common volcanic rock
1.1.2 Rhyolite – rock with most silica content
1.1.3 Andesite – composition is intermediate between basalt and
rhyolite

2. Intrusive igneous rocks – are also known as plutonic rock. These are
formed from magma that failed to reach the surface of the earth that has
cooled slowly, and solidified within rock crevices. They have coarser
texture due to larger crystals.
Examples
2.1.1 Granite – composed mainly quartz and feldspar; intrusive
counterpart of rhyolite. Granite forms the core of many
mountains and continents.
2.1.2 Syenite – light colored rock that resembles granite.
2.1.3 Gabbro – coarse-grained, dark rock found in large masses;
intrusive counterpart of basalt.
2.1.4 Lacolith and Batholith – are coarse grained and takes place a
million years to solidify. These are not igneous rock per se but
generally made of igneous rocks, these are intrusive rock
formations.\

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Classification of Igneous Rocks (according to texture and composition)

1. Coarse-grained texture – formed by slow cooling which results in the
formation of large crystals. An igneous rock with large crystals exhibits
a coarse-grained texture.
2. Fine-grained texture- formed by rapid cooling of magma or lava which
results in rocks with small, interconnected mineral grains. Igneous
rocks with small grains have a fine-grained texture.
3. Glassy texture – When lava spews on the surface there maybe not
enough time for the ions to arrange into a network of crystals. Solids
produced this way are made up of randomly distributed ions with
glassy texture. Example, Obsidian.
4. Porphyritic texture – minerals that crystallize from the magma do not
form at the same rate or same time. Some crystals are quite large
before others start to form. Rocks formed can have large crystal called
phenocrysts. And the smaller ground mass. They are rocks formed
with different-sized minerals experience different rate of cooling; thus
exhibit a porphyritic texture.

B. Sedimentary Rocks – rocks are formed over a long period of time by

cementing the setting out material from a fluid. The successive
deposition of loads of eroded materials shows many layers called
stratified rock. Sedimentary rocks contain a highly important component,
the fossil.

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Processes which contribute to the formation of sedimentary rocks:

a. Weathering – process that breaks rocks into sediments. First step in the
formation of sedimentary rocks.
b. Erosion – weathered sediments don’t usually remain in place; they are
carried away by water, wind, ice or gravity.
c. Deposition – process of dropping or lying down of sediments with agents
of erosion such as water, wind, ice, or gravity lose their energy. The
sediments are deposited according to size. Large sediments such as
pebbles are deposited first. Small sediments like pieces of sand that make
up the sandstone are dropped later. Some sediments are so small that
they are carried to great distances before they are deposited.
d. Compaction – is a process that squeezes or compacts sediments. After
sediments are deposited, they become lithified or turned to a rock.
Compaction and sedimentation change sediments into sedimentary rocks.
This is caused by overlying weight of sediments.
e. Cementation – takes paces when dissolved materials are deposited in the
tiny spaces among the sediments. Example: Conglomerate is made of
rounded pebbles cemented together.

Major groups of sedimentary rocks:

1. Clastic sediments – are broken fragments of pre-existing rocks ranging
in size from fine clay particles to large boulders. Sedimentary rocks are
primarily based on the size of rock and mineral constituents.
Examples:
a. Conglomerate – usually round gravel-sized particles
b. Breccia – the pieces are angular
c. Sandstone – sand sized particles predominate sedimentary
rock composed mostly of quartz minerals.

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d. Shale – clay-sized particles that requires no cementation to

hold its particles together. Clay sized sediments are
compacted of even smaller clay-sized sediment.
e. Siltstones – fine-grained rock composed of even smaller
clay-sized sediment.

2. Nonclastic Sediments are subdivided into the following:

a. Chemical precipitates – formed when mineral water in the solution

precipitates from water due to water temperature changes or
chemical composition of matter.
Examples are:
a.1 Limestone – most abundant chemical sedimentary rock.
It is composed chiefly of the mineral calcite, used as road
aggregate, building stone, main ingredient in Portland cement.
Cebu is rich in this kind of rocks. When heated in open air, it gives
off carbon dioxide, producing quicklime or calcium oxide locally
known as apoglanapog.
a.2 Coral reef – serves as island builders.
a.3 Dolomite – abundantly composed of calcium magnesium
carbonate. Used for making solid figurines.
a.4 Rock salt
a.5 Flint

b. Evaporated deposits – as water evaporates, salts are left behind.

Example: Salt flat – Salinas salt spring in Bayombong, Nueva
Viscaya is one example and Death Valley of California is
another.

c. Biochemical sediments – rocks are produced by accumulation of

the remains of water dwelling plant and animal extracts or

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processes and activities in water which are deposited in layers.

Example: limestone, chalk cliff
d. Organic sediments – are end products of large amounts of partially
decayed plant material buried for long periods of time.

C. Metamorphic Rocks – are rocks formed under conditions of heat and

pressure, temperatures are lower, changes may occur at depths from
12-16km beneath the surface and temperature ranges from 150º-800ºC.
Its effect is rearrangement of mineral grains or enlargement of crystals or
changes in the chemistry of rocks.

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Module in Earth Science Prof. Christine M. Adlawan

Types of Metamorphic Rocks:

1. Foliated Rocks – are bonded rocks.

a. Slate – forms from sedimentary rock shale or mudstone. It splits
easily into flat slabs which make slate most useful rock for roof and
floor tile, chalkboards and billiard tables.
b. Phyllite – an increase in heat and pressure on rock slate causes a
recrystallization of the minerals in the slate to larger, almost visible
grains. The larger grains now reflect light and resulting rock is phllite.
c. Schist – continued increases in heat and pressure on rock phyllite
promote further recrystallization of micas and chlorite with coarse-
grained (easily visible) minerals. A highly foliated rock with visible
grains is formed called schists.
d. Gneiss – at the highest grades of metamorphism, the grains of schist
segregate into alternating bands of light and dark-colored minerals.
Further recrystallization results in the formation of rock gneiss.

2. Non-Foliated Rocks – are rocks that are not banded, lack minerals for
contrast because they are changed from rocks made of lone minerals.
a. Marble – when pure limestone is heated under pressure, so that
carbon dioxide cannot escape, its main product is marble. Pure
marble is white, except in cases when impurities are present, which
may appear as colored veins, bands or patterns. Romblon and
Bulacan are rich inmarble.
b. Quartzite – this is formed from sandstone. This rock is extremely
durable and very resistant, that it forms the bulk of many hills and
mountains.

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Rock Resources in the Philippines

Almost all principal types of rocks are found in the Philippines. Extrusive
materials are found abundantly in the volcanic areas of the Zambales range in
southwestern Luzon, mountain parts of Bulacan, Mayon and other mountains in
the south like Mts. Apo and Matutum in Mindanao. Basalt is found in the
mountain of Arayat and in Lake Lanao. Andesite is largely found in Mount Halcon
in Mindanao.

The sedimentary rock formation in the Philippines consists largely of

shells, limestones, sandstones and conglomerates; while the most abundant
rocks in the country are andesite; pyroclastics; quartz, diorite; and small amounts
of alluvium and limestone.

Additional Interresting Facts about Rocks:

 More than half all the gold mined returns to earth - as most of it is buried in
subterranean bank vaults!
 The word crystal comes from the Greek word kyros, meaning icy cold. It
was once thought that rock crystal was ice that had frozen so hard it would
never thaw.
 About one in every thousand oysters and one in every three thousand
mussels, has a pearl inside

ASSESSMENT #3

This test will be given through google forms. Make sure to be ready on the
scheduled date of the assessment.

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FEEDBACK

Do you have any question relative to our topic? Write them below.
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SUMMARY

To aid you in reviewing the important concepts in this module, here are
the highlights.
 The structure of the earth is divided into four major components:
the crust, the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core.
 Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and
can impact life on Earth's surface.
 Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the
core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
 Minerals are the building blocks of the earth.
 A mineral is a combination of elements that forms an inorganic,
naturally occurring solid of a definite chemical structure. For
example, SiO2 is always the mineral quartz.
 A rock is a solid material that is composed of various minerals.
 Minerals can have a variety of crystalline shapes. The shape of the
crystal is dependent on the sizes of the atoms of the elements, the

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chemical bonds that hold the elements together to form the mineral,
and the pressure and temperature at which the mineral formed.

SUGGESTED READINGS

 Allaby, Michael. A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Science. OUP. 4th

edition. 2013.

 National Geographic Channel. Earth Science: Geology, the

Environment, and the Universe. Teacher Wraparound Edition. 2007.

 https://owlcation.com/stem/Top-10-Interesting-and-Fun-Facts-About-
Rocks-and-Minerals

 https://www.britannica.com/science/Mohs-hardness

 https://www.universetoday.com/46594/how-are-rocks-formed/

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