Bresser and Holtzman

DEVELOPING

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number sense is not a specific skill or concept, but a broader
idea that encompasses students’ ability to think and reason
flexibly, make sound numerical judgments, and see numbers as
useful. Along with computation and problem solving, number
sense is an important part of instruction that builds arithmetic

NUMBER SENSE
competence and confidence.

Rusty Bresser and Caren Holtzman present lessons rich with

strategies for helping children build their number sense.The
lessons provide practice in mental computation, the basics,
navigating the number system, and estimation. Woven
throughout the book are strategies for assessing students’
understanding and samples of student work.
Grades 3-6

DEVELOPING NUMBER SENSE

3/
This book is for teachers who are just beginning to focus on
number sense as well as for those seeking new lessons and
strategies for the classroom.

Ca re n Holtz m a n was an elementary classroom

teacher in Oceanside, California, for ten years and
is currently working in the teacher education
program at the University of California, San Diego.
She is also the author of two Scholastic Hello
Math Readers, A Quarter From the
5% 4 29
1.5 18
Tooth Fairy and No Fair!

=+
Rusty Bresser has been an elementary
classroom teacher since 1979. He

7
currently teaches in the Oceanside
Unified School District in Oceanside,
California. He is also the author of Math
and Literature (Grades 4–6), Math
Solutions Publications, 1995.

Both Caren and Rusty are Math Solutions Inservice instructors, Math Solutions Publications
teaching courses offered by Marilyn Burns Education Associates
to elementary and middle school teachers nationwide.

Math Solutions ®
Rusty Bresser and Caren Holtzman
P U B L I C AT I O N S

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Developing
Number Sense
Grades 3–6
Rusty Bresser
Caren Holtzman

MATH SOLUTIONS PUBLICATIONS

Sausalito, California
Math Solutions Publications
A division of
Marilyn Burns Education Associates
150 Gate 5 Road, Suite 101
Sausalito, CA 94965
www.mathsolutions.com

Copyright © 1999 by Math Solutions Publications

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means without written permission from the publisher, except for the inclusion of
brief quotations in a review.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bresser, Rusty.
Developing number sense : grades 3–6 / Rusty Bresser and Caren
Holtzman.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-941355-23-3 (pbk.)
1. Number concept. 2. Mathematics—Study and teaching
(Elementary) I. Holtzman, Caren. II. Title.
QA141.15.B74 1999
372.7'2044—dc21 99-23644
CIP

ISBN-13: 978-0-941355-23-0
ISBN-10: 0-941355-23-3

Oh No! 99! is adapted from a UNO Company game, now out of print.
Tell Me All You Can is adapted from Smart Arithmetic, Grades 4–6, by Rhea Irvine and
Kathryn Walker (Creative Publications).
Stand Up and Be Counted was created by Annette Raphel, Shady Hill School, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
Get to 1,000, Get to Zero, and Hit the Target are adapted from Calculators in Mathematics
Education (NCTM Yearbook) (Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,
1992).

Editor: Toby Gordon

Copy editor: Alan Huisman

Production: Alan Huisman

Book design and illustrations: Joni Doherty
Cover design: Leslie Bauman

Composition: Cape Cod Compositors, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America

09 08 07 ML 6 7 8 9
 A Message from Marilyn Burns

We at Math Solutions Professional Development believe that

teaching math well calls for increasing our understanding of the
math we teach, seeking deeper insights into how children learn
mathematics, and refining our lessons to best promote students’
learning.

Math Solutions Publications shares classroom-tested lessons and

teaching expertise from our faculty of Math Solutions Inservice
instructors as well as from other respected math educators. Our
publications are part of the nationwide effort we’ve made since
1984 that now includes
• more than five hundred face-to-face inservice programs each
year for teachers and administrators in districts across the
country;
• annually publishing professional development books, now
totaling more than fifty titles and spanning the teaching of all
math topics in kindergarten through grade 8;
• four series of videotapes for teachers, plus a videotape for par-
ents, that show math lessons taught in actual classrooms;
• on-site visits to schools to help refine teaching strategies and
assess student learning; and
• free online support, including grade-level lessons, book
reviews, inservice information, and district feedback, all in our
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For information about all of the products and services we have
available, please visit our website at www.mathsolutions.com. You
can also contact us to discuss math professional development
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[email protected].

We’re always eager for your feedback and interested in learning

about your particular needs. We look forward to hearing from you.

Math Solutions ®
P U B L I C AT I O N S
G

Contents

Acknowledgments / vii

Introduction / ix

Mental Computation / 1
1 Get to 1,000 / 3
2 Oh No! 99! / 17
3 Get to Zero / 31

The Basics and More / 45

4 One Time Only / 47
5 Tell Me All You Can / 57
6 Trail Mix for a Crowd / 67

Navigating the Number System / 85

7 Numbers and Me / 87
8 All About 1,000 / 99
9 Stand Up and Be Counted / 113
10 Guess My Number / 127

Estimation / 139
11 How Many Beans? / 141
12 Hit the Target / 155
13 In the Ballpark / 169
G
G

Acknowledgments

We thank the following people for making this book possible:

Marilyn Burns, for her guidance and support

Toby Gordon and Alan Huisman, for their editorial expertise
Andrea Barraugh
Sherry Beard
Dina Calvin
Shea Carrillo
Julie Contestable
Ann Dominick
Carolyn Felux
Marji Freeman
Kathleen Gallagher
Sally Haggerty
Pam Long
Lyndsey Lovelace
Annette Raphel
Patti Reynolds
Christina Stamford
Serena Thakur
Maryann Wickett
Pam Wilson

And special thanks to Alberto Bautista

vii
 G

Introduction

Two children eating dinner at a Our students with number sense

kitchen table argue about whose plate understand the relationships between
has more peas on it. A man in a and among numbers. They think
checkout line thumbs through the flexibly about numbers, are able to
money in his wallet, deciding whether break numbers apart and put them
he has enough cash to pay for his together in a variety of ways. They are
groceries. A woman filling the gas tank also familiar with the properties of
of her car wonders how many miles she single-digit numbers and can use this
drives per gallon. A student taking a information to calculate efficiently
test estimates a reasonable solution to using larger numbers.
8
/9 + 7/8. A teenager glances at the Students with number sense also
clock: does he have time to stop by his understand the effects operations have
friend’s house before heading home for on numbers. They see connections
dinner? between the different operations and
Solving these sorts of everyday have a firm grasp on which operation
problems requires number sense. or series of operations to employ in a
Number sense is extremely important given situation. They are able to
to our mathematical thinking and articulate why they choose a particular
reasoning. Starting from a very young operation and how it will help them
age, we’re confronted with situation solve the problem.
after situation in which we need to Another component of number
think about and use numbers. sense is mental computation. Students
Number sense is a broad idea that with number sense can manipulate
covers a range of numerical thinking. numbers in their head. They have
Although the concept can be difficult strategies they use to think about
to pinpoint, we recognize number numbers and operations. They do not
sense when we see our students use it. need to rely solely on paper and pencil, ix
Introduction

their fingers, or a calculator. Also, determine how to modify or adapt it to

students with number sense have meet the needs of different-aged
effective ways to estimate. They can students. We have integrated
approximate calculations and use assessment ideas into the activities
familiar benchmarks to gauge because we recognize that teachers
unknown amounts. assess their students continually. In
While there is no simple check- these pages we share what we learned
list of skills that number sense from the students during the activities
encompasses, we recognize its com- and how we feel the activities helped
ponents and its effects. We see our the children enhance their number
students use their number sense when sense.
they are confronted with numerical The activities in the book are
situations. We hear them describe their grouped into four sections: Mental
number sense when they explain how Computation, The Basics and More,
they solved a problem. As Paul R. Navigating the Number System, and
Trafton puts it, “A person who Estimation. A brief introduction to
possesses number sense might be said each section highlights the key
to have a well-integrated mental map number-sense ideas that group of
of a portion of the world of numbers activities is intended to develop.
and operations and is able to move The activities are of several
flexibly and intuitively throughout the different types. Some are games that
territory” (“Using Number Sense to the teacher introduces to the whole
Develop Mental Computation and class and then has the students play in
Computational Estimation,” paper pairs or in small groups. Some are
presented at a conference entitled investigations that are introduced to
Challenging Children to Think When the whole class, after which students
They Compute, Queensland carry them out individually, in pairs, or
University of Technology, Brisbane in small groups. Some activities don’t
Australia, August 9–11, 1991). lead to individual or small-group work
This book shows some of the ways but are whole-class experiences only.
we have attempted to help students Each activity has three
“move throughout the territory.” It components:
offers practical and worthwhile ideas
for helping students think about 1. A concise summary.
numbers. It will help you understand 2. An extended vignette that describes
number sense and find innovative ways how we taught the activity in a
to promote it in your classroom. classroom.
Over a two-year span, we taught 3. Answers to one or more reflective
each of these activities in an questions.
intermediate classroom. In most
instances, we taught the activity more There is no prescribed way to use
than once, to different grade levels, in the book or the activities: this is not a
order to refine and polish it and program, curriculum, or sequential
 Introduction

xi

unit. Rather, it is a spectrum of ways some activities and perspectives to add

to foster number sense in the to your repertoire. We encourage you
intermediate grades. If you are just to use the activities in ways that best
beginning to focus on number sense in meet the needs of your students, and
your classroom, we hope you will find we’d appreciate hearing about your
here practical ideas and insights into experiences and any adaptations you
the richness and power of number try as you go about bringing number
sense. If you are already focusing on sense to the forefront of your
number sense, we hope you will find mathematics instruction.
G

Mental Computation

W
hile many of the activities in this book rely on mental
computation, these first three focus heavily on it. In Get to
1,000, Oh No! 99!, and Get to Zero students engage in
games and investigations that require mental computation. The
discussions and written work students engage in after the activities also
focus on their mental computation strategies. While the discussions and
conversations in the vignettes that follow won’t be replicated exactly in
your classroom, they are models for how teachers can focus on and foster
students’ mental strategies.
Mental computation is a key aspect of number sense. It forces
students to rely on what they know about numbers and operations. It
also liberates them from the standard paper-and-pencil approach to
computation and allows them to be more inventive. Computing
mentally shifts the emphasis from following procedures to making sense
of numbers and operations. It allows students to develop their own
algorithms.
For example, if a group of students had to compute 39 + 44
mentally, one student might take 1 from 44 and use it to turn the 39
into 40, then add 40 and 43. Another student might start with the tens
and add 30 and 40, which makes 70, then add the 9 and the 4 to get 13,
then add 70 and 13 to get 83. The activities in this section give students
many opportunities to come up with their own computing methods,
thus helping them develop their number sense.
As always, the teacher’s role is vital. Our goal is to help students
become flexible thinkers who are comfortable with numbers and who
are able to compute accurately and efficiently. But asking students
merely to give an answer they’ve computed in their head limits their 1
Mental Computation

potential to develop number sense. The thinking leading to the answer is

also important. Teachers need to encourage students to discuss their
methods in class; that way the students expose one another to a wide
array of strategies, gradually becoming more flexible and facile with
numbers and operations. The activities here encourage these kinds of
classroom conversations.
 G

1 Get to 1,000

Overview
This two-person game gives students practice with multiplying by powers of ten
and with addition. Players multiply the number that comes up on each of ten rolls
of the die by 1, 10, or 100. Then they add the ten products. The total may be under
or over 1,000. The player whose final score is closer to 1,000 is the winner.
Variations of the game give students practice multiplying by 5, 25, and 50.

Materials Needed
One die for each pair of students.

Directions for Playing the Game

1. Players, in pairs, take turns rolling a die. On each roll, each player decides separately
whether he or she wants to multiply the number on the die by 1, 10, or 100.
2. Each player records the resulting product on a piece of paper.
3. Players continue to roll, multiply, and record their products until they each have
ten products on their paper. (Each player will have rolled the die five times.)
4. Each player finds the sum of his or her products. The one whose final score is
closer to 1,000, whether over or under, is the winner.

Extensions
1. Version A: roll the die ten times and multiply the number on the die by 1, 5, or 50.
2. Version B: roll the die ten times and multiply the number on the die by 10, 25,
or 50.
3. Version C: roll the die seven times and multiply the number on the die by 1, 10,
or 100. 3
Mental Computation

IN THE CLASSROOM “It’s like 400 pennies,” added

WITH RUSTY Brad.
“Look, you skip count by 100s,”
Nadine pointed out matter-of-factly.
Introducing the Activity “Let’s try that together and see if it
works,” I suggested. Together we
I told Kathleen Gallagher’s fourth counted by 100s to 400. As we
graders I wanted to teach them a game counted, I realized that for a great
called Get to 1,000 that involved many children in the class, the answer
multiplication, addition, and to 4 × 100 was obvious. I also knew
subtraction. After I showed them how, that this part of our discussion could
they’d be able to play it with a partner. give some of them different ways to
“For this game, you want to get as think about multiplication. The
close to 1,000 as possible,” I began. mathematical understanding of the
“You may go over or under 1,000, but students in the room varied from solid
you want to get as close as you can. to extremely fragile.
Each time you roll the die, you have a I wrote 400 on the chalkboard and
choice whether to multiply the rolled again. This time I got a six. “I’m
number on the die by one, ten, or going to multiply six times ten this
100.” I wrote × 1, × 10, × 100 on the time,” I said. “Can someone explain
chalkboard. “Each time I get another why that might be a good choice?”
product, I’ll write it down on a piece of Lots of hands popped up, and I called
paper. As I play the game, I’ll try to on Cathy.
keep track of my score in my head so “Well, if you multiplied six times
that I’ll know about how close I am to 100 you’d get 600, and that would put
1,000. After ten rolls, I’ll add up the you at 1,000 already,” she explained.
products and see how close to 1,000 I “So six times ten is a good move. I
get.” I noticed some blank looks. “I’ll think you could multiply six times one
roll the die, and you can watch me to and that would also be a good move.”
see how the game is played,” I told “What’s six times ten?” I asked the
them. “I’ll ask for suggestions from class.
you along the way.” “Sixty!” they said together.
I rolled the die and got a four. “I “Can someone explain how you
can multiply four by one, ten, or 100,” know that six times ten is 60?” I asked.
I said, thinking out loud. “I’m going to I wanted the students to know that I
choose to multiply four by 100. What’s was interested in more than correct
four times 100?” answers. I wanted them to explain
“Four hundred!” the class their ideas in order to increase the
chorused. learning potential.
“How do you know that?” I asked. “Because ten six times is 60,” said
“Because you take four and add Sharon.
two zeros,” said Elias. “Four times 100 “You can count by ten six times,”
means you do four 100 times.” explained Jim.
 Get to 1,000

“It’s like six dimes,” offered Simon. the 20 and the two 10s I took from
I wrote 60 on the chalkboard the two 60s.”
underneath the 400. I rolled again and I was pleased that Rob was able to
got a one. I multiplied 1 × 100 and “see” that 60 could be broken down
wrote 100 under the 60. I then rolled into 50 + 10 and how he used that to
another six. make the problem easier for him to
“What should I do now?” I asked. solve. The ability to take numbers
“Any advice?” apart and put them back together is an
“I think you should multiply by indicator of number sense.
ten because you already have over 500, On my next roll, I got a two and
and if you multiply by 100 you’ll go multiplied it by ten and recorded 20
over 1,000, because 600 and 500 is on the chalkboard. Then I rolled a one
1,100,” Sue explained. and again asked the class for advice.
“Does that make sense?” I asked. “I think you should multiply it by
Students nodded their head in 100,” said Brad.
agreement, and I added another 60 to “Why do you think that?” I asked.
the list of figures on the board. “Because you only have four rolls
I rolled again and got a two. I left and you only have 660,” he
multiplied 2 × 10 and wrote 20 on the reasoned. “If you had rolled a higher
chalkboard under the other products. I number, I’d advise you to multiply by
now had 400, 60, 100, 60, and 20 on ten or one.”
the chalkboard. We had just finished I continued with the game until I
our fifth roll and we were halfway to had ten products written on the
the finish. chalkboard. “Raise your hand if you
“I’d like you to figure the score in have an idea about how to find the
your head,” I instructed. “When we total,” I said. I waited till lots of hands
calculate mentally it helps improve our were raised, then called on Calvin.
math thinking. Also, if we keep track “Add the 100s, then the tens, then
of our scores as we go along, we’ll the ones,” he suggested. “It’s easier to
know how close to 1,000 we are.” start clumping together the bigger
After a moment, I called on Marcos. numbers. Anyway, the numbers are
“It’s 640, because 400 plus 100 pretty friendly.”
equals 500, then I added 60 plus 60 “Use a calculator,” added Kimm.
equals 120, then I added 20 more, “You can make 100s,” observed
equals 140; 500 plus 140 equals 640,” Adela. “Like 60 and 40 is 100, so I’d
he explained. make as many 100s as I could, then go
“Did anyone figure it a different to the lower numbers. I’d add
way?” I probed. everything together in my mind.”
“I did it almost the same way,” After we found the sum of the
Rob began. “After I added 400 and products, students partnered up to
100 to get 500, I looked at the two 60s play Get to 1,000. Before they began, I
and saw two 50s. That made another reminded them that both players had
100. Then I had 600 and just added to use the same number on the die
Mental Computation

when multiplying and that they each Ramon and Adela were having a
had to make separate decisions about disagreement about who won the
what to do. I told them that partners game.
had to roll the die ten times and that at “I got 1,006, and you got 964, so I
the end of the game, the player whose won!” argued Ramon.
score was closer to 1,000 won. I also “How do you know that?” Adela
told them that keeping track of their shot back. “It looks to me like we’re
score as they played the game was both close to 1,000.”
important. They could do this “You’re farther away than me!” he
mentally or on a piece of paper. countered. I held back and watched,
not interfering. “Look, 1,006 is only
six away from 1,000,” Ramon said
Observing the Students firmly. “Nine hundred and sixty-four
is . . . ,” he began.
As students played I walked from table “Wait, I want to figure it out!”
to table, listening to conversations, Adela insisted. “Nine hundred and
posing questions, and making seventy-four, 984, 994, that’s 30 and
observations. Rob and Charles were on six more . . . oops, you’re closer!” They
their final roll when I joined their both giggled.
game. Their responses had given me
“I’ve got 800. I’m getting close,” some insight into their number sense.
Charles said. Ramon exuded confidence about using
He was thinking out loud and was numbers to solve problems. Although
ready to make the final roll when I Adela seemed less sure of herself, she
stopped him with my question: “What did have the confidence to insist on
would have to happen for you to make figuring things out for herself.
1,000 exactly?”
Charles thought for a while. Rob
was dying to answer, but I put up my A Class Discussion
hand, signaling him to be patient and
give Charles a chance. When it seemed as though most
“Hmm. I need 200 more to make partners had completed two games, I
1,000. If I rolled a one and multiplied asked for everyone’s attention and
by 100, I’d get 900, so if I rolled a two initiated a class discussion.
and multiplied it by 100, I’d get there “When you’re playing Get to
exactly,” he reasoned. 1,000, what do you think about in
“Do you think it’s likely that order to win the game?” I asked.
someone would get 1,000 exactly?” I “Well, first I multiplied by 100,
asked. then I multiplied the numbers on the
Charles and Rob looked at each die by ten, then by one,” said Jenny.
other, not quite sure how to respond. “Why did you do that?” I asked.
Leaving them to think about this “I learned that you should try to
question, I moved on to another table. get to 900 as fast as you can and then
 Get to 1,000

go to small tens and big ones,” Jenny I wanted as many students as

explained. “The way to get to 900 is to possible to see Brandy’s line of
multiply first by 100.” reasoning, so I asked a probing
“Other strategies?” I asked. question. “Brandy said that 600 times
“My strategy was doing about five four is 2,400 so 600 times eight is
100s as long as the numbers are low, double that,” I clarified. “Think about
occasionally some ones, and the rest what 600 times eight might be, then
tens,” Brandy reported. “If I rolled tell someone next to you.”
sixes a lot and multiplied by 100, I’d After a moment, I asked for their
be in trouble ’cause that would put me attention and called on Jenny.
way over 1,000.” “Well, 600 times eight is 4,800
“If you multiplied every number ’cause if 600 times four is 2,400 then
that came up on the die by 100, do 2,400 plus 2,400 is 4,800,” she
you think you’d win?” I asked. explained.
“Not if I rolled sixes every time,” “So what about 600 times ten?” I
Jenny responded. “That would get asked.
you . . .” She stopped to think. “It’s a little more than 4,800, maybe
“What are you thinking?” I asked. a couple hundred more,” said Rob.
“I’m trying to add 600 ten times, “It’s 6,000!” Kimm exclaimed. “I
because the biggest number you can kept adding 600 in my head ten
get on one roll is 600 and if you did times.”
that ten times . . . I’m stuck,” she said. “You can get 1,000 exactly if you
“What can you say about the keep rolling ones and multiplying by
answer to 600 times ten?” I asked the 100!” Ramon exclaimed, jumping into
class. I gave them a little time to think the conversation.
about this, then called on Simone. “Is that likely to happen?” I asked.
“I think it’s going to be bigger Most students shook their head no.
than 1,000 because 600 times two is “I wonder if there’s another way to
1,200,” said Simone. Simone was get 1,000?” Brandy thought out loud.
using something she knew, 600 × 2, to “That’s an interesting question we
think about the magnitude of the could investigate later,” I said. I knew
answer to 600 × 10. She was tapping we wouldn’t have time to pursue the
into her number sense to think about question today, but it indicated the
the problem. rich potential of the game.
“Anyone else have an idea?” I asked.
“I’m skip counting by sixes and if
you go 6, 12, 18, 24 . . . that would be A Writing Assignment
600 times four is 2,400, so it’s bigger
than that,” Brandy reasoned. “So 600 At the end of our discussion, I asked
times eight is double that.” Brandy’s the students to write about what they
thinking often kept the class on their learned while playing Get to 1,000. I
toes. She was very capable and also asked them to write about their
comfortable with numbers. strategies for winning.
Mental Computation

Jenny wrote: All I did was roll the Kimm wrote (see figure 1.1): For
dice. I placed my numbers down with [my] number one [game], I choose those
what made sense. Like if I had 933 and numbers because I thought it would
got a six on my last roll I would put it as help me. But it didn’t. What I should of
60. done was put more hundreds than 10’s

FIGURE 1.1
Kimm improved her second game because of
what she learned during her first game.
 Get to 1,000

because I think that would of helped also roll ten times, but now you
me. multiply the number on the die by ten,
For [my] number two [game] I got a 25, or 50.” I then wrote version B’s
little better with it because I put more directions on the chalkboard.
hundreds than more tens, and . . . keeped “That sounds harder,” said Carl.
the answer [total] in my head. . . . “I think that’s going to be easier
Carl wrote: When playing Get to than the other one,” Anne disagreed.
1,000, I learned you have to ceep track of “The last version, version C, is
the numbers because you mite pass nearly the same as the original game,”
1,000. I liked playing because I can I said. “You multiply the number on
learn how to add better. In the first game the die by one, ten, or 100, but you
I got 970 and in the second game I got only roll the die seven times.” Again, I
980. In the first game I needed 30 to get wrote the directions for version C on
to 1,000 in the second game I needed 20 the chalkboard.
to get to 1,000.

Observing the Students

Extending the Activity
The students were excited about trying
Pam Long had taught her sixth graders the variations and immediately
Get to 1,000, and the students had partnered up and began playing. I was
been playing the game for several days curious to see how the class would
before I came in to introduce several respond to the different versions. I was
extensions. “Today I’m going to teach also interested in their strategies for
you how to play a few other versions of winning and how they calculated
Get to 1,000,” I told them. “I’d like mentally.
you to play the new versions and see Anne and her partner were playing
how they compare. In version A, you version B. Anne needed to multiply 5 ×
play the game using ten rolls, just like 25, and I watched as she wrote the
the original game, only this time, problem on the bottom of her paper
instead of multiplying the number on and started to use the standard method
the die by one, ten, or 100, you get to for multiplying. I stopped her. “Can you
choose from one, five, or 50.” do the problem in your head?” I asked.
“So it’s the same as the original She thought for just a second or
game except you multiply by different two, then said, “It’s 125!”
numbers, right?” asked Nancy. “How did you get the answer so
“Yes, although in both the original fast?” I asked.
game and version A you get to multiply “I thought about money, like 25
by one,” I responded. “And in all these cents,” she replied. “Then I knew it
games, the goal is still to get as close to really fast.”
1,000 as you can.” On the chalkboard, Erin and Blanca were reaching for
I wrote: Version A: multiply by 1, 5, or a calculator to multiply 6 × 50. Again,
50 and roll 10 times. “In version B, you I stopped them and asked whether
Mental Computation

10

they could figure it out mentally. They they know about numbers and
were stuck, so I nudged them a little: operations. When students begin to
“How is six times five related to six calculate mentally rather than using
times 50?” I asked. standard algorithms with paper and
“Oh, it’s 300!” they said together. pencil, the focus shifts from thinking
“How did you figure?” I asked. about procedures to thinking about
“Because six times five is 30, and what makes sense.
you add a zero and it’s 300,” explained
Blanca.
“Why do you add a zero?” I A Class Discussion
probed. Often children know that
when you multiply by ten, you add a The next day I led a class discussion
zero and when you multiply by 100, about the game. “Raise your hand if
you add two zeros, but they can’t you were able to play all three versions
explain why. The two girls thought for of Get to 1,000,” I said. Nearly
a while. everyone’s hand went up. “What did
Then Erin spoke up: “Because you think of the different versions?”
when you multiply by five, it’s 30, but “I played A,” said Michael. “It
if you multiply by 50, then it’s ten wasn’t really easy to get to 1,000,
times bigger than 30 and that’s 300,” because it didn’t have really high
she explained. numbers to multiply by. It had one,
Mitch and Daniel had finished a five, and 50, and the highest number
game and had added up a string of you could get was 300.”
numbers on the calculator, but I “Why is that?” I asked.
noticed that the total was “Because the highest number on
unreasonable. I asked them to check the die is six, and if you multiply by 50
the answer by adding in their head. that’s 300,” Michael explained. “In the
Mitch proceeded to add the 100s, then original game, you could make 600
the tens, then the leftover ones, and points on one turn by multiplying six
came up with the correct answer. “It’s times 100.”
faster to do it in my head!” he “First, I played version C, because
exclaimed. I thought it would be a challenge to
Many students were surprised at get to 1,000 in only seven tries,”
how easy and fast it was to calculate Xavier began. “It was a challenge! I
mentally. One student was stuck trying noticed that I used the 100s more in
to multiply 6 × 25 in his head. A this one than I did when we had ten
student next to him suggested that he chances before. My strategy changed a
think of how many 25s there are in little.”
100 and solve it that way. “I think version B is the hardest
Solving problems mentally helps one to play, because you’re not allowed
students develop their number sense to multiply by one,” said Mitch.
because it forces them to rely on what “When I was playing a game with
 Get to 1,000

11

Daniel, I had 975 and it was my turn along the way. If you’re close to 1,000,
to roll. I rolled the die and I got a six. I you have to decide what you’re going
was kind of mad, and Daniel started to multiply the number on the die by.
laughing about it because he knew he You have to know what’s going to
was going to win. Then I started happen to the number on the die and
laughing about it and I knew that the how close to 1,000 you’ll get. With the
only lowest thing I could do was to die, you never know what’s going to
multiply six by ten. That’s how I lost happen.”
version B.” “I think you can predict what’s
“Any other ideas to report?” I going to happen on the die,”
asked. countered Carl. “I don’t think you’re
“I found out a lot of things about going to roll the same number over
multiplying,” said Blanca. “It’s not so and over. I think when you roll, you’re
hard to multiply numbers in your likely to get different numbers most of
head.” the time.”
“On C you only have seven rolls. “If you had to invent your own
So you use more 100s instead of tens,” version of Get to 1,000, what
Jenny said. “Also, with version C, I directions would you use?” I asked.
don’t think anyone uses one as a “Maybe have other numbers to
multiplier or your outcome would be multiply the die by,” suggested
too low.” Gordon, “like maybe put some hard
“I played C with seven rolls,” said ones in there, like five, 15, and 30.”
Rob. “It’s different from ten rolls “I’d make it so you have more
because you need to get to 1,000 faster than ten rolls, say 15 rolls,” said
so you need to use bigger numbers.” Nicole.
“Do you think these are games of
skill or games of chance?” I asked.
“Talk with someone near you about A Writing Assignment
this question.” After a few moments, I
called on Mindy. When our discussion was over, I had
“I think it’s luck, because you the sixth graders write about the
never know what’s going to come up games (examples of their writing are
on the die,” she said. shown in figures 1.2, 1.3, and 1.4).
“I think you need to have both Reading their papers gave me
luck and skill,” said Jenny. “For one further information about their
thing, you have to make decisions thinking.
Mental Computation

12

FIGURE 1.2
Anne realized that her strategy worked and
thought the game was risky.
 Get to 1,000

13

FIGURE 1.3
Katie explained what she liked about versions
B and C.
Mental Computation

14

FIGURE 1.4
Xavier compared all the versions of Get to
1,000.
 Get to 1,000

15

RUSTY ANSWERS system is based on powers of ten, the

YOUR QUESTIONS numbers 10, 100, 1000, and their
multiples are especially important
landmark numbers. Landmark
What is the purpose of this numbers are familiar landing places
activity? which make for simple calculations
In this activity, I want students to and to which other numbers can be
think about numbers, their magnitude, related. In solving problems, people
and their relationship to 1,000. I also with well-developed number sense
want students to get a sense of what draw on their knowledge of these
multiplication does to numbers. These important landmarks. For example,
are important characteristics of when a sixth grader in Pam Long’s
number sense. class had trouble multiplying 25 × 6 in
One of the things I like about this his head, another student suggested he
game is that students must make think about how many 25s there are in
decisions based on how close or how far 100 and work from there. This would
away they are from 1,000. In other also be a good strategy for solving
words, they must think about numbers more difficult problems, like 25 × 17.
and how those numbers relate to 1,000. Knowing about 10, 100, 1,000, their
For example, when I was modeling the multiples, and their factors is the basis
game for Kathleen Gallagher’s fourth of good number sense.
graders, I had a score of 560 and rolled
a six. I stopped to ask whether anyone
If I use Get to 1,000, I’ll need to
had any advice for me. When Sue
manage a classroom in which
responded, “I think you should
students are active, vocal, and
multiply by ten because you already
working in groups. What advice
have over 500, and if you multiply by
do you have?
100 you’ll go over 1,000, because 600
and 500 is 1,100,” she was doing a It isn’t easy to manage a classroom, and
number of things. In addition to in some ways it’s even more
multiplying and adding, she was challenging to manage an active one.
thinking about what to do based on The best-laid plans can still lead to
what would happen if I multiplied by disaster if students aren’t listening and
10 or 100. She was also thinking about following directions.
how close 560 is to 1,000. Sue was What’s most important is that you
reasoning about numbers, which is work to establish a classroom
what students must do in order to environment in which mutual respect
develop their number sense. is valued. In my classroom we have the
Another focus of the activity is for golden rule posted, and we discuss it
students to experience and become daily: Treat others the way you want to
proficient at multiplying by multiples be treated. This applies to classroom
of ten and other important landmark discussions as well, and I’m constantly
numbers, like 25. Because our number reminding children to listen to the
Mental Computation

16

speaker and raise a hand if they want • Do students know the effect
to talk. After many years in the multiplication has on numbers? Do
classroom, I’m still reminded daily that they have a sense of how big a
getting children to listen to one number will get when you multiply
another and get along requires it by 1, 10, or 100?
consistent effort. • Do students have a sense of how
Giving clear directions is also an close they are to 1,000 when they’re
important ingredient in managing a playing the game?
math class. Children who know what’s • Are students using strategies to win
expected of them are less likely to the game? What strategies are they
misbehave. using?
Finally, if you understand the • Are students able to keep track of
task at hand and are aware of the their score mentally or do they use
goals and the important paper and pencil?
mathematical ideas of an activity, you • How do students figure out the
are bound to be more confident and difference between their score and
able to listen for clues from the their partner’s score? Can they figure
children in order to move the activity the difference mentally?
from one place to another.
Can I use this game in a
How can I assess a student’s third-grade classroom?
number sense?
Yes, but instead of having 1,000 as
When I use this activity, I have several the goal, I’d ask third graders to try to
questions in mind as I watch students get to 100, using one through six as
play the game and as I listen to their multipliers. What’s nice about this
questions and responses during class game is that it can easily be adapted
discussions. to the skill level of the players by
adjusting the goal, the number of
• Are students able to multiply rolls of the die, and the multipliers.
numbers by ten and multiples of No matter what version of the
ten? Are they able to multiply game is played, the important thing
numbers by 25? by other landmark is that students think about the
numbers? effect multiplication has on numbers.
 G

2 Oh No! 99!

Overview
While older elementary students are typically engaged with larger whole numbers, many
still need and benefit from practice with mental addition and subtraction of smaller
numbers. In this two-person card game, players attempt to force their partner to be the
one to push their jointly accumulating score above 99. The game provides practice with
adding and subtracting while also giving students the chance to think strategically.

Materials Needed
A deck of playing cards (jokers removed) for each pair of students.

Card Values and Operations

Aces: add 1
Jacks: subtract 10
Queens: wild cards that can represent any other card in the deck
Kings: add zero
All others (2–10): add their face value

Directions for Playing the Game

1. One player shuffles the cards and deals four cards to each player. The undealt
cards remain in a stack, face down.
2. Players take turns playing one card at a time, adding or subtracting the value of
their card to or from their jointly accumulating score.
3. Each time a player plays a card, he or she must replace it with the top card on
the face-down stack.
4. Play continues until one player forces his or her partner to go over the score of 99. 17
Mental Computation

18

IN THE CLASSROOM “It can be any number?!” asked

WITH CAREN Jeannette, wide eyed.
“Can it be 1,000?” asked Kenneth.
“Well, it can’t be 1,000, because
Introducing the Activity there’s no other card in the deck worth
1,000. It’s wild, but it’s not that wild,”
To introduce Oh No! 99! to Kathleen I told the class. I proceeded with my
Gallagher’s fifth graders, I’d planned to explanation. “A king means you don’t
go through a sample game with the add or subtract anything. For the rest
whole class and then send them off to of the cards in the deck, add whatever
play with partners. I began by asking their number is: an eight means add
the class to join me in a circle on the eight, a three means add three. I’m
rug, so everyone would have a good going to leave this information up on
view of the deck of cards. After some the board, because you might need it
adjusting of desks and bodies, we were when you play with your partner. The
ready to begin. object of the game is to make your
“I brought a lot of decks of cards partner go over 99. So I want to force
here today because you’re going to you to put down a card that makes the
learn a card game,” I announced. total 100 or more, and you want to try
“Is it poker?” asked Chip, to a to get me to do the same. Can you
round of giggles. guess why this game is called Oh No!
“No, it’s not poker and it doesn’t 99!?” I asked.
involve gambling,” I replied. “It’s a “Because if there’s 99 already,
game you play with a partner that you’re in trouble,” offered Enrique.
helps you with math. I like this game a “You got it,” I agreed. “Before you
lot. It gives you a lot of practice adding go back to your tables, though, we’re
numbers in your head. It makes you going to play one game together so you
think.” can see what the game is like and I can
I walked to the board and wrote answer any questions. Since this is a
Oh No! 99! game for partners, I’ll play with the
“This game is called Oh No! 99! whole class as my partner. We’re going
As I explain the game you might start to take turns adding cards to the
to get some ideas about how it got its discard pile.”
name. Now before I show you how to I dealt four cards to myself and
play, there are a few important things four cards to the class. I dealt all the
you need to know about the cards.” I cards face up, although I explained that
wrote A, J, Q, K on the board. “In Oh when they played by themselves, they’d
No! 99! an ace means add one point,” I keep their cards hidden so their partner
explained. I wrote add 1 next to the A. wouldn’t know what they had.
“A jack means subtract ten. A queen is “Okay, I’ll go first, and I’ll put
wild. That means you can assign the down this seven. And since I put down
queen the value of any other card in a card, I need to pick another card
the deck.” from the top of the deck. I always want
 Oh No! 99!

19

to have four cards in my hand. Now Many students nodded in

it’s your turn. Who would like to agreement.
choose a card for the class?” Many “Okay,” I continued, “Kate thinks
hands shot up. I called on Greg. you should hold onto your ace and
“I’ll use the nine,” Greg save it for later. Does anyone have an
announced. idea about which card you might want
I put the nine on top of the seven. to play next?”
“So now what’s the total for the “Use the nine,” said Ana, “because
pile?” I asked the class. then the total will be 97 and that’s
“Sixteen!” they responded in close to 99. If you don’t have a low
unison. card or a jack, queen, or king, we
“Good,” I said, “whenever you put could win.”
a card down on the pile you have to The class played the nine, and my
tell what the new total is. Partners need next play put the score over 99. I then
to check each other and pay attention sent the students off to their tables to
to make sure both of you know the play the game in pairs. “Remember,” I
total.” told them, “this game is important for
We continued playing. I called on two reasons. First, it gives you a lot of
various students to make a choice for practice adding in your head. Second,
the class, and had the whole class tell when the total gets close to 99, you
me the new total after each card was have to do a lot of thinking to plan a
added. When the total of the pile was good strategy.”
88, I asked Jenny to choose a card for
the class to play. Many students tried
to influence her. Observing the Students
“Don’t use the ace yet,” advised
Miguel. The students returned to their seats,
“Put down the nine,” suggested and I circulated around the room. At
Annabel. first, I just wanted to make sure
Realizing the advice was being everyone understood the game and
motivated by strategic thinking, I was playing with a partner. Then I
stopped the game to point this out: spent some time observing individual
“I’m noticing that many of you have games. Several students were quite
ideas about which card to play next. animated and couldn’t resist showing
Would anyone like to explain your their cards to friends nearby. Miguel,
thinking?” I called on Kate. for one, was proudly flashing his
“I think we should save the ace.” picture cards to anyone in his vicinity.
“Why is that?” I asked. I issued a few gentle reminders for
“Because with an ace you only students to stay in their seats and focus
have to add one, and that’s a low on the game.
number. If the cards get up to a high I noticed that while many
number like 97 or 98, we can use the students were quickly and easily
ace to make you go over 99.” calculating the totals mentally, others
Mental Computation

20

were more hesitant; some were even “You just want us to tell you which
using their fingers. I was surprised to card we would use?” asked Jon.
see Chip use his fingers to add 10 to “That’s part of it,” I answered,
43. Adding ten should come “but I also want to know why you
automatically to most fifth graders, would choose that card instead of any
especially one like Chip, who came of the others. You might even want to
from a very traditional math program. tell me which card you definitely
However, it was clear that he had not wouldn’t want to use and why.”
made the base ten connection in this Most students chose either the six
context. While Chip was certainly or the queen as their next card on the
capable of adding 10 and 43 on paper pile. Traci wrote, I would put the 6
using the standard algorithm, he did down because you should get rid of your
not see the significance of the high cards and save your low cards as you
relationship between the two numbers get in the high 80s and 90s. A, Q, K, are
nor that there was a very predictable not high cards because a Q is a wild card
pattern when adding ten. and you can use it as a K. A K is a 0. An
A is a 1. Neal made a convincing
argument for the queen (see figure
A Writing Assignment 2.1): I would put down the queen as a
ten so the total would be 97. 97 is a high
After about fifteen minutes, even number and if your partner has only
though everyone was still very numbers higher than four you win. If
involved in playing the game, I called they have numbers less than four or a
everyone back together. I wanted to king, queen, jack, or ace and they lay
see what kinds of strategies they were down a queen as a two or a two, you can
using at this point, and I wanted put down the king.
them to have the opportunity to hear After reading through the class
some of their classmates’ thinking papers (additional examples are shown
about the game so far. I illustrated a in figures 2.2 and 2.3), I realized the
hypothetical situation on a projected question didn’t dig deeply enough into
transparency. the methods the students used for
“Imagine,” I said, “that you’re adding the numbers. I got a general feel
playing Oh No! 99! and the total is up for their thinking about the cards, but
to 87. Your four cards are a six, a the prompt I used focused more on
queen, an ace, and a king. Which card strategy. I wanted to ask a question
would you play next? As you think about the game that encouraged the
about this, pay attention to why you’re children to tell me more explicitly how
choosing a particular card. I’m going to they were combining numbers. Did they
give you ten minutes of quiet writing use what they knew about place value to
time so you can tell me your ideas on help? Were they merely counting on?
this question. Make sure you put your Did they have more than one way to
name and date on the paper. Are there add numbers? I decided I would try to
any questions?” focus on these questions next time.
 Oh No! 99!

21

FIGURE 2.1
Neal’s hypothetical strategy.
Mental Computation

22

FIGURE 2.2
Another student’s strategy.
 Oh No! 99!

23

FIGURE 2.3
Still another strategy.
Mental Computation

24

Then I just added back the two and

Continuing the Activity the one and I got 93.” As Traci talked
through her thinking, I recorded the
When I returned to the class a few days corresponding equations on the
later, student partners were playing the overhead:
game with gusto. I gave them a few
minutes to finish, and then I called for 87 – 2 = 85
their attention. I began by talking 6–1 =5
about the papers they’d written during 85 + 5 = 90
my previous visit. I told them I was 2+1 =3
impressed with both the range of their 90 + 3 = 93
ideas and the way they were able to
write about their thinking. It’s important for students to see
“The last time I visited I gave you the connections between their
a situation to think about. Does thinking and the mathematical
anyone remember what the total was symbols that represent it. Often
for the question I asked?” children don’t realize that the words
“It was 87,” replied Charles. and ideas come first and that the
I wrote 87 on a projected equation is a shorter way to express
transparency. those same ideas. Many children only
“And the cards we had were six, see equations printed in textbooks and
ace, queen, king,” added Lucy. worksheets and don’t connect them
“Okay,” I continued, “quite a with any real-world context. As a
few of you wrote that you would use teacher, part of my job is to help
the six and add it to the pile.” I students connect equations and
wrote + 6 next to the 87 on the symbols with meaningful contexts. It’s
overhead. “So what would the total a challenge to listen to a student, try
be now?” to make sense of her thinking, and
“Ninety-three!” record the corresponding equations all
I wrote = 93 on the overhead to at the same time, but it’s gotten easier
complete the equation. “Now comes with practice.
the interesting part,” I told the class. I asked the students to volunteer
“You all know that 87 plus six equals other approaches to solving 87 + 6.
93, so that’s not really a problem. The While the problem itself is not
challenging part is to think about how particularly challenging for fifth
you solved the problem in your head graders, explaining it verbally is. I
without paper and pencil. Does wanted the students to focus on their
anyone want to try to describe how own thinking without getting bogged
you solved it mentally?” down by the computation.
Traci volunteered first. “I took two Ronald shared his strategy next.
away from the 87 to make it 85. Then “Well, I know three plus three is six.
I took one away from the six to make So I took one of the threes and added
it five. I know 85 plus five equals 90. it to 87. That made 90. Then I added
 Oh No! 99!

25

the other three to the 90 and got 93.” I previous discussion. “We saw five
recorded Ronald’s thinking different ways people solved the
symbolically: problem 87 plus six. Your job is to try
to think of a lot of different ways to
6 =3+3 solve 74 plus eight. Maybe if you look
87 + 3 = 90 at the ideas that Traci, Ronald, Jenny,
90 + 3 = 93 Josue, and Enrique had it might help
you. Probably there are even more
Then I recorded Jenny’s, Josue’s, ways to solve these kinds of problems.”
and Enrique’s thinking on the “How many ways are we supposed
overhead as well. The class got to hear to get?” asked Cornelius.
five different students talk about their “I don’t have a specific number in
thinking and were able to see there is mind,” I told him. “Just try to stretch
more than one way to solve a problem. your brain to think of a lot of different
This idea is a big leap for students who ideas.”
have been accustomed to an I handed out paper and the
algorithmic approach to mathematics. students began their work. I circulated
The more opportunities they have to and observed. There was quite a range
expand their computational horizons, of approaches. I noticed that several of
the better. the students were writing prolifically
and not using symbols. While I was
pleased that they were comfortable
A Writing Assignment incorporating writing into their math
work, I decided to steer them in a
Next I wanted each student in the class different direction.
to have an opportunity to explain her “I’m sorry to interrupt you in the
or his thinking about computation. I middle of your work,” I told the class,
chose a similar context. “Imagine “but I’m noticing that some of you are
you’re playing a game of Oh No! 99! doing a lot of writing. It’s great to
and the total score so far is 74.” I wrote write and use words to explain your
74 on a projected transparency. “Your thinking, but you can also use
partner adds an eight to the pile.” I shortcuts and write some equations on
wrote + 8 next to the 74. “What’s the your paper.” I referred once again to
new total?” the transparency with the five
“Eighty-two,” the class responded students’ work. “You see I used
in unison. equations to show how Traci took two
“Okay,” I told them, “now for the from 87 to get 85. Probably on your
challenging part. I’m going to give papers there will be a combination of
each of you a piece of paper and on words and equations to show how you
that paper you need to try to explain solved the problem. Don’t feel that
different ways you can add 74 plus you need to use only words for this
eight.” I put the previous overhead assignment.”
back up to remind students of our The students resumed working. I
Mental Computation

26

FIGURE 2.4
Shannon discovered eleven ways to add 74
and 8.

sat down briefly at different tables, answer by counting on my fingers. 2. I

watching students work and added [standard algorithm with
occasionally asking them a question carrying].
about their paper. Several students Shannon was clearly comfortable
described counting on as their strategy breaking the numbers apart and
of choice. Romolo wrote, This is how I putting them back together. He had
did the adding. I add the number 8 into listed 11 different ways to do so (see
the pile. I just counted 74 and then I figure 2.4). Jenny used an impressive
said 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82. He combination of words and equations
had not recorded any other strategies. to explain her thinking (see figure
Kate had two ideas: 1. I knew the 2.5): 74 – 4 = 70 then 8 + 4 = 12 then
 Oh No! 99!

27

FIGURE 2.5
Jenny’s ways to add 74 and 8.

12 – 2 = 10 then 70 +10 = 80 I’m left rather than showing ways he might

with 2 so 80 + 2 = 82. combine 74 + 8. One of Jon’s
Jon used ten as a friendly contributions was: 74 ÷ 2 = 37 + 45 =
number: 74 + 10 = 84 – 2 + 82. 82. I wasn’t particularly concerned by
You – the 2 because you added 2 to these types of equations. While the
the 8 and that equals 10. I was pleased original context seemed to have been
to see that quite a few of the students lost, I was at least able to see some
used division to describe breaking different ways the boys thought about
the eight into twos or fours. Mike numbers.
wrote: 8 ÷ 2 = 4 ÷ 2 = 2, 74 + 2 However, I found some of the
= 76 + 2 = 78 + 2 = 80 + 2 written work very confusing. Annabel
= 82. wrote: 70 – 4 = 70, 4 + 2 = 6, 76 + 7
I got the feeling some of the = 82. Not only was it unclear where
students were humoring me. They the numbers had come from, the
listed different ways to make 82, but work also had computational errors.
didn’t seem concerned with using the I would need to get back to Annabel
original numbers. Josue had a list one on one and have her explain
that included: 60 + 22 = 82, 71 + 9 = her work to me. The paper alone left
80 + 2 = 82. It seemed Josue was me with questions about her
showing what he knew about 82 thinking.
Mental Computation

28

A Class Discussion computation. During the game, the

students are repeatedly adding and
occasionally subtracting numbers
After the students had been working
between 1 and 99. This certainly gives
independently for a while, I stopped
them the practice they need to become
the class and had them share their work
computationally proficient and
in groups. Each student showed a way
efficient.
he or she had solved the problem. Then
Additionally, the game motivates
I called the class together to summarize
students. Whereas they might be less
the experience. “Does anyone have any
than thrilled to do dozens of
comments about this activity?” I asked.
computation problems with no
“I like the game,” responded
context, they actually choose to play
Miguel, “but it’s hard to write about
Oh No! 99! Even after playing it
adding the numbers.”
several times in class, students still
“I got eight different ways to add
enjoy the game and are eager to play it
them,” bragged Howard. “Probably I
during menu or choice time.
could find more.”
Then too, the game gives students
“Why do you think I asked you to
an opportunity to use strategic thinking
write so much about 74 plus eight?” I
while they are playing. Students need
asked.
to consider the value of the cards in
“Because you’re the math teacher,”
their hand, hypothesize about what
quipped Ana.
cards their partners might have, and
“Well that’s certainly part of it,” I
make decisions based on their ideas.
laughed, “but why did I ask you this
Finally, the game provides a
particular math question?”
context in which students can do some
“It makes us think a lot,”
written work. Their writing gives
responded Kenneth.
insights into how they communicate
“So you can see our ideas,” added
mathematically and how they think
Enrique.
about breaking numbers apart and
“You know,” I said, “I think that’s
putting numbers together. It’s
really it. I try to ask questions that get
important for students to have many
you to think. And I want to be able to
opportunities to practice these skills.
understand your thinking so I can be a
better teacher.”
Is this game too easy for fifth
graders?
CAREN ANSWERS
YOUR QUESTIONS On the surface this is an easy game,
but there is a lot of mathematics
embedded in it. Students playing Oh
What is the purpose of this
No! 99! are practicing mental
activity?
computation, using strategic thinking,
Oh No! 99! provides a context in and being exposed to probability. One
which students can practice mental test of the game is how interested the
 Oh No! 99!

29

students are. If it were truly too easy, ways to put numbers together and take
the students would lose interest rather them apart. Such flexible thinking
quickly. How long would a group of about numbers strengthens students’
fifth graders stay involved in a number sense.
preschool puzzle or an episode of During the game Chip had
Sesame Street? In Kathleen Gallagher’s trouble mentally adding 10 to 43. As I
class students continued to choose to watched him play the game with his
play Oh No! 99! during their free time partner, I saw he was clearly em-
throughout the year. barrassed and attempted to hide his
Also, I noticed several of the fifth finger counting and acted silly to
graders using their fingers to figure the distract his partner and me from his
totals during the game. This suggests struggle. By the intermediate grades,
they need much more practice with students are painfully aware of their
mental computation. While I don’t academic shortcomings and in some
forbid students to count on their cases have become quite adept at
fingers, I work with them to help them hiding them. This is true not only in
move on to more efficient strategies. math, but in all areas. So a big part of
The game, when combined with a my role as the teacher is to assess
discussion about computation students informally. Observations,
strategies, offers the students interviews, and student work really
opportunities to move beyond give me the big picture. When I do
“counting on” approaches. The game notice a student, like Chip, who is
also develops number sense in students “sneaking by” without real
who do not rely on their fingers. The understanding, I need to provide a safe
strategies they learn and fortify while environment for him to have more
playing can be applied to larger, more meaningful experiences with numbers.
challenging problems in the future.
What experiences would you
What can I learn about my provide for a student like Chip?
students from this game?
Chip definitely needs more
I found many opportunities to assess opportunities to work with numbers
individual students while they were in ways that make sense to him. The
playing. By observing them and rote drills and algorithms he learned in
listening to their conversations I got a the past did not serve him well when it
feel for their comfort with the came to doing even simple
computation and the ways they were computation. I need to ask Chip
adding in their head. The writing questions about patterns he notices in
prompt I used gave me deeper insight numbers. This may help him begin to
into their strategic thinking. Also, the see the reason in our place value
game proved to be an excellent system. Perhaps a 1–100 chart will
springboard for a discussion about give him a visual model of our number
mental computation strategies and system. He and his partner can use the
Mental Computation

30

100 chart as a game board and move a he’d write 58 + 7 = 65. Writing the
marker along the chart as the total equations horizontally will help keep
changes with each turn. I may also Chip from falling into the mindless
have Chip keep a record of the score algorithm trap. He’ll be more apt to
by writing equations horizontally on a think about the numbers as quantities
piece of paper. For example, if the total rather than digits to cross out
were 58 and Chip put a seven down, mechanically.
 G

3 Get to Zero

Overview
This activity gives students—individually, in pairs, or in small groups—practice with
adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing whole numbers. Students can perform
the calculations mentally or use a calculator, whichever you feel is more appropriate.
Players start with a three-digit number and use any series of mathematical operations
involving the numbers 1 through 9 to get to zero in as few turns as possible.

Materials Needed
A calculator for each student or pair or group of students.

Directions for Playing the Game

1. Players choose a three-digit number (example: 500).
2. Players choose an initial operation and number (example: divide 500 by 5); any
number from 1 to 9 and any operation can be used. Only whole numbers are
allowed! If an operation results in a decimal answer, players must go back and try
another number and/or operation.
3. Players perform the calculation mentally or on the calculator and record the
result on paper (example: 500 ÷ 5 = 100) so they can look back over their work.
4. Players repeat steps 2 and 3 until they get to zero.

Sample Game Scenarios

Turn 1: 500 ÷ 5 = 100
Turn 2: 100 ÷ 5 = 20 31
Mental Computation

32

Turn 3: 20 ÷ 5 = 4
Turn 4: 4 – 4 = 0
Turn 1: 752 ÷ 4 = 188
Turn 2: 188 ÷ 2 = 94
Turn 3: 94 – 4 = 90
Turn 4: 90 ÷ 9 = 10
Turn 5: 10 ÷ 5 = 2
Turn 6: 2 – 2 = 0

Extensions

1. Give everyone the same number to start with and challenge the class to get to
zero in as few operations as possible.
2. Ask students to find as many three-step numbers (those from which you can get
to zero in only three operations) as they can.
 Get to Zero

33

IN THE CLASSROOM obvious to these sixth graders, the

WITH RUSTY comment signaled a sense of numbers
and operations.
I then proposed dividing 500 by
Introducing the Activity five. I chose the number five because I
knew it wouldn’t yield an answer with
“I’m going to teach you an activity a remainder. I wanted to keep things
called Get to Zero,” I began. “You’ll uncomplicated while modeling the
need a calculator and a piece of paper activity.
and a pencil. You may work alone, “I’ll begin by dividing 500 by
with a partner, or with a small five,” I stated. “What’s 500 divided by
group.” five?”
The sixth graders in Pam Long’s “One hundred!” the students
class had each been assigned a chorused.
calculator the first week of school, and Then I punched the numbers into
everyone now eagerly pulled it from the overhead calculator, encouraging
his or her desk. To help model the students to verify the answers using the
directions, I used Pam’s overhead calculators at their tables. Calculating
calculator, as well as a projected mentally not only often is faster than a
transparency on which I could record calculator and makes more sense but
numbers. also helps develop mathematical
“To begin, you need to choose any thinking.
three-digit number,” I explained. I wrote divide by 5 under the
“Once you’ve chosen your number, number 500 on the transparency
write it down on your paper. Would before I continued. This was turn
anyone like to suggest a three-digit number one.
number for us to work on together?” “Now I’ll divide by five again,” I
“How about 500,” offered Nancy. told them. “I want you to mentally
I wrote 500 on the transparency. divide 100 by five.”
“Our goal is to get to zero in as few After a few moments, several
mathematical operations as possible,” I students raised their hand. I asked the
said. “You may use any operation: class quietly to say the answer to 100
addition, subtraction, multiplication, divided by five. Then we verified the
or division. When using one of those answer on the calculator to be sure it
operations, you may only use the was 20. Again, I wrote divide by 5 for
numbers one through nine. I’ll work turn number two.
through an example. What operation “Now we have 20 showing on the
should we begin with?” calculator,” I said. “We want to get to
“I think you should start with zero in as few moves as possible, so
division because it gets you a smaller what should we do?”
number than all the other operations,” “Divide by five again!” exclaimed
said Carl. Students nodded their head Manuel.
in agreement. Although Carl’s idea was “Or divide by four,” added Mary.
Mental Computation

34

“What about divide by ten?” asked turn number four. “So it took us four
Michael. turns to get to zero,” I said. “Let’s try
“That wouldn’t work, you can only another one. Raise your hand if you
use one through nine,” said Todd, have another three-digit number less
reminding Michael of the rules. than 1,000 for us to begin with.”
“Think about what would get us “Let’s start with an odd number,”
the smallest quotient, or answer,” I suggested Blanca. Blanca often
suggested. After a few seconds, several challenged the group and she exuded
hands flew up. I called on Carl. confidence when working with
“If you divide 20 by five you’ll get numbers. “How about 123?”
four, but if you divide it by four you’ll I wrote 123 on a new trans-
get five,” he said. “So I think we parency. “I want you to talk with your
should divide by five.” neighbor about what operation and
“I don’t think it matters,” Gordon number we should use to begin,”
interjected. “Because either way you’ll I said. After a moment, I asked for
get to zero in the same number of volunteers and called on Xavier.
turns.” “Divide 123 by two,” he
“Gordon, can you tell us more suggested.
about that?” I asked. Several students groaned and
“Well, if you divide 20 by five, the others shook their head in dis-
answer’s four and then you could agreement.
subtract four to get to zero,” he “Before we divide 123 by two, I’m
explained. “If you divide 20 by four interested in hearing what you think
you get five and all you have to do is will happen,” I said.
subtract five to get to zero. For both, “I think the answer is going to be a
you get to zero in two turns.” number with a remainder,” Cam
“Does that make sense?” I asked. predicted.
Students nodded their head. “Why do you think that?” I asked.
“We could choose four or five as a “Because two will go into 12
divisor,” I said. “Let’s try five and evenly, but two won’t go into three
divide 20 by five.” evenly,” he responded. Cam appeared
“It’s four,” said Hannah. to be solving 123 divided by two using
“Okay,” I responded. “In this the long-division algorithm.
game, it’s handy to use the calculator “I think you won’t end up with a
to keep track of what’s happening to whole number and you have to have a
the numbers as we make our way to whole number for an answer or else it’s
zero.” After I verified the answer on the really hard to get to zero,” said Jenny.
calculator, I wrote divide by 5 for turn “When you’re dividing, how do
number three. “What should we do you know if you’ll get an answer that’s
next?” I asked. a whole number?” I asked.
“Subtract four!” several students “You just have to have the feeling
chimed in. for what’s going to divide evenly into a
I finished by writing subtract 4 for number,” Kerry mused. “If you don’t
 Get to Zero

35

know, then you’d have to play around by three because 123 is a multiple of
with the numbers until you get a three.”
whole number.” Students used their calculators to
“Let’s use our calculators and divide and came up with 41 as an
divide 123 by two,” I instructed. answer. I continued to keep track of the
Students soon realized that dividing by operations and numbers we were using
two resulted in an answer with a on the projected transparency, modeling
remainder. for students how they might keep track
“I got 61.5,” Cam reported. “That’s of their decisions. (Figure 3.1 shows
the same as 61 and a half. If you get a how Niqueta kept track of her games.)
decimal, it’s hard to get to zero.” “What next?” I asked.
“So it’s important that you end up “We should subtract one so we get
with a whole number for an answer to an even number,” said Devin. “That
whether you divide, multiply, subtract, would give us 40.”
or add. I think Xavier’s idea helped us I wrote subtract 1 on the
learn new things about this activity,” I transparency. That was our second
said. “How about another idea?” operation. I asked students to think
“Let’s divide 123 by three,” about what to do next and reminded
offered Hannah. “I’m picking divide them that we wanted to get to zero in

FIGURE 3.1
Niqueta’s record of her Get to Zero games.
Mental Computation

36

as few operations as possible. Someone back together for a class discussion.

suggested dividing 40 by two, but that “Raise your hand if you’d like to tell us
idea was vetoed in favor of dividing by about something you discovered,” I
five. Students were beginning to make said.
sense of the game. We divided 40 by “The fastest way to get to zero is
five to get eight, then subtracted eight by using division,” reported Katie.
to get to zero in four turns. “If you’re like at 443 or something,
you want to subtract to have your
number end in zero, so you can divide
Observing the Students
by five easily,” said Anne.
“Tell us more about that, Anne,” I
After we finished this second game probed.
together, students got to work; some “Well, if you’re at 443 and you
partnered up and some worked alone. subtract three you get to 440 and you
The game was motivating and can then divide by five evenly,
sustained the students’ interest. I because I know that numbers that
moved around the room, mostly end in zero are multiples of five,” she
observing and asking questions. explained.
I noticed that being able to use the “What else did you discover?” I
calculators freed the students to continued.
explore numbers and operations. They “That, like 555, 444, 333, all
seemed uninhibited and challenged by come out the same way,” said Carl.
trying to get to zero in as few “Give us an example, and I’ll write
operations as possible. the numbers on the chalkboard,” I told
him. “Everyone else use your calculator
A Writing Assignment and follow along with us.”
“Five hundred and fifty-five
divided by five equals 111, divide by
After about twenty-five minutes, when
three equals 37, subtract seven equals
it seemed that most students had
30, divide by six equals five, subtract
explored several sequences, I asked
five equals zero,” he reported. “It
them to write about the game. I
works for every three-digit number
provided these prompts:
where the digits are all the same.
• This game helps me learn . . . You get to zero in five turns.” (Carl’s
• I discovered . . . written work is shown in figure
• I think . . . 3.2.)
• I found out . . . “Let’s try another one,” I said.
“Let’s test Carl’s conjecture.”
“Four hundred and forty-four
A Class Discussion divided by four equals 111, divide by
three equals 37, subtract seven equals
After giving students about ten 30, divide by six equals five, subtract
minutes to write, I called the group five equals zero,” he said carefully. The
 Get to Zero

37

FIGURE 3.2
Carl discovered a pattern with certain
numbers.

class seemed impressed by this hundred number, if you divide it by

discovery. the number in the hundred’s place,
“Any other discoveries?” I asked. then you will always get 100,” said
Lots of hands shot up. I was pleased Katie. “Like 800 divided by eight
that this activity had stimulated so equals 100, 900 divided by nine equals
much thinking. 100, like that. I think that’s important,
“I learned that if you have a because when you get to 100, you can
Mental Computation

38

get to zero in three turns.” (Katie’s “I got to zero in three moves

written work is shown in figure 3.3.) starting with 200,” Hannah reported. I
“Remember when we got to 100 wrote the equations on the chalkboard
in three turns when we played as a as she read them from her paper. “Two
class?” I reminded them. “Did anyone hundred divided by five is 40. Divide
get to zero in less than three turns?” 40 by five and that’s eight, then
“If you divide by two digits, you subtract eight,” she read.
could,” said Anne. “But we can’t do “How about 512,” said Denny.
that.” “Five hundred and twelve divided by
“Did anyone else get to zero in eight equals 64, 64 divided by eight
three moves?” I asked. equals eight, then subtract eight.”

FIGURE 3.3
Katie realized that dividing is the fastest way to
get to zero. She also discovered how to get to
100 quickly.
 Get to Zero

39

“Did anyone get to zero in less “I got 729!” she exclaimed. “I

than three moves?” I asked. No one worked backwards. I multiplied nine
raised a hand. times nine times nine and that’s 729. I
“I think it’s impossible,” was multiplied by nine because that’s the
Jeremy’s conjecture. highest number you can use with the
“What’s the largest number we can operations. When you start with 729,
start with and get to zero in three you divide by nine and that equals 81.
moves?” I asked. Jenny was waving her Divide 81 by nine and that’s nine, then
hand so hard I thought it was going to subtract nine.” (Jenny’s written work is
fly off. She was smiling excitedly. shown in figure 3.4.)

FIGURE 3.4
Jenny noticed that Get to Zero helped her learn
more about operations. She also explained how
to get from 729 to zero in three moves.
Mental Computation

40

“I was working with Jenny and I number. If I would divide 111 by two,
tried her way with eights,” said Katie. “I then it wouldn’t come out evenly,
did eight times eight times eight and got because two is an even number. So I
512, then I got to zero in three turns!” think that if the number you’re
“Sixes work too!” Carl announced. working with is even, then divide it
He’d been experimenting on his with an even number and if it is odd,
calculator while Katie was explaining then divide it with an odd number.”
her discovery. “You multiply six times (Kerry’s written work is shown in
six times six and then you get 216 to figure 3.5.)
start with.” “We’re almost out of time, but I
“Would fives work?” I asked. think Kerry’s conjecture deserves some
Everyone began multiplying mentally thought,” I told the class. “Kerry, can I
to check this out. They were on a roll. write down on the board what you just
“That would work, ’cause the said so that we can think about it?” I
answer is 125 and it’s still a three-digit made a point of getting Kerry’s
number,” said Brennan. Brennan was permission before opening her
usually disengaged and uninterested in conjecture up to scrutiny. Sharing
numbers. He struggled with math, but mathematical ideas is risky. I think it’s
now he was right there with us. important to maintain an atmosphere of
“What about fours?” I asked. respect during class discussions so that
“Will four times four times four get us children feel safe expressing their ideas.
a three-digit number?” On the chalkboard, I wrote: In this
After a few seconds, several game, divide an odd number by an odd
students chorused, “No!” number and an even number by an even
“Why is that?” I asked. I knew number. “Is this what you mean?” I
that many students in the class knew asked Kerry, pointing to the words.
why, but there are always some who are She nodded yes. “Talk about Kerry’s
on the periphery of the conversation, statement with someone in your
not quite following or understanding. I group,” I told them. After several
wanted to give those students a chance minutes, I asked for everyone’s
to listen to an explanation. I called on attention and called on Michael.
Carl. “I think that Kerry’s partly right,”
“Because four times four is 16 and said Michael. “I think that you can’t
16 times four is 64,” said Carl. “And divide an even number into an odd
64 is not a three-digit number, so we number evenly and an odd number
can’t start with it.” into an even number evenly. But just
“Does anyone else have a discovery because you start with an odd number
they’d like to share?” and divide it by an odd number doesn’t
“This game helps me learn to mean there’ll be no remainder. Like
divide at the right time,” said Kerry. nine divided by five doesn’t work.”
“Like when the number is 111, I “Or seven divided by three,”
would know to divide it by an odd added Katie.
number, because 111 is an odd “I think you have to think about
 Get to Zero

41

FIGURE 3.5
Kerry’s faulty conjecture prompted a rich class
discussion.

the multiples of a number when you’re sense. Get to Zero gives students
dividing,” said Hannah. practice with all the operations,
“Kerry’s conjecture made us think especially division. And using
more about numbers, especially how calculators allows them to take risks
they’re used in division,” I said, and try new ways of thinking.
bringing our class discussion to a close. This activity gives students
opportunities to think about
operations and what happens to
RUSTY ANSWERS quantities when they’re added,
YOUR QUESTIONS subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
During the activity, for example, Carl
revealed his knowledge about division
How does this activity help students
in relation to the other operations
develop their number sense?
when he commented that “you should
Facility with computing is an start with division because it gets you a
important characteristic of number smaller number.” When Anne
Mental Computation

42

recommended subtracting till your subtract to get to a number that

number ends in zero so that you can ends in five or zero.
divide it by five evenly, she was 4. Never divide when you have an
drawing upon her understanding of odd number.
the multiples of five and of division. 5. If you have an odd number,
She was using her number sense to subtract one, three, or five to get an
think about a strategy. even number.
Get to Zero also gives students
the chance to explore the char- Would students need a calculator
acteristics of numbers: odd and even, at home if Get to Zero were a
factors, multiples, prime and homework assignment?
composite. In addition, students are
Having a calculator at home is not
able to learn about decimal numbers,
necessarily a prerequisite. In this game
look for patterns, and make con-
a calculator is used only to verify
jectures and test hypotheses, all of
computations and to keep track of the
which help develop their number
numbers as students make their way to
sense.
zero. Students could certainly play Get
to Zero without a calculator.
How can Get to Zero be modified Although students primarily solve
so that it’s more easily accessible? the problems in Get to Zero mentally,
One way to make this activity more they benefit from learning how to use a
accessible is to start with numbers variety of tools to solve math problems
between 50 and 100 instead of any or explore mathematical ideas. A
three-digit number and to use the calculator is an important tool that
digits one through five instead of one should be available to students in math
through nine. Working with smaller class.
numbers is less daunting for students
and is therefore a more comfortable How would you help students
place to start. become aware of the divisibility
A colleague of mine taught Get to rules?
Zero to her class using only the While some students discover rules for
numbers 50 through 100 and the divisibility on their own, it helps to
digits one through five. Then she asked make them explicit so that all students
her students to describe strategies they have access to them. Still, students will
thought were helpful in getting to zero. need a good deal of experience to
Here are the strategies they came up become comfortable with the
with: divisibility rules. Encourage them to
look for patterns. Some are easy to
1. Choose even numbers. recognize, such as counting by fives
2. Try to divide by the biggest and noticing that all the multiples end
number you can. in zero or five, or learning that all even
3. If you can’t divide, then add or numbers are multiples of two. But the
 Get to Zero

43

discovery that if the sum of the digits The benefit of a game like Get to
in a number is a multiple of three (for Zero is that it provides a reason for
example, 123, or 1 + 2 + 3 = 6), then students to think about divisibility,
the number is a multiple of three is not another valuable way to understand
as obvious. relationships among numbers.
G

The Basics and More

T
raditionally, the “basics” were single-digit number facts and
computation, and they are still basic components of
mathematics. But how can we help our students become
competent with the basics in a way that simultaneously develops their
number sense? To do that, math instruction in classrooms needs to
accommodate and encourage a variety of computational techniques.
In the old days, arithmetic procedures were taught by modeling and
explaining each step of an algorithm: “Start on the right, put down the
one, carry the ten. . . .” Rules were memorized, procedures were
standardized. There was little room for improvisation and little concern
for understanding.
However, it’s important for students to realize that mathematical
rules and procedures were discovered by mathematicians who recognized
certain inherent properties of numbers. Students in math class need to
behave like mathematicians and discover the wonders of numbers for
themselves. Class discussions about different ways to think about
computation are extremely valuable ways to foster this discovery.
Proficiency with the components of computation remains essential.
But students also need latitude in their thinking about numbers if they
are to develop number sense. Repetitive exercises with isolated numbers
do not suffice. Students need to be able to make sense of what they are
doing. When students share their own computational strategies,
everyone in the class benefits from hearing a variety of approaches. The
act of listening to and making sense of someone else’s approach to
numbers and computation forces the listeners to expand their horizons.
As students hear about and understand more ways to think about
numbers, they augment their own mathematical abilities. They become 45
The Basics and More

46

more flexible thinkers who have more than one way to deal with a novel
problem when it arises. They are able to see the inherent usefulness of
mathematics. They remain curious and enthusiastic learners.
While all the activities presented in this book provide teachers with
new ways to think about the basics of math, the three in this section
concentrate heavily on number calculations and combinations. They
offer ways to help students learn the basics and at the same time support
the development of number sense.
 G

4 One Time Only

Overview
Upper elementary students benefit from activities that help reinforce their
understanding of factors, multiples, and prime numbers. In this two-person game,
students take turns identifying factors of successive numbers, continuing until one
of them can no longer contribute a new number.

Directions for Playing the Game

1. Player 1 writes down a number greater than one and less than 100.
2. Player 2 writes down a factor of the first number underneath it.
3. Player 1 writes down a factor of this new number.
4. Each player, taking turns, writes down a factor of the preceding number.
5. If a player writes down a prime number (i.e., it is not divisible without a
remainder by any other integers except one and itself ), the next player adds
seven to it and writes down the resulting sum as his or her turn.
6. The player who can no longer contribute a new number loses the game.

Additional Rules
1. Once a number has been written down, it can’t be used again.
2. The number one can’t be used at all.

47
The Basics and More

48

IN THE CLASSROOM vocalized their assent. I pushed for

WITH CAREN more of a commitment. “Who can
explain why they think six is a factor of
36?” I asked.
Introducing the Activity Jessie raised her hand. “Because six
times six is 36,” she explained.
“Today I have a game for you,” I “Also,” added José, “if you count
announced to the sixth graders in by sixes you’ll say 36. Like 6, 12, 18,
Lyndsey Lovelace and Shea Carrillo’s 24, 30 36.”
class. “It’s called One Time Only. To “All right,” I said, “I’m convinced
play the game you need a partner. that six is a factor of 36.” I wrote 6
One of the partners begins by picking under 36 on a projected transparency.
a number greater than one and less “Now I need to find a factor of six to
than 100. So you can see how it add to the chain of numbers we’re
works, the whole class will be my making here. I think I’ll say two.” I
partner for this first game. There are wrote 2 under the 6. “Okay, now it’s
just a few rules, and I’ll explain them your turn to think of a factor of two,”
while we play.” I said.
I wrote 36 on the overhead. “Two,” said Derek. “Two times
“Now it’s your turn,” I said. “You one is two.”
need to think of a factor of 36. Can “Well, yes,” I responded, “two is a
anyone tell me a number that goes factor of itself, but one rule is that you
evenly into 36? Another way to think can’t use the same number twice.
about it is by skip counting. Which That’s why the game is called One
numbers can you skip count by and Time Only. If a number is already
get to 36?” written down you can’t use it again.
By introducing several ways to Can anyone think of a factor of two
think about factors, I hoped to explain that’s not already up here?” I asked,
the game more quickly. If I’d just asked pointing to the overhead.
for a factor of 36, students who weren’t “One,” said Ali.
sure what a factor was or who weren’t “Well, that brings up another rule
sure about the difference between a in One Time Only. You can’t use one.
factor and a multiple might not have You’re correct, Ali, that one is a factor
been able to participate. As the of two. But in this game you’re not
students used the terminology in the allowed to use one. So you can’t use a
context of the game, they’d become number that’s already up there and you
more comfortable with it. can’t use one. Those are the two main
“So, what do you think?” I asked. rules of this game. Can you think of
“Can anyone tell me a factor of 36?” any other factors of two?”
“How about six?” offered Fred. “How about four?” asked Chrissy.
“Is six a factor of 36?” I asked the “How do you know four is a factor
class. of two?” I inquired.
Several students nodded or “Because two times two equals
 One Time Only

49

four,” Chrissy explained. Chrissy had can think of any other factors of
confused factors and multiples. I was two.”
glad she had made the multiplication I let the students talk briefly and
connection, but I needed to prompt then I called them back to attention.
her a bit to get her back on track. “Did any tables find any other factors
“I know that two is a factor of of two?” I asked. The class consensus
four, because I can count to four by was no. “So, do you think there are
twos,” I said to her. “But it doesn’t any other factors of two?” I prodded,
work the other way around. Four isn’t checking to see if the students were
a factor of two, because you can’t count really convinced.
to two by fours.” “Not if we can’t use fractions,”
“Oh, yeah,” Chrissy replied. Ana qualified.
“Does anyone know what we call “Well,” I told the class, “you’re
four in this situation?” I asked the right. There are only two factors of
class. two, two and one. Does anyone know
“A multiple!” exclaimed Neal. “If what you call a number that only has
you can times a number to get the itself and one as factors?”
number it’s a multiple. Like 36 is a “Prime?” Greg ventured in a barely
multiple of six because six times six is audible tone.
36.” “Prime!” several students
“All right,” I continued, “so are announced with authority after
there any factors of two besides two hearing Greg.
and one?” “Yes, those are prime numbers.” I
“Can we use fractions?” asked wrote prime next to 2 on the overhead.
Howard. “A number that only has itself and one
“Sorry,” I told him, “but factors for factors is called a prime number. In
need to be whole numbers, like the One Time Only when you hit a prime
regular numbers you use when you’re number you add seven to it.1 So what’s
counting. So are there any other two plus seven?”
factors of two?” I kept posing the “Nine,” several students
problem to get students really to responded.
think about two and its relationship I wrote 9 on the overhead under
to other numbers. This sort of the 2.
thinking builds number sense. Also, I “Okay, now it’s my turn, and I
wanted the students to convince need to think of a factor of nine. I’ll
themselves that two only had two say three,” I said, as I added 3 to the
factors. “Take a minute and talk at list on the overhead. “Now you need
your tables,” I suggested. “See if you to find a factor of three.”

1
Adding seven to the prime numbers extends the game, which would otherwise end when the first
prime number occurred. It might be interesting to add a number other than seven to the primes and
see how that affects the outcome.
The Basics and More

50

“It’s prime,” announced Natalie 36

with authority. 6
“Are you sure about that?” I asked 2 prime
the rest of the class. 9
“Yes, it is,” agreed Jasper, “because 3 prime
three times one is three and that’s it.” 10
“If it’s prime, what happens?” I 5 prime
asked.
“Add seven,” José reminded us. “Okay,” I said to the class, “it’s
“So it’s ten.” your turn and since five is prime, what
I wrote prime next to the 3 and do you need to do?”
put a 10 below it. “Add seven,” Jasper replied.
“How many times can you use “Right,” I agreed, “so now it’s 12.”
plus seven?” Jessie asked. I wrote 12 on the overhead. “Hmm,” I
“There’s no limit,” I explained. said, “I need to find a factor of 12
“Anytime you’re playing and a prime that’s not already up here.” I paused for
number comes up, you just add seven a few seconds to give students a chance
to it. It’s my turn again and I need to to review the numbers and think about
put a factor of ten that’s not already factors of 12. I also wanted the
listed. I’ll say five.” students to see that math involves
“Oh no,” exclaimed Alejandro, taking time to think.
“another prime number for us.” “I know,” I brightened, “I’ll say
I raised my eyebrows in feigned four.” I wrote 4 on the overhead
surprise as I looked at the numbers on beneath the 12. “Now you need to find
the overhead. “Wow, it is a prime a factor of four that’s not already up
number.” I agreed. “You keep getting here. Talk at your tables for a minute
prime numbers on your turn. I wonder or two and see what you can come up
if that always happens in this game. with.”
Maybe there’s some kind of pattern.” “We’re stuck,” Ali soon
While I knew that this particular announced.
pattern didn’t always happen, I took the “What do you mean?” I asked.
opportunity to spark a little curiosity. I “Well,” Fred explained, “we’re not
hoped that in subsequent games allowed to use one. Four and two are
students would pay more attention to used already. There are no other
the occurrence of patterns in general as factors, so we can’t go.”
they played. Looking for patterns is a “Does everyone agree with Fred
powerful way to build number sense, and Ali?” I asked, looking around.
particularly when students have The nods and yeahs were
opportunities to think about the unanimous.
patterns and their relationships to “Then I guess the game is over,” I
numbers and operations. I referred to said. “This time I won, because I was
the string of numbers on the overhead, the last player to add a number to the
which now looked like this: list. You want to get your partner stuck
 One Time Only

51

so she or he is unable to add a number come up a lot on the multiplication

to the string. But winning isn’t really table. But there are other numbers
the important part of this game. You’re between 1 and 100 that you don’t use
going to play a bunch of times, and very much when you’re doing basic
sometimes you’ll win and sometimes multiplication facts, 47 for example. It
you’ll lose. The important part of the will be interesting to hear which
game is the mathematical thinking that numbers you ran into that were kind
you do.” of tricky and how you found factors
I played one more game with the for them.”
whole class. This second game went
more quickly, because I didn’t need to
stop to explain the rules and Observing the Students
vocabulary. After two games, I was
satisfied that the students understood As the students began to play, I visited
the rules and knew how to determine a the tables. Most of the children had
winner. The factor concept had been paired up and begun playing without
reinforced, the term multiple had been much prompting. There were a few
introduced in context, and the discussions about who got to go first
students knew how to identify prime and who had to keep score. These
numbers. issues were easily resolved by flipping a
“Raise your hand if you coin or playing rock/paper/scissors.
understand One Time Only and you’re Most of the students organized their
ready to play with your partner,” I recording sheets the way I had. Some,
instructed the class. The students were like Juan and Vivian, also kept track of
ready. “I want you to know the plan how many games each player won.
for the rest of this math class,” I told The two whole-class games we
them. “You definitely need to have played each had three prime numbers
some more time to play One Time in them, but Katrine and Shante
Only so you get familiar with it. Before excitedly reported they had just
the end of class we’re going to get back finished a game in which four prime
together and have a discussion about numbers appeared. I announced this
your experiences playing the game. I’m milestone to the class at large.
interested in hearing about any Conversations erupted throughout the
strategies you used to help you win the classroom about prime numbers and
game. We’ll also talk about any tricky how many times they had been
numbers that came up while you were encountered in different games.
playing.” Ana and Ronald were stuck on 97.
“What do you mean?” asked Ana got a calculator from the shelf.
Katrine. “Divide it by something,” Ronald told
“By tricky numbers I mean her.
numbers that aren’t so easy to find Ana punched in 97 divided by
factors for,” I elaborated. “Some three and got 32.33. “What does that
numbers are pretty easy because they mean?” she asked Ronald.
The Basics and More

52

“It’s not right—you can’t divide it start, do any of you have a question or
by three. There’s a decimal. That comment?” I began.
means it didn’t divide evenly.” Ronald Enrique had an interesting
explained. “Try seven.” scenario: “What if you start the game
Ana found that 97 divided by with 97?” (He had been sitting near
seven was 18.85. “Nope,” she told Ana and Ronald.) “That’s the highest
Ronald. The pair continued to guess prime number, but when you add
and check by dividing 97 by six and seven to it you go over 100, and you’re
four. “I think it’s prime,” was Ana’s only supposed to use numbers less
appraisal. than 100.”
“It is,” agreed Ronald. “Wow,” I replied, “I hadn’t
“Are you sure?” I asked. “What thought about that. I’d say it’s okay to
about dividing 97 by five? You didn’t use 97, because it’s less than 100. You
try that.” might need to write down a number
“Well,” Ana explained, “five will larger than 100 for one turn, but I
definitely have a decimal, because 97 don’t think it will last.” Then I decided
doesn’t end with zero or five. When to open the door for further
you count by fives the numbers always investigation. “I wonder if there are
end with zero or five.” any other high prime numbers that
Impromptu discussions like this could put you over 100 when you add
are an excellent opportunity to help seven?” I hoped that in future games
students build their number sense. some students might choose to pursue
Ronald and Ana were thinking about this question.
numbers, their relationships and “Let’s talk about your strategies,” I
patterns, and the implications of a suggested. “For example, when Elliot
decimal. As I continued to circulate, I was playing, he told me he thought it
tried to help the children focus on the was a good idea to start with an odd
numbers. number. This was his strategy to help
Fred and José were eager to start him win the game. Did anyone have
with a number greater than 100. I any other strategies that seemed
asked them to stick with numbers less useful?”
than 100 for the moment, but I Natalie’s hand shot up. “I
agreed that using larger numbers concentrated on six.”
would be an interesting investigation “What do you mean?” I asked.
for the future. “Well,” she explained, “I tried to
end with the number six. But first I
tried to get rid of all the factors of six,
A Class Discussion like three and two, so that way when I
wrote down six, I knew my partner
I called the class back together when couldn’t do anything. Also, if you get
there were about fifteen minutes left in rid of the factors of six, you’re also
the period. “I have some questions to getting rid of the factors of nine and
ask you about the game, but before I four.”
 One Time Only

53

“It worked,” said Natalie’s partner, “There’s one other thing I want to
Juanita. ask about,” I continued. “Did anyone
“What other strategies did you encounter a tricky number? What were
use?” I asked the class. some of the numbers that were hard to
“Try to end with an even number,” find factors for?” I gathered a bunch of
advised Jessie. responses quickly and wrote all the
“Start with an odd number,” numbers on the chalkboard under the
Katrine added. heading “Tricky Numbers.” The list
As the students shared their included 75, 26, 47, 89, 11, 68, 17,
strategies, I recorded each one on a 44, 59, 99, and 62.
projected transparency. Alejandro had
an idea to add to the list.
“My strategy was to get rid of
A Homework
three and then give my partner nine.” Assignment
Natalie had more to say. “This isn’t
a winning strategy,” she qualified as she I had tried to emphasize thinking
began, “it’s a winning pattern. In our throughout the activity. However,
games we had this pattern, two, nine, while I had focused on certain
three, ten, five, twelve, six.” questions during the session, I couldn’t
“Hey,” interjected José, “we had be sure how much the students were
the same pattern!” really thinking about the ideas I posed.
“We had almost the same pattern,” With thirty-two students in a class, it’s
Shante piped in. “But ours is two, difficult to get to everyone. Also, the
nine, three, ten, five, twelve, four.” whole-class discussion we had after the
“This is very interesting,” I students played allowed some but not
confirmed. “As you play more I all students to express their ideas.
wonder if you’ll find more patterns. Having each student write would give
I’m also wondering if seeing these me a window into their thinking.
patterns can help you predict who’s “I am really interested in knowing
going to win.” These were not more about your thinking,” I told the
questions that could be answered class. “Therefore, I have a homework
during the current whole-class assignment for you. There are just two
discussion, but I was confident they questions for you to answer, but you
would be explored more intently over need to try to explain your answers
time. The students needed more fully so I’ll understand how you
experience playing the game and thought about these questions. The
thinking about the implications of first question asks you to think about
these patterns—why they emerged, the number 68 and different ways you
and how they might be manipulated. can find the factors of 68. The other
Often a whole-class discussion is not a job is for you to teach One Time Only
neat and tidy wrap-up but rather an to someone at home and write about
occasion to raise questions that lead the strategies you used to try to win.”
into deeper mathematical territory. I chose the number 68 because I
The Basics and More

54

knew it had factors but it wasn’t a even number. Your turn, divide the
number that occurs in the context of number by half of the number. You will
typical multiplication tables. The get 2 on the board. The number is prime
students would need to think about again. The opponent will now have to
quantities and their relationships rather add 7. You will get 9 (7 + 2 = 9). Your
than just spit back some memorized turn again. Divide 9 by 3. You will get
numbers. 3. Another prime number. Again the
The students had many methods opponent will have to add 7. You get 10
for finding factors. Several of the (3 + 7 = 10). Divide it by 2 and you get
students outlined specific systematic 5. Once again a prime number. The
approaches to the task. Others opponent adds 7 (5 + 7 = 12). You get
described a trial-and-error process. 12. Now divide 12 by 2 and you get 6.
Rolanda’s response to the first question For once it is not a prime number for the
showed she was able to take 68 apart in opponent. The factors for this number
several helpful ways: that are allowed are 2 and 3. But wait a
minute. We already used 2, and 3. So the
1. If it is an even number then you person who started this game won.
would be able to split it in half. A few of the students’ writing was
2. You could times 4 by 10 and get vague. It was difficult to know whether
40. Then 4 times 5 is 20, so that’s their thinking was unclear or whether
60 and then we all already know it was the writing that was difficult. I’d
that 2 fours is 8, so that’s 68. need to get back to these students
3. Another easy way is to just divide individually.
68 by another number and if you get
a whole number then you have a
factor. 2, 4, 34, 17, 68. I know that CAREN ANSWERS
all these are the factors of 68 because YOUR QUESTIONS
I used my methods on all of the
numbers smaller than 34 because
What is the purpose of this
any number larger than 34 is not a
activity?
factor. They are not factors because
any number larger than 34 would One Time Only is a great opportunity
go over 68 if you times it by 2. for students to develop their number
sense. The game context engages them,
The descriptions of strategies were and the discussions they have with
enlightening as well. I was able to see their partner help them think about
the different ways students thought numbers. Their experiences during the
about the game and the different ways game become the basis for some
they expressed themselves in writing. substantial whole-class discussions
Shannon gave a detailed plan with an about important topics. Asking them
explanation for each step: If you go first to write about the game gives them an
pick a prime number. Then the opponent opportunity to clarify their thinking.
will have to add seven. It will become a As the students continue to play One
 One Time Only

55

Time Only, they build on their Brittany noticed that the factors of six
previous experiences and further are also factors of four and nine.
develop their number sense. Seeing these connections between
numbers helps build number sense.
Would you play this game with Also, as students examine their
third graders? records of the games they’ve played,
patterns emerge. These patterns are
I wouldn’t introduce this game to third
another opportunity to develop
graders at the beginning of the year. It’s
number sense. Teachers can ask their
important that they have a good
students to think about why certain
foundation in multiplication first. If
patterns recur, what causes these
the students are unfamiliar with the
numbers to arise in a specific order,
concept of multiplication and the
and how the patterns can help predict
relationship of factors to products,
the outcome of a game. The game
then One Time Only could be
provides many occasions for writing,
frustrating or turn into a guessing
as well.
game.
However, once third graders have a
solid grasp of multiplication, One Amanda and Ronald used a
Time Only is an excellent way for calculator. Is this appropriate?
them to reinforce the basic facts while
Amanda and Ronald were trying to
exploring ways to think about factors
find factors of 97. When their
of different numbers. With third
knowledge of basic multiplication facts
graders I’d spend extra time talking
failed them, they used a calculator. I
about ways to find factors before I sent
felt fine about it. A calculator is a tool
them off to play on their own. That
to be used in service of a problem.
way they’d have some tools available if
Amanda and Ronald had a problem
they got stuck.
and knew that dividing 97 by different
numbers would tell them something
What do students get from this
about its factors. When Amanda and
game if they already know their
Ronald couldn’t think of any factors
multiplication facts?
for 97, I could have jumped in and
In addition to practicing multi- told them that 97 was prime. Instead,
plication facts, students who play One I gave them the freedom to delve
Time Only are exploring the number further. It turned out to be a double
system. As students play the game, learning opportunity. In addition to
they begin to develop strategies. In convincing themselves that 97 was
order to devise a winning strategy prime, they also confronted decimals
students must consider the rela- and had to make sense of their
tionships of numbers. For example, meaning.
 G

5 Tell Me All You Can

Overview
Computing mentally, making estimates, and exploring relationships among
numbers all help students develop number sense. In this activity, students tell all
they can about the answers to a series of arithmetic problems. While they may know
the exact answer to a problem, the activity requires them to think about ways to
describe the answer using concepts such as close to, between, greater than, and less
than.

Teaching Directions

1. Write an arithmetic problem on the chalkboard using a horizontal format (for

example: 30 × 11).
2. After giving students time to think about the problem, ask them what they can
say about the answer without actually revealing the answer (regarding 30 × 11,
for example: “I think the answer will be more than 300 because 30 times ten is
300”).
3. After eliciting as many responses as possible, repeat steps 1 and 2 with another
arithmetic problem.

57
The Basics and More

58

IN THE CLASSROOM about the answer to a problem,

WITH RUSTY because it gives us a sense of how big
or how small the exact answer is going
to be, and it also helps us focus on
Introducing the Activity what the numbers mean. Does anyone
to Fifth Graders have something else to say about the
answer to 12 times seven?”
I began the activity in Sally Haggerty’s “I think it’s going to be more than
fifth-grade classroom by writing 12 × 7 12 times six, because that’s six 12s and
horizontally on the chalkboard, since 12 times seven is seven 12s,” said
the vertical format often triggers the Miriam.
algorithm of starting from the right At this point, I wrote the following
and “carrying.” I wanted students to prompts on the chalkboard and told
look at the numbers as a whole and to the students that they could use them
think about the largest parts of the to talk about the answers to the
numbers first. problems I was about to give them:
“Without figuring the exact
answer, what are some things you • The answer is going to be
know about the answer?” I asked the around/about _____ because
class. I waited while the students __________.
thought about my question, then I • The answer is going to be close to
called on Damarie. _____ because __________.
“I think the answer is going to be • The answer is going to be between
less than 120, because 12 times ten is _____ and _____ because
120,” she said. __________.
“I think the answer is going to be • The answer is going to be greater
greater than 60 because I know that 12 than _____ because __________.
times five is 60,” said Jimmy. • The answer is going to be less than
Jay interjected, “You mean we _____ because __________.
don’t have to figure the exact answer?”
“That’s right,” I replied. “I want Then I wrote another problem on
you to look at the problem and think the chalkboard: 30 × 11. “What can
about the numbers, then tell me you say about the answer?” I asked the
something about the answer.” class. Soon, several hands popped up. I
“What if we can find out the waited a few more seconds, and more
answer in our head right away?” Carole hands raised. I called on Kathy.
asked. “I think it will be more than 300,
“That’s okay,” I said. “If you know ’cause 30 times ten is 300,” she said.
the answer, try to talk about it without Students who use their number sense
saying the answer. It’s important to will often look at a problem holistically
think about a problem and its answer before confronting details. Instead of
in lots of different ways. It helps our focusing on individual digits, Kathy
math thinking if we make estimates first thought about 30, then she
 Tell Me All You Can

59

multiplied 30 by ten, which is close to seemed to invite a great deal of

but less than 11, yielding a pretty good participation, perhaps because it
approximation of the answer. involved a familiar number like 25.
“What else can you say about the “It’s going to be more than 170,
answer to 30 times 11?” I continued. because 25 times four is 100, and if
“It’s going to be more than 320,” you add another two 25s it’s 150, and
said Tom. you still have to add another 25,”
“Why do you think that?” I asked. Courtney explained.
“I don’t know,” he replied. The students didn’t seem to mind
“I want you to try to give a reason that we never said what the answers to
for your estimates,” I told the class. the problems were. Although finding
“That way, your classmates will benefit exact answers is important in math
from listening to your thinking, and class, it isn’t the point of this activity. I
your teacher and I will learn more wanted students to begin to feel
about how you reason with numbers. comfortable taking risks and making
What else can you say about 30 times estimates based on mathematical
11?” reasoning. Being able to discuss a
“It’s going to be less than 400, problem without having to come up
because I know that 30 times ten is with an exact answer often reduces
300 and there’s only one more 30, students’ anxiety about math. (This is
which is less than 100,” Chrissy true for adults as well.)
reasoned. When everyone who wished to
“Other ideas?” I asked. No one had contributed, I wrote the next
raised a hand. My plan was to pose a equation on the chalkboard: 75 × 12.
variety of problems, some easy, some This problem drew some oohs and
more difficult, because I wanted ahs. It was more difficult than the
everyone to have access to the previous problems I’d posed. When no
conversation. I wrote another problem one raised a hand after a while, I asked
on the chalkboard: 25 × 7. As soon as I a question that I hoped would
did, lots of hands waved in the air. stimulate their thinking: “Will the
“It’s going to be greater than 100, answer be more or less than 100?” This
because 25 times four is 100,” said seemed obvious, but I wanted to start
Carole. at a safe place so students would feel
“I think it’ll be more than 150, comfortable participating.
because six quarters are $1.50,” Miguel “It’s going to be a lot bigger than
added. 100!” exclaimed Chrissy. “Seventy-five
“It will be less than 200, because times two is more than 100, and the
eight times 25 is 200,” said José. “I problem is 75 times 12!”
know that because four 25s are 100, “I want you to talk with someone
and double that and it’s 200.” next to you about what you think
More hands wiggled in the air. about the answer to 75 times 12,” I
Although I could have used any told them. In a moment, I called the
problem for this activity, 25 × 7 students back to attention.
The Basics and More

60

“I think it’s going to be a lot bigger “How do you know that one third
than 150, because 75 times two is 150, is bigger than one fourth?” I asked.
and you have to go ten times bigger “Because if you had one pizza
than that,” Miguel reasoned. and it had three equal parts, each
“It’ll be bigger than 750, ’cause 75 piece is bigger than if you had a pizza
times ten is 750, and it’s 75 times 12, with four equal parts,” said Courtney.
not 75 times ten,” added Courtney. “If there were four pieces of pizza,
“It’s easy,” said Dave. “You just do then one person would get a smaller
what Courtney said, 75 times ten, and piece than if the pizza was cut in
you get 750, then you do two more thirds.” Courtney had a picture of
75s and add that to 750. It’ll be fractions as portions of a pizza that
between 800 and 900.” helped her reason through the
“It’ll be more than 825, because 75 problem using her number sense. In
times ten is 750, and 75 times 11 is contrast, a student for whom
750 plus 75, which is 825,” explained fractions have no meaning often sees
Carolee. two digits separated by a horizontal
When we finished discussing 75 × bar and is likely to make the classic
12, I posed a problem that included mistake of adding the numerator and
fractions, even though I knew Sally denominator: 1/2 + 1/3 = 2/5.
hadn’t yet begun a unit on fractions “Would someone like to come up
this year. I wasn’t sure what kinds of and draw a picture of the two pizzas
responses I’d get from students, but that Courtney is talking about?” I
listening to their responses would let asked the class. It was hard to choose
Sally and me assess what students among so many enthusiastic hand
knew about fractions. I wrote 1/2 + 1/3 wavers, so I quickly called on Miguel.
on the chalkboard. After a brief I wanted to give him another op-
amount of think time, I called on portunity to be involved. He walked to
Miguel. the front of the room, drew two pizzas
“I think it’s going to be around the same size, and divided them: one
one fourth because . . .” Miguel into three equal parts, the other into
hesitated, then continued. “Because four equal parts. “Does this help
one half plus one third is . . . I can’t support Courtney’s thinking that one
explain it, but I know that it’s going to third is bigger than one fourth?” I
be about one fourth.” asked.
I didn’t push Miguel to try to All heads except Chrissy’s nodded.
explain at this point. I wanted to give “I agree, except what if one of the
him a chance to listen to other ideas, pizzas was a large and the other one
so I called on Courtney. was a medium?” Chrissy asked. “If the
“It’s going to be bigger than three large was cut into fourths and the
fourths, because a half is two fourths, medium was cut into thirds, I think
and a third is bigger than a fourth,” one fourth could be bigger than one
Courtney explained. “And two fourths third.”
plus one fourth is three fourths.” “So it depends on whether the
 Tell Me All You Can

61

wholes are the same size,” I clarified. can often eliminate unreasonable
“If the two pizzas are the same size, is answers.
Courtney correct in saying that one I continued the activity, posing
third is larger than one fourth?” another fraction problem: 7/8 + 8/9.
“Uh-huh,” Chrissy replied. Before eliciting responses from the
“What else can you say about the students, I asked them to talk with one
answer?” I asked the class. This time, another about the problem first.
no one raised a hand. “Do you think
the answer will be less than or greater
than one whole?” I prompted. “Talk Observing the Students
with someone next to you and tell her
or him what you think and why, then As I walked around the room, listening
listen to that person’s explanation.” In to their conversations, I noticed that
a moment, I called them back to some students had no idea what to say
attention. about the answer, while others were
“I think the answer’s going to be immediately engaged. Alberto, who
less than one, because one half plus was sitting next to Joseph, was having
one half is a whole, and one half is difficulty thinking about the fractions
bigger than one third,” said Dave. “So and what they meant.
one half plus one third would have to “What can you say about the
be smaller than one.” answer?” I asked Alberto.
“I agree with Dave,” said Damarie. “I don’t know,” he answered,
“Does anyone have a different giggling nervously.
idea?” I probed. “Let’s take a look at one of the
“I think the answer will be fractions,” I suggested. “Is seven
between three fourths and one whole, eighths closer to zero, one half, or a
because if it was one half plus one whole?” My question was intended to
fourth it would be three fourths,” provide Alberto with a way of thinking
explained Miriam. “But since one third about the fractions.
is bigger than one fourth, the answer’s “A half?” Alberto responded,
going to be bigger than three fourths unsure and looking confused. His
but less than one because of what Dave answer sounded like a guess.
said.” Joseph jumped in. “I think it’s
This conversation yielded the kind close to a whole,” he said.
of reasoning that’s beneficial to “Why’s that?” I asked.
students when taking standardized “Because it’s like if you had a pizza
tests. On multiple-choice test items, with eight pieces and you ate seven out
students usually have three or four of eight, it’s almost the whole thing,”
answers from which to choose. Joseph explained. Pizzas seemed to be
Generally, a few of those answers are a popular model for thinking about
unreasonable. When students use their fractions.
number sense to reason through a I turned to Alberto, who was still
problem and make an estimate, they wearing a confused look. “Alberto,
The Basics and More

62

draw a pizza with eight slices and make “Other ideas?” I asked.
each slice the same size, okay?” I said. “The answer’s going to be a mixed
He nodded, and drew the pizza. “Now number,” Brittany stated with
shade in seven pieces, like you’re eating confidence. “Like Marcellus said, the
those seven pieces of pizza,” I directed. answer’s going to be about two. I think
After Alberto had shaded in the pieces, a little less than two, because each
I asked him if the pieces he’d shaded fraction is a little less than one. So the
were closer to one half of the pizza or answer’s going to be one whole and a
closer to the whole pizza. His face lit fraction.”
up. I could see that he was beginning I liked this problem because it
to make sense of the problem. required students to think about the
As I made my way around the quantities involved rather than focus
room, I thought about students, like on the standard algorithm used to add
Alberto, who needed support in order fractions with unlike denominators.
to think about the problem. To Finding an approximate answer is an
develop an understanding about important exercise that helps students
fractions, these students would need to develop their number sense.
have experience with many different The final problem I posed to
kinds of concrete models—not only Sally’s fifth graders involved division:
pizzas! Understanding what fractions 450 ÷ 75. Again, I had them talk with
are is important, especially if students a partner about the answer before we
are asked to add, subtract, multiply, or discussed our ideas as a class.
divide them. After about a minute or so, I asked
the students what they could say about
the answer. The room was quiet, with
Continuing the Activity no hands raised. To stimulate the
students’ thinking, I asked a question I’d
After a few minutes, I called the class thought about beforehand. Preparation
back together and asked what they like this is important before teaching an
could say about the answer. activity like Tell Me All You Can.
“Well, it’s going to be bigger than “Thumbs up if you think the
a whole because seven eighths is bigger answer will be more than ten and
than a half,” said Tamim. “Four thumbs down if you think the answer
eighths is the same thing as a half, and will be less than ten,” I instructed.
seven eighths is almost twice as big. Most thumbs were pointing down.
Then you’ve got the other eight ninths “Can you explain your reasoning?”
to add to that.” “Because 75 times ten is 750, and
“I rounded seven eighths off to that’s too big,” said Brittany.
eight eighths, which is the same as one “Seventy-five times two is 150,
whole,” Marcellus offered. “Then I then I doubled that, so 75 times four is
rounded eight ninths to nine ninths, 300, then 75 times eight is double
which is another whole. So that’s 300, which is 600, and that’s too big,”
almost two wholes right there.” explained Andy. “So if 75 times eight is
 Tell Me All You Can

63

bigger than 450, then the answer has Since mistakes are opportunities
to be less than ten.” for learning, I probed his thinking.
“Will the answer be more or less “How did you figure?”
than five?” I asked. Miguel stared at the problem on
“It’s gonna be between five and the board, then his face lit up. “Oh!”
ten,” Franco said. “ We know it’s less he exclaimed. “I need to do take-
than ten, and it’s gonna be more than away.”
five, because if 75 times ten is 750, “So it’s important to look at the
then half of that is 75 times five, and operation sign to see if you have to
that’s 375,” he reasoned. add, subtract, multiply, or divide,” I
“I think it’s closer to six or seven, said to the class. “The signs tell us
because of what Franco just said,” what to do with the numbers.” I
added Ahmad. quickly moved on to another student,
Afterward, Sally commented that satisfied that this important point had
she could easily use Tell Me All You been made.
Can as a math class opener. We both “It’s going to be around eight
agreed that with practice her students dollars, because $1.99 is only a penny
would get better at finding different less than two dollars, and ten minus
ways to approximate answers to two is eight,” Andy explained.
arithmetic problems. “That’s what I was gonna say,”
Jessica agreed.
These responses impressed me;
Introducing the Activity the students were using their
to Third Graders knowledge about operations and
working with friendly numbers. Had
Just as I’d done in Sally’s classroom, I they figured the answer to $10.00 –
wrote problems on the chalkboard $1.99 using the standard algorithm
horizontally for Maryann Wickett’s for subtraction, they’d be doing lots of
third graders to think about. The first “borrowing,” most likely with little
one was: $10.00 – $1.99. “What can concern for comparing the quantities
you say about the answer to this involved.
problem?” I asked. The students were “Okay, I have another problem for
huddled close to me on the rug in the you to think about,” I said. I wrote it
front of the classroom. on the chalkboard: 45 + 45 + 45.
“The answer’s gonna be less than “It’s gonna be between 100 and
ten dollars, ’cause you take money 150,” said Jesycha. “I guesstimated!”
away from ten dollars,” said Tiffany. “What made you think of
“It’s gonna be twelve dollars!” numbers between 100 and 150?” I
Miguel blurted out. His answer asked.
triggered several disconcerted looks. It’s “Because 45 plus 45 is 90, and
not uncommon for students to there’s another 45, so the answer’s
disregard an operation sign as Miguel gonna be somewhere in between 100
had done. and 150,” she explained.
TIJI' Bmics alld Mo"

64

I'm thinking of it like 45 tim es RUSTY ANSWERS

rhree, bemuse 45 tim rhree i the YOUR QUESTIONS
'am a 45 plu 45 plu 45," aid
Manuel.
, I think you hould tllrn each 45 What is the purpose of this
IlCtivity?
into 50, becall e it' e i r, ' added
Tammy. Fifty plus 50 plus 50 is 150,
I 'Jell 1e All You an an bud in
o I think the an wer' goi ng to be alrno t any grade level to give studen
around 150." practice with arithmetic while building
"Any other ideas?" I asked. their number en . In an a tiviry lik
I The an ver's going to end in a 5, chis, cudent h. ve opportunities to
cau e fi ve plu five plus five i 15,' thin k about reasonableness, place
aid Elba. value and number meaning. heyal 0
When no one cIs had an idea, I b n fit fr m th chan eta qllire new
posed my fi nal problem: 49 - 25. omputarion and e rimarion craregi .
I The an ver's going (0 be aro und
25 " Elba said. "I changcd the 49 into Why is alZ activity like this better
a 50, and I know that 50 minus 25 is thml p1'ocedural driDs?
lik 25 enr.'
Children benefit nom freq uent
"It' gonoa be under 50, bccau e
practice olvi ng arithmetic problem,
49 is close to 50 and you take away
but the pracrice rhey get in th i activity
25 " added Andy.
asks them to th ink about the numbers
I I hanoed rhe 49 inro 45, , (h
involved and what happen to these
reported. "Then I did 45 minll 25, 0
numbers when they are added,
the an wer' gonna be around 20,
ubtracred, mui iplied, and divid d.
b u e 25 pili ten i .:>5, pll ten
Rather than learni ng a certain
mOre i 45.
procedure and practicing it over and
The an ver will be the ame as 12
over, cud nr are en ollraged ro dunk
rim twO, ' reported an, whod
abo ut the reasonablen .. of their
olved eh problem in hi head and
e timates and explain their reasoning.
rhen found another way to e."press it.
Thi kind f pm ri e bllil a wdenr
\\7hen the activity was over, r
number en c.
ommenced co Maryanll char her
students seemed comfortable with it.
How clm I m.ake sure tllis activity
I That' becau e theyve had lots of
,vill be effective?
practice thinking about number in
different way " he rem inded mc. It's important to pose a va riety of
Maryann and I agreed that third problem ome ea y, ome more
grader are ju t begi nning ro use hall nging. Th' allow mor {Uden
omputational timation and that co have ace' . to the thinking chat'
learn ing to approxi mate answers to requ ired. tudenr al 0 need time to
arithmetic problem takes time and think about the problem and talk
xp rien e. with one anocher in order ro larify
 HI! M~ All You Call

65

rheir ideas and get more than one that many of her ru de nr. used piz7.a a.
pe peceive. ruden alway need to their only model when dlinkillg aboll£
explain (heir re, oning, 0 char ocher fractions. he realized he would need
can benefit from thei r th inking. to offer them a variety of models to
inally a the teacher, you need to help them con truer their under-
think about the problem b forehand tanding.
and develop pos ible questions that Knowing what experience and
will timu late students thinki ng. understanding students bring to a
topic ill math i important, because
Howell" I use this activity for
when we learn something new we
IIssessme1U pmposesr
build on what we already know.
his activity gave ally Haggerty an ometime what we know makes
idea of the range of under tanding her mathematical sen e and ometim ' it
fifth graders had about fractions. This doesn't. An activity like Tell Me All
Wa! valuable to her, since she hadn't yet You Can can alert you to students'
begun reaching her rodents abour mi under randings Or lack of
fraction '. One thing he learned was experience.
 G

6 Trail Mix for

a Crowd

Overview
Students benefit from experiences that help them connect abstract ideas about
fractions to real-world contexts. In this activity, students are given a recipe for trail
mix that serves six people. The measurements include fractions, and the students’
task is to convert the recipe so that there is enough trail mix to serve everyone in the
class.

Materials Needed
Copies of a recipe for trail mix (one per student).
An overhead transparency of the recipe (optional).
Calculators (one per student or table).

Teaching Directions

1. Distribute a copy of the recipe to each student and, if you like, display a
transparency of the recipe on an overhead projector.
2. Review the recipe with the students, clarifying the ingredients and any
measurement abbreviations.
3. Have the students determine the number of people in the class.
4. Choose one ingredient for the whole class to convert into the larger amount
required for the recipe to serve everyone in the class. Have students work in
groups to determine how much of this ingredient would be required.
5. As a class, discuss different approaches. 67
The Basics and More

68

6. Have students convert the rest of the ingredients and rewrite the recipe so that it
serves the number of people in the class.
7. Discuss estimation and accuracy with the students.

Extension
Discuss situations in which accuracy is necessary and situations in which estimation
is appropriate or even preferable.

Blackline Master

Trail Mix
Trail mix is a healthy snack food. It got
its name from hikers and backpackers
who ate it on their journeys.
You will need:
1
/2 cup raisins
3
/4 cup peanuts
2
/3 cup granola
1
/2 cup dried fruit
2 tablespoons sunflower seeds
1
/4 cup M&Ms
Combine ingredients in bowl. Mix well.
Scoop into baggies for a snack on the
go.
Serves 6
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

69

IN THE CLASSROOM (see the blackline master on the

WITH CAREN previous page) on the overhead and
had Annabel read it aloud. When she
had finished, I pointed to the last line.
Introducing the Activity “It says, serves six. What does that
mean?”
I wanted to present Kathleen Chip jumped in. “It serves six
Gallagher’s thirty-two fifth graders people. If you make that recipe it’s
with an opportunity to grapple with enough for six people to eat.”
fractions in a meaningful context. My “Well,” I responded, “what if we
goal was to give them a problem in want to make enough trail mix for the
which fractions were integral. I wanted whole class? How many people would
the task to be understandable, but I we need to serve?” There was some
didn’t want the computational disagreement here. First I needed to
approach(es) to be obvious. What clarify that we would include children
would so intrigue eleven-year-olds that who were absent. Then we needed to
they would gladly jump into a sea of decide whether to include their teacher
fractions? Food! I decided to ask the and their student teacher. That
students to modify a recipe that serves narrowed it down to 32, 33, or 34
six so that it could serve the entire class. people. This debate was quite useful,
“I brought in a recipe today,” I because it gave me several numbers
told them. “It’s a recipe for trail mix. from which to choose.
Do you know what trail mix is?” I was I decided to go with 33 because
surprised when only a few students “it’s in the middle.” My real reason was
nodded. Kenneth raised his hand but to learn how the students would deal
retracted it as soon as he and I made with this “messy” number. How far
eye contact. could I push their computation and
Enrique spoke up. “It has nuts and problem solving? They’d need to do
berries.” some serious work to change a recipe
“And raisins and little chocolate from six servings to 33 servings. Or
pieces,” added Ramon. would some of the students convert
Neal chimed in, “I think it has the recipe to 36 servings and leave it at
brown sugar.” that? In the real world, this would be
“Okay,” I said, “you know some of appropriate. If there is enough trail
the ingredients. Can anyone guess why mix for 36 people, there certainly is
it’s called trail mix?” enough for 33 people, with just a little
“You don’t have to sit down to eat left over. Would the students simplify
it,” Jenny volunteered. the problem this way? I suspected that
“Right,” I agreed, “it’s a snack that some would be quite satisfied with 36
hikers and backpackers take with them servings while others would want to be
on trips because it’s easy to eat and more precise.
healthy.” Not sure how difficult the task
I put a transparency of the recipe would be, and curious to see what
The Basics and More

70

approaches the students would use, I Sometimes the biggest challenge is

decided to have everyone work on one getting a student to articulate the task.
ingredient before we tackled the entire I try to direct students to the task at
recipe. I pointed to the recipe projected hand through a series of questions,
on the overhead and indicated the half beginning with general ones I’m pretty
cup of raisins. “Okay,” I said, “a half sure they’ll be able to answer. (I learned
cup of raisins is what we need to serve How’s it going? from reading about
six people. So we need to figure out Nancie Atwell’s writers workshop. It’s a
how many cups of raisins we’ll need to nonthreatening, open-ended question
serve 33. Everyone will need a piece of that allows students to share what’s on
paper and pencil to work on this their mind without worrying that
problem. It might be very helpful to you’re looking for something in
talk with the other people at your table particular.) Then I use these answers to
as you think about this problem and ask more specific questions. It takes
work on it, but you each need to end more time than if I simply repeated the
up with a paper that shows your own problem or told them to get to work,
thinking and work. I’ll let you work on but in order for children to develop
this for a while, and then we’ll get back their number sense, they need to
together and some of you will come to construct their own understanding of
the overhead to show how you thought the problem. Then they need to make
about it. Make sure your papers have mathematical decisions based on this
the information you’d need to explain understanding.
your thinking and how you got your Many of the students in the class
answer.” grasped the problem as I was leading
I removed the recipe from the the whole-class discussion and
overhead and wrote on a clean explaining the assignment. The
transparency, One-half cup raisins serves problem meant something to them by
6 people. How many cups will you need the time we’d finished the introductory
to serve 33 people? “This is the problem part of the activity. But, inevitably,
you’ll be working on at your tables. Are there are students who get lost
there any questions?” somewhere along the way. Today a few
students were meticulously copying the
question from the overhead. I needed
Observing the Students to spend some time prompting these
procrastinators. Ralph was one of
The students set to work. As I them. “So, how’s it going?” I asked
circulated, I noticed immediately that him.
there was a range of comfort with the “Good,” he answered.
problem. Some students jumped right “What are you working on?” I
into the computation and were asked.
organizing their work in columns or “We have to do the problem,” he
rows. Other students were slower to answered dutifully.
engage. “What is the problem?” I asked.
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

71

FIGURE 6.1
Howard’s work on the raisins.
The Basics and More

72

“Uh, it’s a recipe.” servings. Very few of them were

“Yes,” I responded, “and what are comfortable giving an “about” answer.
you supposed to do with the recipe?” Most of them did some sort of
“We have to do the raisins,” Ralph repeated addition or skip counting
continued. until they arrived at 30 or 36 servings.
I pointed to the question he had From there they struggled to split a
written on his paper. “Oh, so the serving of six in half and then add it to
recipe says a half cup of raisins serves 30 or subtract it from 36. Had the
six people. So, what are you supposed students lost track of the context while
to do?” working with the numbers? After all,
Ralph seemed to brighten. “We we were talking about trail mix. Would
have to do the raisins for the whole anyone suffer if 33 people had to share
class.” a quantity sufficient for 30 people?
“How do you think you can find Would there be a lot of waste if we
that out?” I asked him. made 36 servings for 33 people? At
Ralph gave that some thought and some point in the activity I would
began to write on his paper: need to help them realize that in this
context 30 servings or 36 servings
1
/2 = 6 would be close enough. At the
1 = 12 moment, however, I was very
11/2 = 18 interested in how the class dealt with
the fractions and the fractions of
“I can do this and keep going until I fractions, so I let them work without
get to 33,” he told me. questioning their excessive precision.
“Great,” I responded. I wondered
what would happen when he realized
he wouldn’t get to 33 exactly. I decided A Class Discussion
not to confuse him by bringing it up.
He understood the problem and was After the students had been working
getting into the math, so I moved on. I for about twenty minutes, I called
let him continue working, making a them back together as a class. Some
mental note to see how he and other were still working on ways to organize
students using the same strategy dealt their work. Others had found out the
with the 33. quantity of raisins needed for exactly
Continuing to circulate, I was 33 people and had begun to work on
amazed at the different approaches converting some of the other
students took to the problem. Many ingredients in the recipe. I was pleased
students used more than one approach. the problem had enough richness to
Howard’s paper included words, keep all students engaged at some level.
pictures, fractions, skip counting, and It was an appropriate time to ask a few
percents (see figure 6.1)! students to share their work. It could
I was surprised that most of the suggest some alternative approaches to
students dealt precisely with 33 those who were still struggling, and
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

73

those who where working on the rest people, and I kept going until I got to
of the recipe would be introduced to 30.”
other strategies and stretch their “Can you tell us about the 25 you
thinking. wrote at the bottom?” I asked.
“Who would like to come to the “Well,” she responded, “I got to
overhead and show the class how you 30, but then if I added another one
approached this problem?” I asked. To half, that would get me to 36, and I
emphasize the communication aspect only want to get to 33. So I knew one
of this report, I added, “If you’re raising half of one half is one fourth, and one
your hand, it means you’re willing to fourth is 25 percent.”
come to the overhead and show us your I was impressed and confused. I
thinking. You’ll need to do it two ways. agreed with Francine’s computation,
One way is to write on the overhead to but I didn’t see where it got her in
give us an idea of what you did on your terms of solving the problem. “So how
paper to help you solve the problem. does the 25 percent help you with the
The other part of the job is to talk to us recipe?” I asked.
about what you’re writing on the Francine was honest. “I don’t know.
overhead so we’ll understand where I got kind of confused after this part.”
your numbers and ideas came from. It’s “This is a tough problem,” I agreed.
kind of tricky to write and talk at the I didn’t want to continue publicly
same time, but it will really help us questioning Francine about an idea that
understand your thinking. Does was still rather fragile. She had a partial
anyone want to give it a try?” understanding of the connection
There were quite a few eager between fractions and percents, she had
volunteers. I called on Francine, taken a risk and talked to her peers
writing her name at the top of a clean about her thinking, and I wanted her to
transparency. She took her paper from remember it as a positive experience, not
her desk, went to the overhead, picked a time when she was put on the spot in
up a pen, and went to work. front of the whole class. If I wanted to
“Okay,” she told us, “ a half cup pursue the topic, a private discussion
serves six people.” She wrote on the would be more appropriate.
overhead: 1/2 serves 6. “So one half plus Ramon came to the overhead next.
one half equals one whole, and that Before he began speaking, he wrote:
serves 12.” Francine glanced at her
paper and wrote:
1
/2 = 6 12 18 24 30 36
1 1 1 1 1
/2 + /2 + 1 whole + /2 + /2 + /2
1 1 1
6 + 6 = 12 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 30
25 = 1/4 2 1

“See,” she explained, “I just kept 3

adding a half, and that’s six more 1
/2 Each
The Basics and More

74

“I counted by sixes, and each six is one- “I just kept adding the halves on this
half cup,” Ramon explained. “So then I side, and I added the sixes on the other
drew lines to add the half cups together side. Then I saw that two and a half
and make wholes. Then I added the cups serves 30 people. I wanted to get
wholes together, and it takes three cups.” to 33, though. So I needed one half of
Ramon was satisfied with a one half.” He wrote on the overhead:
converting the recipe to 36 servings.
1
Did he know that 36 was close enough /2 divided by 1/2 = 1/4
in the context of the problem, or had 1
/2 + 1/4 = 3/4
he been unsure how to deal with 33? I 2 3/4
decided to ask. “So, Ramon, you
figured out how to make enough trail Howard seemed quite com-
mix for 36 people.” fortable with the fractions. He had
“Yep,” he responded. mentally taken one half of one half.
“I though we were trying to serve He’d also added one fourth to one
33 people,” I replied. half with ease. This told me he had
“Well,” Ramon explained, “36 is a level of fraction sense and was
really close to 33. If there’s extra we comfortable using “friendly” fractions.
can give some to our student teacher.” The only issue was his use of the term
Ramon had indeed used his number divided when describing how he
sense to realize that 36 was close found one half of one half. The class
enough to 33. “Uh-uh,” interjected hadn’t yet worked on multiplying or
Shannon, “we already counted our dividing fractions, so I wasn’t
student teacher in the 33.” concerned about his semantics. He
“No we didn’t,” Kate disagreed. had split a number (1/2) into two
Since we seemed on the verge of smaller, equal numbers (1/4 and 1/4),
rehashing the original discussion of and that matched his ideas about
how many people were in the class, I division more than multiplication.
cut the discussion short. “Whether or “I’m very impressed with the work
not you counted your student teacher, you’ve done so far,” I told the class.
there would be enough trail mix if you “The next job will be finding out how
made the recipe for 36, right?” I asked much of the other ingredients we’ll
the class. It was hard to argue with need for this recipe.”
that, and we were ready to move on. “I already know some of them!”
Howard was the final volunteer exclaimed Enrique.
before recess. “I wrote it down this “Can we work on it for
way,” he showed the class: homework?” asked Latisha.
Pleased with their enthusiasm, I
1
/2 = 6 servings decided to let them try to convert
1 = 12 some of the other ingredients as a
11/2 = 18 homework assignment. I knew they
2 = 24 would experience varying degrees of
21/2 = 30 success, but I felt it would be beneficial
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

75

for the students to “mess around” with work at your tables on the rest of these
some other fractions independently. I ingredients. Before you get to work,
would use another whole-class though, I want to show you some of
period to discuss their work and the ways different people worked on
come to a consensus on the rest of this problem. It might be interesting
the recipe. and helpful for you to see some
different strategies and tools people
used. This is not an easy problem at
A Later Class Discussion all. You have to work with different
fractions and think about ways to
“I looked at your homework and the increase them so you’ll have enough
papers you did in class with me the last for 33 people. You have to keep track
time I was here,” I told the class a few of a lot of numbers and stay organized
days later. The night before I had gone as you work. There’s a lot of math
through their papers (class work and here. So, before you get back to work,
homework) and categorized the I’m going to show you some
different strategies students had used. approaches your classmates used.
I’d given the approaches names so we Maybe after you see some of these
could refer to them in today’s ideas, you’ll have new ways to think
discussion. “I saw a lot of math- about the problem. They may help
ematical thinking. I also noticed that you work on some of the fractions that
some of the fractions seemed kind of were especially tricky.”
challenging to work with. Did anyone I began with the most common
find a fraction that was challenging for approach. “I saw skip counting on
you?” quite a few papers,” I told the class.
Several hands went up. I called on On a projected transparency I wrote:
Traci.
1
“I was trying to do the three- Skip Counting /2 1 11/2 2 21/2 3 . . .
fourths cup of peanuts, and it was
really hard. My brother couldn’t even “Some of you skip counted by
do it.” (Traci’s brother is in middle fractions,” I reported. “I also saw a lot
school.) of skip counting by sixes.” I added this
“Yes,” I agreed, “I noticed that was approach to the overhead:
a tough one for a lot of people. Were
there any other fractions that were Skip Counting 6 12 18 24 . . .
especially challenging?”
Chip jumped in. “Me and my “Why would it be helpful to skip
mom tried to do the two-thirds cup of count by six?” I asked. I wanted to be
granola. It was hard, but we finally got sure the students were connecting the
it. Do you want me to tell you the numbers I was writing to the problem.
answer?” Emphasizing the relationship between
“Not yet,” I responded. “We’re the numbers and the problem gives the
going to take some time for you to numbers meaning. The more meaning
The Basics and More

76

the numbers have, the more op- don’t need to work on that one. That
portunities students have to deepen leaves us with four more ingredients
number sense. to determine amounts for. Since there
“Because that’s how many people,” are eight tables of students, I’m
answered Enrique. going to assign each of the remaining
“Six people?” I asked. ingredients to two tables. That way
“Yes,” Jenny replied, “six people we can check to see whether the two
for each serving. The recipe serves six tables agree on the answers.” I
so you need to go by sixes when you assigned each table an ingredient,
make more.” writing the ingredients and the table
“Okay,” I said. “Another strategy I numbers on the board so we’d
saw on some papers was a table.” I remember who was working on
wrote: what.
I wanted to refocus on the context
Amount # of People of the problem before I sent them off
1
/2 6 to do their work. “So,” I asked, “who
1 12 can remind us what we’re trying to do
11/2 18 here?” There were several volunteers. I
called on Jon.
I also showed examples of a picture “We have to work with our groups
strategy and a branching strategy. to find out how much of our ingre-
“Take a few minutes at your tables dient we need,” he said.
now,” I instructed the class. “Talk to “And how many people do we
your group members about these need to serve?” I asked innocently.
different strategies. Tell which “Thirty-one.”
strategies you used and which new ”No. Thirty-two.”
ones you might want to try when you “No. It was 33.”
start working.” “Marco and Annabel are absent.”
I allowed the groups several “Julio was absent last time.”
minutes to discuss their previous work “We forgot to count our student
and the approaches they had used. I teacher.”
wanted to reinforce two important Clearly the problem had a real-
ideas: there is more than one way to world context. I had to get the class
solve a problem, and listening to others back to the original problem. “Well, I
can give you new ideas. Then I put the know some people are missing today
transparency of the recipe back on the who were here last time. It’s good to
overhead. realize that, but since we already
“Okay,” I said, “the last time I started to change this to a 33-serving
was here you worked on the one-half recipe, maybe we should stick with
cup of raisins, so that’s done. The that number. If that’s not exactly the
recipe also calls for one-half cup of number of people, there can be some
dried fruit. That’s pretty much the sharing to even it out. We’ll be close
same problem as the raisins, so we enough with 33.”
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

77

that several of the students employed

Observing the Students more than one approach when
working this time. Apparently, the
The students went to work, easily display of different strategies had paid
engaging in the problem. Their off, giving some of the students
previous work and our introductory multiple ways to attack the problem.
discussion probably helped. I noticed Juan used a table and a picture to

FIGURE 6.2
Juan explained his sunflower seed solution.
The Basics and More

78

FIGURE 6.3
Raquel skip counted by 2/3 s.

calculate how many tablespoons of procedure or encounter a problem that

sunflower seeds were needed (see figure is slightly different from the ones they’re
6.2). Rachel used a combination of familiar with. Flexible thinkers can try a
skip counting and branching to work variety of angles and are more likely to
on the granola (see figure 6.3). find ways to solve the complicated
Having more than one doorway problems encountered in real life.
through which to enter a problem
allows for flexible thinking, which is a
cornerstone of number sense. If A Class Discussion
children have a single procedure for
doing a problem, they will invariably I called the class back together after
be stuck if they forget part of the they had been working about twenty-
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

79

five minutes. A reporter from each looked at how much granola was in the
table told the class which ingredient bag, thinking that might help me solve
they’d worked on and how much of it the problem. The bag said 33 ounces.
we’d need to serve 33 people. We Now I was really confused, because I
found that the two tables working on wasn’t sure how to compare ounces and
the same ingredient agreed on their two-thirds cups. Suddenly, I said to
answers in most cases. Again, all myself, Wait a minute—it’s trail mix. So
tables had chosen to find the exact what if the amount of granola isn’t
answer for 33 people rather than exact? It will still taste fine. I can’t ruin
getting “close enough.” The only the recipe by having a little too much
controversial ingredient was the two- or a little less than I’m supposed to.
thirds cup of granola. The two tables “My point is that I really didn’t
working on granola did not get the need to worry about exactly how much
same answer, so I had all the tables granola I needed to buy. I just needed
spend some time working and to estimate and make sure I had about
discussing this problem. Eventually enough for 33 people. I only had to
consensus was reached. We had decide whether I needed one bag or
achieved our goal of converting a two. I couldn’t buy part of a bag even if
recipe that serves six to one that I wanted to. I didn’t need to know the
serves 33. answer to the fraction of a cup.
Estimation was the key to solving my
grocery store problem. I think
Extending the Activity estimation is the key to solving a lot of
real-life math problems. Can anyone
While I was impressed with these fifth think of another example where you
graders’ work and their ability to deal just need to estimate to get a close
with fractions, I wasn’t sure whether enough answer? And what about
the students realized that if we were examples where you do need to be
actually making trail mix, there would accurate?”
be no need for such precise mea- Several children raised their hand.
surements. I decided to devote a class I drew a table on the overhead and
period to estimation. I began with a labeled one side “estimate” and the
story that I hoped would springboard other side “accurate”:
into a discussion.
“I went to the grocery store this Estimate Accurate
morning and I was thinking about that
trail mix recipe. I was in the aisle that
had granola, so I picked up a bag to
look at. I remembered that for six
people we needed two thirds of a cup.
But I couldn’t remember how much we I put trail mix under the estimate
needed for 33 people, so I started to category, and looked around for
work on the problem in my head. I student suggestions.
The Basics and More

80

“You need to be accurate with examples of when you estimate and

lasagna,” Josue said. “You have to when you have to be more accurate. It’s
measure to make sure you don’t put in fine to talk to people at your table
too much sauce.” I wasn’t sure that while you’re working. That will
veteran cooks would all agree. Often a probably help give you more ideas.”
good deal of estimating and eyeballing
is involved in cooking. However,
Josue seemed to be speaking from Observing the Students
experience, so I decided to respect his
precise cooking style. I put lasagna The students set to work without any
sauce in the accurate column. trouble. They engaged in animated
Not wanting this to turn into a discussions at their tables and were
discussion solely about recipes, I tried happy to share their ideas with me as I
to broaden the scope. “Let’s try to get a circulated.
list of real-life examples of when it’s Amanda talked about shoes.
fine to estimate and when you need to “With shoe size, you have to be
be accurate. The ideas don’t only have accurate. If you don’t have the right
to be about food and recipes,” I told size, your shoes will fall off or be too
the class, “try to think about different tight.”
kinds of situations.” Greg had written medicine under
Kenneth jumped in. “I know,” he accurate. I asked him to explain. “You
announced. “When you go to the store have to give the right amount of
to buy something, it has to be accurate.” medicine. If a toddler is only supposed
“Yes,” I agreed, “when I buy to have half a pill, you can’t give him a
something I don’t want the cashier to whole pill, because he might get really
say, Hmm, looks like about $30 dollars sick.”
worth.” I heard a number of chuckles. Howard and Enrique were having
“Also,” I added, “I don’t think people at a debate about homework assignments.
the store would appreciate it if I said, “When you do your weekly report,”
Here’s twenty dollars, that’s about right.” I said Howard, “you have to be accurate.
put shopping in the accurate column. You have to put down exactly how
We continued this whole-class much you read.”
discussion for a few more minutes and Enrique shook his head. “I don’t,”
generated several more ideas for each he responded. “I don’t count every
side of the table. single minute. I just read a lot.”
“Well, I’m putting it down for
accurate,” Howard told Enrique.
A Writing Assignment “Fine,” Enrique replied. “For me
it’s an estimate.”
Then I gave the class an assignment. I eavesdropped on several similar
“Okay, each of you is going to get a discussions about clothing size, car
piece of paper. You’re going to make mileage, and taxes. It wasn’t important
your own table and list real-life to me that the students come to a
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

81

consensus on any particular item. I was and accuracy. Their papers showed a
just pleased that they were connecting wide range of examples (see figures 6.4
real-life context to the important and 6.5).
mathematical notions of estimation

FIGURE 6.4
Examples of estimates versus accurate answers.
The Basics and More

82

FIGURE 6.5
More examples of estimates versus accurate answers.
 Trail Mix for a Crowd

83

CAREN ANSWERS What is the point of having

YOUR QUESTIONS students talk at their tables and
then write individually?
What is the purpose of this The student discussions are a “pre-
activity? writing” activity. It may seem that
by having students talk, they are
This activity gives students a lot of
telling one another the answer.
experiences with fractions. They need
However, with a complex problem,
to think about fractions, compare
the cross-pollination of ideas doesn’t
them, and convert them. They are
taint the individual products. Rather,
asked to do quite a bit of
the talk lets individuals focus on
computation. An important feature
what they understand and gives them
of the activity is the context it gives
different ways to think about the
students for their work with
problem.
fractions. The recipe format is
After the discussion, when
interesting and gets students to think
students write independently, they can
about fractions in a meaningful way,
only draw from what they have
thus helping them develop their
internalized. Although what they have
number sense.
heard may provide some mental
resources, both in terms of ideas and
words with which to express the ideas,
Isn’t it risky to assign a homework the ideas on the paper are nevertheless
problem that is very challenging? their own. (If they aren’t, it’s usually
What if students can’t do it? pretty obvious.)
It would be frustrating and pointless
to assign a challenging homework
How can this activity be used to
problem that isn’t followed up in
assess students’ number sense?
class. However, this assignment is a
piece of a bigger mathematical I had many chances to assess the
investigation; it doesn’t stand alone. students throughout the activity. The
It’s another chance for students to following questions helped me frame
think about fractions and methods my assessment of a student’s number
for converting the recipe. Whether or sense:
not students are wholly successful at
home, they come to class with a little • Which ingredients were relatively
more experience to build from. Even easy for students to convert?
if a student has not done the • Which were more challenging?
homework, which happens, listening • What computational procedures did
to others’ ideas and experiences is students employ to convert the
beneficial. fractions?
The Basics and More

84

• How did students organize their concerned about determining a precise

paper to help them see and make answer for each trail mix ingredient. I
sense of the fractions? wanted to broaden their perspective. In
• Which students were eager to share reality, many problems do not call for
their thinking with the whole class? an exact answer. In order to build
• Which students tried new number sense it’s important for
approaches after hearing their students to have opportunities to
classmates talk about them? estimate and opportunities to be
• Were students able to clearly express precise. To further build number sense,
their ideas in writing? students need to work on problems
that have a real-world context so they’ll
be able to make the decision about
Why did you have the students
how precise an answer needs to be. By
spend time on the accurate/
discussing these ideas, students will be
estimate discussion?
more likely to consider the estimate/
I felt it would be very worthwhile. accurate alternative when solving
Many of the students had been very future problems.
G

Navigating the
Number System

I
n addition to becoming comfortable with numerical operations,
students need experiences that give them a broader understanding
of our base ten number system, a system that consists of very
orderly patterns and consistent characteristics. For example, we expect
students to know, without using paper and pencil or a calculator, what
happens when ten is added to a number or when a number is multiplied
by ten. Understanding the importance of tens in our number system
gives students access to many computational strategies. Similarly,
students need to recognize the patterns inherent to odd and even
numbers, factors, and multiples.
If children are aware of the structure and patterns behind our
number system, they are able to understand relationships among
numbers and can predict and evaluate reasonable solutions to math
problems. This deeper understanding and the ability to predict are
essential components of number sense.
Teachers play a critical role in guiding students’ learning about the
number system. The key is to give students many opportunities to
negotiate the system, letting them chart their own course through
familiar territory and challenging them to discover and investigate new
paths along the way.
In the four activities in this section, students will read, write, talk,
and make computations in order to learn about and understand the
infrastructure of our number system. Each activity focuses on getting
students to think about and use numbers in ways that make sense to
them.

85
 G

7 Numbers and Me

Overview
Learning to see the usefulness of numbers is an important part of developing number
sense. In this activity students identify some “personal numbers”—numbers that
describe them or relate to their life in some way. For example, 132 might be the
number of a student’s house in his street address; 52 might be her height in inches;
111/2 might be his age. Then they play a guessing game with another student in which
they try to match the numbers with the things to which the numbers refer. The
activity can provide experience with whole numbers, fractions, decimals, and percents.

Teaching Directions
1. On the chalkboard or a projected transparency, write between ten and fifteen
numbers that have some significance to your life.
2. Give a clue about each number (for example, One of these numbers stands for the
number of years I’ve been teaching or One of these numbers stands for the number of
miles on my car) and ask the students to decide which number best suits each clue.
3. Have the students write down on a sheet of paper ten or fifteen numbers that
have some significance in their life. On a separate piece of the paper, ask them to
write a sentence that describes each number. For example:
1987 This is the year in which I was born.
3 This is the number of siblings I have.
331/3 This is the percentage of the day I spend sleeping.
1
/2 This is the portion of our class that are girls.
4. Have the students, in pairs, exchange their lists of numbers, then take turns reading
their clues (at random) and guessing which number fits which clue. 87
Navigating the
Number System

88

IN THE CLASSROOM “Who’d like to read this number?”

WITH RUSTY I asked, pointing to 134,155. I called
on Mary.
“Thirteen thousand four hundred
Introducing the Activity and . . . ,” Mary began. She stopped
and looked puzzled, then tried again.
Since Pam Long was preparing to teach “One hundred thirty-four thousand?”
her fifth graders a unit on fractions, she asked hesitantly.
decimals, and percents, I thought “That’s right,” I confirmed. “How
Numbers and Me would not only be a do you finish reading the number?”
way to assess students’ understanding “One hundred thirty-four
of these concepts but also give them thousand one hundred fifty-five,”
opportunities to develop their number Mary said more confidently. After she
sense. finished, I asked the class to read the
To begin the activity, I wrote these number out loud together.
numbers on the chalkboard: 331/3; 190; “Who would like to read this
4; 10; 2614; 42 2/3; .25; 558,903,281; number?” I then asked the class,
6,192,837,065; 17; 66 2/3; 3; 12,658; pointing to .25.
29; 1954; and 134,155. “The numbers “I think it’s point 25,” said Mary.
on the board are my personal “The point is a decimal point.”
numbers,” I told the class. “They all “Another way is 25 hundredths,”
have something to do with my life. said Tom.
They have meaning to me.” “It’s like 25 cents or part of a
“What do they stand for?” asked dollar,” added Ronesha.
Britt. We read the rest of the numbers
“That’s one of the things you’re on the chalkboard aloud. I had to help
going to figure out today,” I said. “I’ll the class read the two largest numbers;
read you clues about the numbers and the one in the billions gave everybody
see whether you can guess what the trouble. When we were finished, I
numbers stand for. First, I’d like you to continued with the activity. “Now I’ll
read the numbers silently.” I waited read you clues about my numbers.
while the students read the numbers to Listen while I read and see whether
themselves. “Raise your hand if you’d you can guess which number I’m
like to read this number,” I said, as I describing. It’s important that you’re
pointed to the number 1954. I called respectful when you guess numbers.
on Jaime and I used my index finger to For example, if I said that one of the
point to the digits as he read them numbers is how old I am and you
aloud. guessed 190, that might hurt my
“One thousand nine hundred feelings.” The students giggled. “I
fifty-four,” he read. When he finished, know a guess like that would be funny,
I directed the class to read the number but it’s important not to hurt people’s
together and again I pointed to the feelings on purpose,” I said. Students
digits. nodded their head in agreement.
 Numbers and Me

89

“Here’s my first clue,” I said. “This sense when thinking about my age.
is the year in which I was born.” Many Recognizing the suitability of numbers
hands shot up, with lots of oohs and is part of having number sense. Some
ahs. “I believe I’ll call on someone who numbers are appropriate for some
is being silent,” I said. As the students things but not for others.
quieted down, more hands were raised. “Did anyone think about this in a
I called on Rose. different way?” I asked.
“It’s nineteen fifty-four!” she “I wrote 1997 minus 1954 on my
exclaimed. paper and got 43,” Miguel reported.
“When Jaime read the number “But there’s no 43 on the board.”
aloud, he said it was one thousand “I think your birthday’s coming
nine hundred and fifty-four,” I said. up and then you’ll be 43, but you’re
“Why did you read it differently?” still 42,” offered Betsabe.
“Because that’s how you read “I am 42 and two-thirds years
numbers when it’s a year,” she old,” I said. “Can someone explain
explained. what the two thirds means?” I waited
“How did you know that I was several seconds, then called on Reba.
born in 1954?” I asked. “The fraction means part of a
“Because all the years in this year,” she said.
century begin with 19,” she replied. “That’s correct,” I replied. “In this
“That gave it away for me.” case, the fraction means part of a year.
“Okay,” I said. “You know the year It’s the amount of time that’s passed
in which I was born. Can you use that since my last birthday, which was in
information to help you figure out October.”
which number stands for my age?” A “I think the two thirds stands for
few students raised their hand im- two thirds of a year, which is eight
mediately, but I gave the class some months, because there’s twelve months
time to think about this question. in a year and three fours in twelve,”
Then I called on Amy. Courtney reasoned.
“I think you’re 42 and two-thirds “Does that make sense?” I asked
years old,” said Amy. the class. While a few students nodded
“Why do you think that?” I asked. in agreement, others seemed lost. I
“Well, I don’t think you’re 79,” she decided they needed more time to
said with a giggle. “I know I’m grapple with what two thirds meant in
supposed to be nice, so sorry I’m this situation.
laughing.” “I want you to talk to the person
“That’s okay,” I responded. “I’m next to you about what two thirds
glad you’re reminding us.” means if I’m 42 and two-thirds years
Amy smiled and continued. “And old,” I said. After a moment, I called
all the other numbers don’t fit your them back to attention and again
age, except maybe 33 and one third,” posed the question.
she said. Amy understood that most of “If you count the months from
the numbers on the board didn’t make October till the end of this month,
Navigating the
Number System

90

you’ll get eight months,” Jason 25 cents and that’s like one fourth of a
explained. “November, December, dollar.”
January, February, March, April, May, “Can anyone add to what Miguel
June. You have four more months to just said?” I asked.
go before you’re 43. So eight months “It’s like one out of four are boys,
out of twelve months is like eight or one fourth,” answered Claire.
twelfths, and that’s the same as two “Or 25 percent,” added Gorgé.
thirds.” I wrote .25, 1/4, and 25% on the
“It’s two thirds, because in a year chalkboard. “So what percent of my
you have three groups of four and brothers and sisters, including me, are
you’re 42 and two thirds or two fours girls?” I continued.
out of three fours,” Jessica added. “Seventy-five percent!” several
“Just make twelve tally marks on students chorused.
the board,” suggested Betsabe. I drew I wrote .75 and 75% on the
the tally marks on the chalkboard. chalkboard. “How do I write a fraction
“Okay, the tally marks stand for the that means the same as 75 percent?” I
twelve months of the year,” she asked, encouraging them to make
explained. “Circle every four tally another connection between decimals,
marks. There’s three groups of four percents, and fractions.
tally marks and two of the groups are “Three fourths!” the students
circled. That’s how you can see the two responded. I wrote 3/4 on the
thirds of a year.” chalkboard next to .75 and 75%, then
“All of these explanations make continued with the next clue.
sense to me,” I said. Continuing with “This number represents the percent
the next clue, I read, “This number of the day I spend sleeping,” I read. At
represents how many brothers and sisters first, few hands were raised. The
are in my family. Look at the numbers students were studying the numbers
on the board and think about which and discussing them in their groups. I
ones would fit,” I instructed. quickly toured the room, listening to
“Well, I think four and three and their conversations. When I asked for
ten could be the answer,” Tom said. their attention, I posed the same
“Maybe seventeen, but that would be a question but used different wording.
lot of sisters and brothers!” “If you think of the numbers on the
“I have three siblings,” I stated. board as percents, what percent of the
“One of the numbers on the day might I spend asleep? Remember,
chalkboard tells what portion of us are when I say day, I’m including all 24
boys. Raise your hand if you have an hours.”
idea.” “I think you spend 33 and a third
“It’s point 25,” said Miguel. percent of the day sleeping,” said
“Are you sure?” I asked, pushing Paula.
for an explanation to check for “Why do you think that?” I asked.
understanding. “Because if you spent 79 percent
“Yeah,” he said, “it’s the same as or 66 and two thirds percent sleeping,
 Numbers and Me

91

you’d be sleeping a lot!” she ex- plus 33 and a third make 100 percent.
claimed. A hundred percent means the whole
“You could spend 17 percent of day.”
the day asleep,” José offered. “I agree that 100 percent means a
“Or ten percent, but that would whole day,” I said. “What about the
mean you weren’t getting enough rest!” numbers that are larger than 100?
added Betsabe. Everyone laughed. Could we use 190 as a percent?” A few
“Yes, I spend about 33 and a third students didn’t think so, but most
percent of the day asleep,” I confirmed. seemed perplexed. I knew this
Judging by their responses, I wasn’t question was going to be difficult for
sure that students understood how them to think about. Sometimes I’ll
many hours 331/3 percent represented. throw in a question like this to test the
I decided to ask a probing question to waters and see how far I can go with a
find out. “Do you think I spend more concept. “Sometimes percents greater
or less than 12 hours asleep? I want than 100 make sense, depending on
you to talk with someone at your table the situation,” I said. “For instance,
about this question.” After a moment, sometimes the price of food or the cost
I asked for the students’ attention and of a house increases more than 100
called on Juan. percent.” I stopped there, knowing
“You sleep less than 12 hours,” he that I’d probably reached the edge of
said. their understanding about percents.
“How do you know?” I asked. “The next number is the age of my
“I don’t know, I just think that,” car,” I said.
he replied. “The answer could be three, ten,
“It’s important that you’re able to or 17 years,” said José. No one else
explain your thinking,” I told the class. raised a hand.
“I may agree with you, Juan, but I’m “I’ll give you another clue,” I told
curious about how you figured the them. “The number on the board that
answer.” represents the number of miles on my
“It’s because there are 24 hours in car is 134,155.”
a day, okay?” Reba began. “So half of “How about three years?” Tawny
that is 12, and you said you sleep 33 guessed.
and a third percent of the day, and “That can’t be!” Reba exclaimed.
that’s less than half.” “We have a new car and it has about
“What percent would be the same 10,000 miles on it.”
as half of the day?” I asked. “I think your car is 17 years old,”
“Fifty!” the students chorused. said José.
“So which number on the board “The only other number that
tells what percent of the day I stay works is ten years old,” added Miguel.
awake?” I asked. Almost every hand “You’re right,” I said. “I bought
was raised. I called on Mary. my car when I started teaching in
“Sixty-six and two thirds,” she Oceanside, exactly ten years ago.”
answered. “It’s because that number When the students had guessed
Navigating the
Number System

92

most of my personal numbers, I then use that as one of her numbers.

explained the directions for the next Soon, there was a line of students
part of the activity. “You’ve guessed waiting to measure their height.
most of the numbers on the The students were excited about
chalkboard. Now I’d like you to think the activity and worked for the rest of
of numbers that are special to you. I’d the math period. For homework that
like you to write down as many night, I asked students to finish writing
numbers that you can think of that their numbers and their clues. I told
relate to you and then write clues them it was important that they bring
about your numbers.” their papers back the next day.
“I don’t get the clues part,” said
Tom.
“You’re going to write clues about Observing the Students
your numbers, just like I gave you,” I
explained. “For example, if one of my The next day I gave the students about
numbers is 42 and two thirds, my clue ten minutes at the beginning of math
might be: This number tells how old I class to look over their numbers and
am.” I wrote the number and the clue their clues and add any necessary
on the chalkboard as an example. “If finishing touches. As I walked around
one of my numbers is ten, I might the room watching and listening, I was
write: This is the number that tells the impressed by the variety of ways in
age of my car.” Again I wrote the which students thought about
number and next to it the clue for numbers. (Figures 7.1 and 7.2 are two
students to see. examples of students’ personal
“Can we draw pictures?” asked numbers.)
Mary. Some students wrote about
“That would be fine, as long as numbers that represented the dates of
you also write a sentence that describes important events in their lives. Jim
your number,” I replied. wrote down the year that he first got
“How many numbers and braces. Gwen wrote down the year she
sentences do we have to write?” asked got her favorite bike. Tom recorded the
Lydia. year when he’ll be 21 years old.
“That’s up to you,” I said. “I think Many students were able to use
you should try to think of as many fractions in meaningful ways. Rich
numbers as you can. Remember, the wrote that three sevenths is the fraction
numbers should have something to do that represents the portion of aunts he
with your life. If you get stuck, talk has on his mom’s side of the family.
with your partner.” Leu included two fractions that were
I passed out paper, and the linked. In his clue about 12/34, he
students eagerly began to write down wrote: This is the fraction of our class
their numbers. One student realized that’s in band. For 22/34 he wrote: This is
she could ascertain her height using the fraction of the class that isn’t in band.
the measuring tape against the wall, Linda used her height, five feet eight-
 Numbers and Me

93

FIGURE 7.1
José used mostly fractions to describe things in
his life.
Navigating the
Number System

94

FIGURE 7.2
Amy thought about numbers in a variety of
ways.

twelfths inches, as one of her personal Some students made important

numbers. Students used fractions in a connections between fractions and
variety of ways, including months in a decimals. Jenny used two numbers to
year, days in a week, states in the describe her age: 10.5 or 101/2.
union, kids in the class, and inches in a Maryanna, describing .5, wrote: When
foot. I was 9 years old, I drew 50 pictures and
 Numbers and Me

95

I only like half of them. Which number numbers on the chalkboard and read
means the same as 1/2? your clues to the class?”
Students used 100 percent to The students were eager to share,
describe the amount of time our heart and many hands shot up. I called on
beats, how much of the time we Emma. She walked to the front of the
breathe, and the score on a test. And class and carefully wrote these
they used decimals to describe how numbers on the board: 1987;
much they paid for things, like 3,850,684; 2; 122,889; .5; 1/3; 17/30; 30;
7
Nintendo games. /24; 9,417,826. “Remember, Emma,
Not all students had an easy time when you read a clue, don’t give away
writing their clues. For example, some the number that you’re describing,” I
had difficulty writing large numbers reminded her. “Read one clue at a time
correctly, and I spent time showing and let’s see if someone can guess
them where to place the commas in which number fits.”
numbers like 7,545,483. Others “Okay, this number is the year I
struggled with how to describe was born,” Emma said. Lots of hands
fractions. One student wrote that 1/2 raised. She called on Jenny.
represented the number of sisters in his “That’s easy,” said Jenny. “It’s
family. When he realized that he didn’t 1987. That’s also the year I was born.”
have half of a sister, he laughed and Emma smiled, then continued
rewrote the clue this way: 1/2 represents with her clues. “Okay, this number is
the portion of my brothers and sisters that the portion of our class that are girls.”
are sisters. This difficulty with It was obvious that Emma enjoyed
describing what the numbers meant being the “teacher.” She smiled as she
was common and made me realize how scanned the room, looking for
important the role of language is in someone to call on. Finally she chose
math class. Rich.
“Is it point five?” he asked.
“Yes, that’s it,” Emma replied. “I
A Class Discussion used it because it means the same as
one half, and half of our class are
When all the students had finalized girls.”
their papers, I called for their “If you wanted to use a percent for
attention. “Today we’re going to play a one half, what number would that
guessing game with our personal be?” I interjected, taking the op-
numbers, like I did with you portunity to help students make a
yesterday,” I began. “Yesterday I wrote connection between fractions,
my personal numbers on the decimals, and percents. Drawing out
chalkboard, then I read a sentence that the mathematics during classroom
told about one of the numbers and you discussions is an important part of the
guessed which number fit the sentence. teacher’s role.
The sentences were like clues. Who “That would be 50 percent,” she
would like to volunteer to write your replied.
Navigating the
Number System

96

“Could any other of Emma’s RUSTY ANSWERS

numbers represent the portion of girls YOUR QUESTIONS
in our class?” I asked. I called on
Alexa.
“Well, seventeen 30ths would be
How will this activity help my
close if there were 30 kids in our class,”
students develop number sense?
she said. “Fifteen 30ths is one half, so Numbers and Me helps students
that’s pretty close.” develop their number sense in several
Emma continued sharing her important ways. First, it prompts
clues. “This is the number of hours I’m them to think about the
at the gym on Mondays.” Lots of reasonableness of a number in a given
hands shot up. The students seemed situation. Students have to consider a
sure about this answer. variety of numbers in the context of
“It’s two,” said Katrina. “No other any given clue: they need to think
numbers would work, except for point logically and eliminate numbers that
five, and you already used that.” don’t fit. Next, the activity also
Katrina was thinking about the provides a larger context for thinking
reasonableness of the available about numbers, one outside the
numbers in this situation. confines of the classroom. Students see
Emma delivered her next clue. that numbers are meaningful and can
“This number represents how many be used in a variety of ways, including
hours I play outside on a weekend to quantify, to label, to measure, and
day.” This time, everyone raised their to locate. Providing a meaningful
hand. Emma called on Tamika. context helps students understand
“It’s seven 24ths,” said Tamika, what numbers mean, whether they’re
smiling confidently. fractions, decimals, percents, or whole
“How did you know the answer?” numbers.
I asked.
“It’s easy,” Tamika replied. “There’s
Why did you use your own
24 hours in a day, and Emma plays
personal numbers to start the
seven hours out of 24.” Tamika made
activity?
sense of the numerator and
denominator in this fraction. There are a couple of reasons. First, I
Emma continued to read her clues needed numbers to model the
to the class until the students had activity, so the students could
matched all the numbers to her clues. connect my verbal directions to a
We continued to play the guessing specific example. Second, I wanted
game until the end of the math period students to see that numbers are
as different students shared their important and meaningful to me. I
numbers and clues. The following day, deliberately chose numbers that
Pam continued the activity with her would engage the children in a
class, asking pairs of students to guess variety of ways: I wanted them to
each other’s clues. think about large numbers, small
 Numbers and Me

97

numbers, decimal numbers, fractions, Courtney seemed to understand

and numbers that represented that the two thirds in the number
percents. 42 2/3 represented eight months
out of a year. What about the
students who didn’t follow her
What is the primary focus of the
thoughts?
activity?
I know that during class discussions,
The primary focus is for students to
not all the students are following or
think about numbers and relate them
understanding what is being explained.
to familiar contexts. Number sense is
Some discussions are most beneficial
characterized by the ability to make
to the student doing the explaining.
sense of numerical situations. I also
Courtney had a chance to clarify her
wanted students to see that numbers
ideas and cement her understanding:
that are appropriate for some
“I think the two thirds stands for two
situations may be inappropriate for
thirds of a year, which is eight months,
others. Often, students are only
because there’s twelve months in a year
asked to think about numbers in
and three fours in twelve.” While a
very specific ways—when doing
number of students then contributed
arithmetic operations, for example.
similar explanations, others seemed
I wanted to give students an
lost or confused. I often worry about
opportunity to have a conversation
these students on the periphery. Are
that would give them a “feel” for
they daydreaming? Are they lost? What
numbers.
are they absorbing from the dis-
During the activity, I deliberately
cussion? At times like this I shift
kept the focus on discussing the
gears and ask the students to talk to
meaning of numbers in context and
a neighbor in order to get another
away from teaching specific rules or
perspective or to voice their confusion.
procedures. For example, during our
If I have time, I’ll privately approach a
discussion the students grappled with
student who I think is confused and
the number 422/3, which represented
ask more questions. Giving students
my age. When I asked the students to
the time to talk about numbers and
think about what the two thirds
their meaning helps them develop
meant, my intent was simply to give
their number sense.
the students a context in which to
think about fractions. Context diverts
What are some ways to assess an
children from rules and procedures and
individual student’s number
encourages them to explore ideas in a
sense?
more open and informal manner. In
this activity I wanted the students to There are many ways to assess whether
see that fractions have meaning in the or not a student has a well-developed
real world. Understanding what sense of numbers. In this activity, I
numbers mean is at the heart of kept several questions in mind as I
number sense. observed the students in action:
Navigating the
Number System

98

• What numbers do students choose • Are students having a difficult or

for their number clues? Do they an easy time relating numbers to
choose only whole numbers? Are contexts?
they comfortable using decimals?
How can I do the activity without
percents? fractions?
using personal numbers?
• What’s the range of the numbers the
students choose? Do they choose The activity can easily be adapted for
only small numbers or do they use other areas of the math curriculum. In
large numbers as well? a unit on measurement, for example,
• When students are playing the students can write number clues
game with a partner, are they about different objects in the
guessing suitable numbers after classroom: size 9, 6 feet tall, 3 feet by 5
being given a clue? Do the students feet, 11 pounds, etc. The activity can
know whether other numbers fit also be used in other subject areas.
the clue? Students in a fifth-grade social studies
• When writing their clues, are class, for example, might use
students using a variety of contexts important numbers in U.S. history,
for their numbers? What kinds of such as 13 (for the 13 original
contexts are they using? colonies) and 1776.
 G

8 All About 1,000

Overview
The number 1,000 is an important and useful landmark in our number system
and is a benchmark for comparing numbers. This activity focuses students on
thinking about 1,000 in various contexts. Students talk about what they know
about the number, then listen to the book How Much, How Many, How Far,
How Heavy, How Long, How Tall Is 1,000? After listening to the story,
students develop their own questions about 1,000 related to a topic of their
choice.

Materials Needed
A copy of the children’s book How Much, How Many, How Far, How Heavy, How
Long, How Tall Is 1,000?, by Helen Nolan, with illustrations by Tracy Walker (Kids
Can Press, 1995).

Teaching Directions
1. Ask the students what they know about the number 1,000 and record their
ideas.
2. Read aloud the book How Much, How Many, How Far, How Heavy, How Long,
How Tall Is 1,000?
3. Review some of the topics addressed in the book, and ask students to suggest
other topics in which they are interested.
4. Choose an example topic and have students brainstorm questions related to this
topic that involve the number 1,000. 99
Navigating the
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100

5. Ask each student to choose one topic and write down several questions related to
that topic that involve the number 1,000.
6. Have each student explore one of their questions, first estimating the answer,
then finding an accurate answer.

Example Questions for the Topic Money

If you laid 1,000 pennies end to end, about how long would that be? How much
would 1,000 one-dollar bills weigh? If you earned $1.00 every minute, how many
hours would it take to earn a $1,000?
 All About 1,000

101

IN THE CLASSROOM (Correct answers are often misleading.

WITH RUSTY Asking probing questions gives me an
insight into my students’ number
sense.)
Introducing the Activity “Because it has four digits,” she
responded.
“This week we’re going to investigate “What about this number?” I said,
the number 1,000,” I told Maryann writing 1,001 on the chalkboard.
Wickett’s fourth graders. “Un- “This is a four-digit number, but it’s
derstanding what numbers mean is odd. I only have to give one
important to our math thinking. I counterexample to disprove your
want you to close your eyes and think theory. Other ideas about why 1,000
about what you know about the might be even?”
number 1,000.” After several seconds, “One thousand is even because
I asked the students to open their eyes 999 is odd and it comes right before
and tell someone next to them what it,” said Asha.
they were thinking. When they were “So you think numbers alternate
finished, I asked the students to share between odd and even?” I asked. Asha
their thoughts with the class. nodded yes.
“It has three zeros,” said Benjamin. “It’s even because you can cut it in
“Let’s check,” I said. I wrote 1,000 half evenly, half of 1,000 is 500,”
on the chalkboard, and we counted the explained Isaiah.
number of zeros to confirm Benjamin’s “I think I’m convinced that 1,000
statement. is an even number,” I said with a
“You can call it ten hundred,” said smile. “What else can you say about
Alexa. 1,000?”
“Let’s count by 100s to see if what “One thousand has 200 fives in
Alexa says is true,” I told the class. it,” said Jan.
Together we counted by 100 ten times. “How do you know?” I asked.
“One thousand is a big number!” “Well, it takes 20 fives for 100,
exclaimed Suzanne. and there’s ten 100s in 1,000, so you
“One thousand is a four-digit times 20 by ten and you get 200 fives,”
number,” said Mike. she explained. Jan’s reasoning was solid
“One thousand comes out in and demonstrated an understanding of
money,” Zach reported. how numbers are put together.
“Tell us more, Zach,” I probed. After everyone who wished to had
“Like 1,000 dollars,” he clarified. volunteered what she or he knew
“On the show America’s Funniest Home about 1,000, I gathered the students
Videos they give the winner 1,000 on the rug and held up the book How
dollars.” Much, How Many, How Far, How
“It’s an even number,” added Heavy, How Long, How Tall Is 1,000?
Jellian. “In this book, the author asks lots of
“How do you know?” I asked. questions that have to do with 1,000,”
Navigating the
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102

I said. “I’m going to read the story, and 1,000 Is a Lot at the top of another
then I’ll ask you some questions about piece of chart paper and recorded
the number 1,000.” Mike’s idea underneath.
The students listened attentively to “How about 1,000 headaches!”
the book’s conjectures about what cried Susan. Everyone giggled.
1,000 looks like in different contexts “If you owned 1,000 TVs, that
(they also enjoyed the illustrations, would be a lot,” said Sagan.
which I held up as we went along): “One thousand volcanoes erupting
What do 1,000 dandelions look like? would be scary and a lot!” exclaimed
What about 1,000 acorns in a pile? How Joe.
about a forest of 1,000 oak trees? One “One thousand years is a long time
thousand people sitting in rows would fill and 1,000 seconds isn’t,” Alma
a small hockey arena. What would 1,000 observed.
people waiting in line to get in look like? I continued reading the book.
When I got to the page that reads, When I got to the page with a picture
How much is 1,000? Is it a lot?, I said of a girl, a boy, and their dog eating
to the class, “The author says that lots of french fries, I held it up. “What
when it comes to hair on your head, about 1,000 french fries? Could you eat
1,000 isn’t very many. When isn’t all of them?” I quoted. “The author
1,000 a lot?” Their ideas didn’t flow says a single serving has about 40 fries.
easily at first; it took time. There were How many friends would 1,000 french
many silent moments. But I wanted fries feed?” I wrote 40 on the
students to get an idea of the relative chalkboard and asked the children to
size of 1,000. think about this and talk to someone
“If you have 1,000 pieces of grass,” next to them. Although the problem
said Pat. I recorded Pat’s idea on a was too difficult for most of these
piece of chart paper under the heading beginning fourth graders to solve
1,000 Isn’t a Lot and added to the list mentally, hearing estimates and plans
as other students volunteered their for solving the problem would expose
thoughts. students to lots of ways of thinking
“How about 1,000 atoms or about the problem and give me insight
electrons? That would be teeny tiny!” into their thinking about numbers and
said Jellian, exaggerating the words operations. After a moment or two, I
teeny tiny. called the class back to attention. “Any
“A thousand feathers wouldn’t estimates?”
weigh very much,” added Asha. “I think maybe eight friends,”
“Or 1,000 little ants or cookie Zach said.
crumbs,” said Christopher. “What made you think of eight?” I
“The book says that if you don’t asked.
like freckles, 1,000 is a lot. When is “ ’Cause 40 is a lot of fries!” he
1,000 a lot?” I asked. replied.
“It’s a lot if you have 1,000 “Maybe seven,” said Susan.
dollars!” Mike exclaimed. I wrote After several other students had
 All About 1,000

103

shared their estimate, I asked my author of the book posed her 1,000
second question. “How would you go question, she reported the answer.”
about solving a problem like this?” I then reviewed the book,
“Divide 1,000 by 40, because reminding the children of the things
there’s 1,000 fries and 40 in each that had been discussed: stars,
serving,” Pat explained. dandelions, acorns, oak trees, books,
“I’d add 40 until I got to 1,000,” hockey, french fries, money, running,
suggested Susan. etc. I then asked them what things
“You could subtract 40 starting they were interested in and filled half
with 1,000 until you get to zero,” said of the chalkboard with their ideas:
Sagan. basketball, science, math, social
Jellian used her number sense, studies, art, Europe, animals,
starting with a calculation she knew. “I dinosaurs, Goosebumps books,
know that 40 times five is 200, so reptiles, cheetahs. The list was a long
that’s five friends right there, so I think one.
it’s a lot more than seven or eight,” she When I finished writing all of
said, referring to Susan’s and Zach’s their ideas on the chalkboard, I
estimates. modeled a 1,000 question about
“What would you do next?” I something I was interested in. “I’m
asked her. about to read a book called The
“Well, I know five friends could Spanish Civil War, I told the class. “It’s
eat 200, so I’d figure how many 200s 1,000 pages long, and I’m wondering
in 1,000,” she explained. about how long it will take me to read
I finished reading the book as it.” I wrote the question on the
math period ended. I decided to chalkboard: How long will it take to
continue our investigation of 1,000 on read 1,000 pages in the book The
the following day. Spanish Civil War? “Now I want you
to think of something you’re
interested in and ask a 1,000 question
A Class Discussion about it. Raise your hand when you
have an idea.” I waited till most hands
“Yesterday I read you a story in which were raised, then called on Chris-
the author investigated a number of topher.
different things,” I began. “First, she “How many Animorphs books
thought of something she was would 1,000 pages be?” he said.
interested in, like french fries. Then “Did people know about
she asked a question that had to do technology 1,000 years ago?” was
with 1,000 french fries. Do you Susan’s question.
remember when we thought about Sagan suggested, “How loud
how many friends 1,000 french fries would it sound if 1,000 dogs were
would feed?” Students nodded and barking?”
smiled. “We’ll call this a 1,000 Kay wanted to know, “About how
question,” I told them. “After the many bottles of juice would it take to
Navigating the
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104

feed 1,000 parakeets at the Wild of them had a good grasp of 1,000 and
Animal Park?” others didn’t.
“Now that we have a few examples Khoa was interested in the length
of 1,000 questions, I’d like to take one of 1,000 dinosaurs and was busy
topic and develop a number of 1,000 determining the length of one. Joe
questions around it,” I said. I wrote wanted to find out how many
The Boxcar Children on the thousands of miles it is from the
chalkboard. “Everyone please think of United States to Europe. Susan wanted
a 1,000 question about this series of to know if people knew about
books, which I know most of you like. technology 1,000 years ago. Figure 8.1
I’ll write your questions on the shows Pat’s baseball questions. I
chalkboard.” overheard Mike wonder aloud whether
“How long would it take to read 1,000 solar systems would fit in the
1,000 pages?” was Mike’s suggestion. world. Someone at his table said that
“How many books could you buy was impossible, because we’re part of
with $1,000?” added Alexa. the solar system! I wondered what
“How much would 1,000 of those Mike thought of when he imagined
books weigh?” was what Reba the size of a solar system and if he
wondered. really knew what one was.
Joe raised his hand: “How many After about twenty minutes, I
Boxcar Children books would you read called the students to attention and
if you read 1,000 pages?” gave them further directions. “I’m
going to give you a new piece of paper,
and I’d like each of you to choose one
A Writing Assignment of your 1,000 questions and recopy it.
Then I’d like you to make an
“These are interesting examples of illustration and estimate the answer to
different questions you could ask about your question. Remember, when you
this topic,” I told the class. “I’m going write down your estimate, include an
to give each of you a piece of paper, explanation about your reasoning.”
and I’d like you to write your name, a
topic you’re interested in, and several
1,000 questions that you could Observing the Students
investigate.”
One aspect of assessment involves The children’s questions and estimates
gathering information about what were interesting and revealed much
students know and what they don’t about their understanding of 1,000
know, what their misconceptions are and the multiples of 1,000. I walked
and what they understand. Listening from table to table asking questions,
to students’ conversations informs my listening to conversations, and helping
teaching and guides my instruction. As when I was needed.
I walked around the classroom while Case was interested in Legos and
the children worked, I found that some wondered how much 1,000 big Lego
 All About 1,000

105

FIGURE 8.1
Pat brainstormed “1,000” questions about
baseball.

sets would cost. His estimate: I think it whether there could be 1,000 spots on
would cost 1,000,000 $ because 1 big set a dalmatian. Her estimate: Maybe
cost like 50 $. I know because my parents because there’s about 50 spots on a puppy
bought me one big set (see figure 8.2). that’s just getting its spots and when it
Assessing a student’s understanding grows it gets older it gets lots more spots.
often generates more questions than AnaMaria, like Sagan, used a
answers. I wondered whether Case benchmark to help her make an
would realize how far off his estimate estimate. Her question: What would
was once he figured the correct answer. 1,000 bugs look like stacked up? Her
Would he have a sense of the difference estimate: I estimate about ten meters
between $50,000 (the correct answer) because about 100 bugs to one meter.
and $1,000,000? She drew a picture of a child holding a
Sagan likes dogs and wondered meter stick with 100 bugs on it. Using
Navigating the
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106

FIGURE 8.2
Case’s estimated answer to his question was
unreasonable.

appropriate benchmarks when then looked up at me. “I’d say about a

estimating is useful and is an indicator foot wide,” he said.
of number sense. “About how long do you think
Eric wondered how long 1,000 1,000 basketballs would be?” I then
basketballs placed one next to the asked.
other would be. When I approached “About 1,000 feet!” he exclaimed.
him, he was busy drawing 1,000 little Pat wondered how long it takes
basketballs on his paper, but he was for a pitcher to pitch 1,000 balls. His
stuck on coming up with an estimate. I estimate: I think it would take 1 season
asked him a question to stimulate his to pitch 1000 balls. I used a calculator.
thinking. “Eric, do you know how I estimated a pitcher pitches 50 pitches
wide a basketball is?” per game and plays 20 games a year. I
Eric had his basketball nestled got 1000. The math problem was 50 ×
between his knees. He looked at it, 20 = 1000 (see figure 8.3). It’s clear
 All About 1,000

107

FIGURE 8.3
Pat’s estimated answer to one of his baseball
questions.

from Pat’s explanation that he has a pound bags of dog food would be
good feel for numbers and estimation. needed to feed 1,000 dogs in one day!
Knowing a lot about baseball also Asha was interested in finding out how
helped him know that 50 pitches per much space 1,000 polar bears would
game and 20 games per year are take up. And Christopher wanted to
reasonable numbers to use. know how long it would take to read
Students asked questions about 1,000 Animorphs books. His estimate:
height, area, length, width, time, I think it will take me six months because
weight, distance, and amounts of they have about 155 pages. It takes me
money. Alexa wondered how many 50- three days to read one (see figure 8.4).
Navigating the
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108

FIGURE 8.4
Christopher’s question and estimated answer.

an answer.” Most students nodded

Continuing the Activity their head, indicating that they
understood what they were supposed
The next day I wanted the students to to do.
investigate their 1,000 question. I However, some students looked
gathered the class on the rug and unsure so I decided to offer an example.
explained the task. “Today you’re going “Remember our Boxcar Children
to figure out the answer to your 1,000 example?” I asked. Everyone did. “One
question and see how the answer of the questions we asked was how
compares with your estimate,” I began. many Boxcar Children books would
“You’ll need to reread your question, you read if you read 1,000 pages. How
look at your estimate, and think about might we figure out the answer to this
what you need to do in order to find question? Talk with someone next to
 All About 1,000

109

you about how you could solve it.” collected at the end of math period the
After a moment, I asked for their day before, and students returned to
attention and repeated the question. At their seats to investigate their question.
first only a few hands popped up, but as
I waited, many more students raised
their hand. I called on Susan. Observing the Students
“You’d have to know how many
pages are in one Boxcar Children While some students searched for
book,” she said. encyclopedias and calculators and got
“There’s about 100,” Alexa right to work, others raised their hand
volunteered. immediately. I reminded them that
“Okay, you’d divide 1,000 by 100 they could solicit help from students at
to get your answer,” Susan continued. their table.
“Or you could add 100 till you get Some of the questions students
to 1,000,” added Christopher. were investigating were not easy to
“So first you have to figure out answer. Rick wondered what would
what information is needed, like how happen if 1,000 dinosaurs stomped
many pages there are in one book,” I the whole state of California. He
said. “Then you might have to do predicted that it would create an
some arithmetic to find the answer. earthquake! We both agreed that
Any questions?” measuring the effect of 1,000 dinosaur
“So what’s the answer?” asked Rick. stomps would be impossible, given
Several hands shot up. I called on Pat. that dinosaurs are extinct. I suggested
“I remember from the other day that he think of another question that
that there’s ten 100s in 1,000, so about could be more easily investigated.
10 books would take up 1,000 pages,” Mike wondered whether 1,000
reasoned Pat. His ability to apply what people liked Alan Iverson, an NBA
he knew about 1,000 to this new basketball player for the Philadelphia
problem was further evidence of his ’76ers. His prediction: Yes, because 3
well-developed sense of numbers. people I know like him. Imagine the rest!
The more I worked with Mary- I suggested that he collect data about
ann’s class and the more questions I his question in order to verify his
posed, the more information I was able prediction. Instead of collecting data,
to gather about their number sense. It he made a conjecture that included
is this experience with children over some logic: I still think the same because
time that allows a teacher to build a a lot of people like him in Philadelphia
profile of students’ understanding and that’s where the home team is so I
about numbers. think 1,000 people will like him!
“What you’re to do is figure out However, most students were able
the answer to your 1,000 question and to use mathematics to answer their
explain how you got your answer using 1,000 questions. Christopher
words and numbers,” I instructed. I wondered how long it would take him
passed back their papers, which I had to read 1,000 Animorphs books. He’d
Navigating the
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110

estimated that it would take six beginning of power driven machines.

months. When investigating the Before that, people could still build
answer, Christopher wrote: 3 × 1,000. houses, pyramids, and cities.
I’m counting by threes because it takes me On the second day of the in-
three days to read one book. I have to vestigation, Case had estimated that
read 1,000 books. I counted by 3s: 3, 6, 1,000 Lego sets at 50 dollars each
9, 12, 15, 18, 21. I realized I can just would cost a million dollars. Re-
add 1,000 3 times. So it would probably searching his question, he realized his
take me 3000 days to read 1,000 error through simple arithmetic. He
Animorphs books. 3000 days is about wrote: Each big pack costs at least $50.
71/2 years and some left over days. I I used a calculator. I put 50 × 1,000
figured out 71/2 years by 21/2 years which and it = 50,000. Then I checked it by
is about 1,000 days. Six months was my adding 1,000 50 times. My estimate
estimate. I was way off. I was 7 years off. was $950,000 off. I figured that out by
Sagan had estimated that there using a calculator. I pushed in
could be 1,000 spots on a dalmatian, 1,000,000 and subtracted 50,000 and
because a puppy has about 50 spots. it = 950,000. I could of bought 19,000
Her investigation led her to an more sets. I know that because I pushed
encyclopedia. She wrote: There’s about in 950,000 divided by 50 and it =
240 spots on a full grown dalmatian. I 19,000.
used a picture in an encyclopedia. There Case’s written description revealed
was about 120 on one side then I doubled the sophistication of his reasoning.
it for the other side. I got 240. It would Initially I had questioned Case’s number
take 5 dalmatians to make 1,000 spots. sense and wondered what his reaction
In Joe’s initial estimate of the would be to the difference between his
distance from the United States to estimate and the actual answer.
Europe, he thought that if you traveled Knowing what students understand and
1,000 miles, you would circle the globe don’t understand is difficult. A teacher
five times. Using a map, Joe discovered needs to listen as students work
that 1,000 miles isn’t as far as he together, pay attention to their
originally thought. He wrote: I am responses in class discussions, and assign
doing San Diego to Germany. It’s only written work that can provide further
1,000 miles from San Diego to insights into how they reason.
Oklahoma. It’s 6,000 miles from San
Diego to Germany. I estimated too far.
Susan, investigating whether RUSTY ANSWERS
people knew about technology 1,000 YOUR QUESTIONS
years ago, consulted an encyclopedia
and wrote: Technology refers to all the
What is the purpose of this
ways people use their inventions. Cars,
activity?
computers, fax machines, airplanes, and
submarines are all examples of This activity, based on a children’s
technology. 200 years ago was the story, helps students build number
 All About 1,000

111

sense in several ways. The story estimates were reasonable. Children

suggests many different ways to think need to have opportunities to think
about and visualize the number 1,000. about the reasonableness of estimates
Students further develop the concept in the context of real-life situations like
of 1,000 by posing questions and the ones in this activity.
creating their own contexts for
exploring the number. Because our Can I use this activity in third
number system is based on the powers grade?
of ten, 1,000 and other multiples of
We often expect children to
ten are important numbers for
understand and work with numbers
students to know about.
that are beyond their reach. Even
Understanding what numbers
adults find references to things like
mean as quantities, in context, and in
“trillion-dollar budgets” or “billion-
relation to other numbers are all
dollar debts” very difficult to
important aspects of number sense. In
comprehend. Students can often read
fact, one cannot make sense of
and write very large numbers, but
numbers without attaching meaning to
understanding these numbers and the
them. Manipulating numbers without
quantities they represent is a very
having a sense of their quantity is like
different thing.
decoding words without under-
In third grade, some students may
standing what they mean.
be able to understand what the
number 1,000 means; for others, it
Why did you have students will be too large. In every class there’s a
estimate before finding the answer range of understanding and ability.
to their 1,000 question? The number 100 might be more
appropriate for some third graders.
Having the students estimate an
You shouldn’t expect all third graders
answer to their 1,000 question let me
to be able to work with the number
assess whether they have a sense of the
1,000.
effect operations have on numbers. For
Nevertheless, this activity can be
example, Case wondered how much
adjusted for different grade levels and
1,000 big Lego sets would cost if each
for different students within a class.
set cost $50. His estimate of a million
While some students work on the
dollars allowed me to tap into his sense
number 1,000, others can explore 100,
of how big or how small the answer
10,000, or even 1,000,000.
might be. When Case calculated the
exact answer, he was able to compare it
What’s the benefit of having
with his estimate, giving him valuable
students generate their own
feedback and an opportunity to
problems to solve?
compare quantities.
Having students estimate first Putting children in charge of making
gives them a stake in the results: they sense of a problem gives them the
want to find out whether their opportunity to develop their number
Navigating the
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112

sense. The problems that students Animorphs books and then needs to
create and solve in this activity push figure out a way to answer his
them to apply the concepts and skills question. First he thinks about how
they’ve learned in new and different long it takes him to read one book
ways. They develop a 1,000 question, (three days). This gives him the
define the problem to be solved, numbers to use: three and 1,000. Then
identify the numbers and operations to he starts skip counting by threes until
be used, and perform the calculations he realizes that he can multiply three
in a way that makes sense to them. For times 1,000. This is very different from
example, Christopher wonders how being given a problem and being told
long it will take him to read 1,000 which numbers and operations to use.
 G

9 Stand Up and
Be Counted

Overview
Students’ number sense is enhanced when they have many opportunities to think
about numbers in a variety of ways. At the beginning of this activity, the class
brainstorms how to describe the number 25 in as many ways as possible. Then, each
student draws a number (1 through 100) at random from a paper bag and, using
these earlier ideas as a model, writes sentences that describe this number. Volunteers
then take turns reading statements about their number. Students stand up if a
statement is also true about their number.

Materials Needed
A 1–100 chart, cut into separate numbers.
A bag or other container.

Teaching Directions

1. Ask students to describe the number 25 in as many ways as they can, and record
their ideas on the chalkboard or on a projected transparency.

2. Pass around a bag filled with 100 squares of paper numbered 1 through 100.
After each student has drawn a number, ask the class to write down
statements that describe their number, just as they did as a class for the
number 25.

3. Ask a volunteer to read one statement at a time from his or her list as the other
students listen. If a statement is also true about their number, students must 113
Navigating the
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114

stand up. If a statement isn’t true about their number, they must remain seated.
(Students who are standing when a statement is read that isn’t true about their
number must sit down.)

Extension: Same and Different

Have the students, in pairs, compare how their numbers are the same and how they
are different.
 Stand Up and
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IN THE CLASSROOM room and quickly sketched five rows

WITH RUSTY and five columns, making 25 little
squares inside the larger square.
Together, we counted the squares by
Introducing the Activity fives. “See, it’s shape is a square,” said
Rebecca. “You could make nine like
“Today we’re going to think about that too. It would be a three-by-three-
numbers in different ways so that we inch square.”
can see how they’re related,” I told Pam An important key to developing
Long’s sixth graders. “Let’s start with number sense is asking students to
the number 25.” I wrote 25 on the explain their thinking at all times, not
chalkboard. “What comes to your just when they make mistakes.
mind when I say 25?” Questioning students gives several
“It’s an odd number,” said important messages: you value their
Michael. I wrote odd number on the ideas; math is about reasoning, not just
chalkboard underneath 25. “What memorizing; and students should
else?” I asked. always look to make sense of math-
“It’s a date on the calendar,” said ematical problems.
Terry. I recorded Terry’s comment. (I “Other ideas about the number
continued in this vein, adding each 25?” I continued.
new contribution as it was made.) “It’s half of 50,” said Mindy.
“It’s a square number,” offered “And it’s a quarter of a dollar!”
Rebecca. Jenny exclaimed.
“How do you know that?” I asked. “It’s the number of pennies in a
“Because five times five is 25,” she quarter,” added Brennan.
said. “How could you write that using
“That’s true,” I confirmed. “Can decimals?” I asked.
you explain why 25 is called a square “Can I show?” asked Brennan.
number?” “Sure,” I replied. Brennan walked
“Well, because you can make a up to the board and wrote .25 next to
square that’s five inches by five inches,” the sentence he had contributed.
Rebecca explained. “What else can we say about 25?”
I took a ruler and traced a five- I asked.
inch-by-five-inch square on the “It’s a multiple of five because you
chalkboard. “Like this?” I asked. can divide five into 25 evenly,”
Rebecca nodded her head in agree- explained Anne.
ment. “Where does the 25 come in?” “You can get to it by counting by
I inquired. fives,” said Michael. “That’s kind of
“Inside the square the area is 25 the same thing that Anne just said.”
square inches,” she replied. “It’s like two dimes and a nickel,”
“Can you show us what you mean reported Devin.
on the chalkboard?” I asked her. The ability to represent numbers
Rebecca walked to the front of the in a variety of ways is important to
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number sense. I continued probing. tell you how to play it when you’re
“How else could you make 25?” finished writing.”
“Twenty-four and one more,” said After I’d distributed the numbers,
Terry. I reminded students about what they
“One dime and three nickels,” were to do and gave them about
added Kimberly. twenty minutes to write. While they
“It’s the answer to 100 divided by worked, I circulated through the room,
four,” said Denny. observing and offering my help when
“It’s the date that Christmas falls it was needed. (Figures 9.1 and 9.2 are
on!” cried Carl. Everybody laughed. examples of clues two students came
“Or the weight of a turkey on up with.) When the twenty minutes
Thanksgiving!” Ashley exclaimed. The were up I called the class back to
students laughed again. attention.
“How about the cost of a daily “To play Stand Up and Be
newspaper?” said Brennan. “That’s Counted, a volunteer reads the
how much the North County Times statements about his or her number, one
costs. at a time,” I began. “If the statement
“The ones digit is greater than the that’s read fits your number, you’re going
tens digit,” said Jenny. to stand up. If the next statement that’s
I had nearly filled up the read doesn’t fit your number, you sit
chalkboard with their ideas about the down. You’re to listen to each statement
number 25. “I have room for one more that’s read to see whether it’s true about
idea,” I said. your number. We’ll practice first using
“It’s a quarter of a century,” said our statements from the number 25 so
Jenny. you can see how the game is played.” I
At this point I thought the read from the board, “The ones digit is
children had enough experience greater than the tens digit.” A few
thinking about the number 25, and students hesitantly stood up next to
turned their attention to the brown their desk. “Remember, if your number’s
paper bag I was holding. Before class, ones digit is greater than the tens digit,
I’d cut up a 1–100 chart and placed please stand up,” I reminded them.
the little numbered paper squares Several more students stood up. “What
inside the bag. As I shook the bag, I numbers might be standing up right
told the students what was inside. now?” I asked.
“As I walk by, I’d like each of you “Any number like 89 or 34 or 12,”
to take one number from the bag,” I said Jenny.
instructed. “When you get your “I think that half the class should
number, you’re to think about it and be standing,” Carl conjectured. “But
write down as many statements as you we didn’t use all the numbers in the
can, just like we did with the number bag and we don’t know which of the
25. After you’ve written your numbers between one and 100 people
statements, we’re going to play a game have.”
called Stand Up and Be Counted. I’ll “Why do you think the ones digit
 Stand Up and
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117

FIGURE 9.1
Michael’s clues for the number 10.

FIGURE 9.2
Ashley’s clues for the number 36.
Navigating the
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118

is greater than the tens digit in half the “Why do you think that?” I
numbers between one and 100?” I probed.
asked. “Because if you count by fives, all
“I don’t know,” Carl began. “It the multiples either end in zero or
seems like if you’ve got the digits zero five,” he explained.
through nine to work with, then about “Count by fives and I’ll write the
half the time the bigger digit will be in numbers on the chalkboard to see if
the ones place and about half the time you’re correct,” I said to Michael.
the bigger number will be in the tens “Five, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 . . . ,” he
place.” counted while I wrote the numbers.
“If we colored in a one-to-100 “See, they all end in zero or five.”
chart, I bet we could count and see,” Number sense requires an attitude of
suggested Anne. sense making on the part of the
“That would be one way to check learner. Michael’s confidence with
Carl’s idea,” I said. “Now I’m going to numbers and his ability and deter-
read the next statement. If you’re mination to identify patterns and see
standing right now, and the next relationships are indicators of number
statement fits your number, stay sense.
standing. If it doesn’t fit your number, Next I read, “One hundred divided
please sit down. If you’re seated and the by four.” Only Nick remained standing;
statement fits your number, stand up.” he had the number 25. “Some
“It’s an odd number,” I read. About statements will be true for many
half the students stood up. numbers, some for only a few, and
“It’s about half the class again,” some for only one number,” I said.
said Carl. “I think half the numbers are “Who would like to read your
odd and half are even.” statements one at a time for the class?”
I was impressed with Carl’s Lots of hands raised. I called on Jenny.
curiosity about numbers. “Are you “My number is odd,” she began.
sure?” I asked. This caused a stir. About half the students stood up. “My
Although we didn’t have time to number’s digits added together come to
investigate Carl’s conjecture then, I five,” she read. This time, only a few
wanted to acknowledge it. “This students were standing.
would be a good question for us to “Which numbers might be
investigate sometime.” Then I returned standing now?” I asked.
to reading statements from the “Numbers like 32, 23, and 41,”
chalkboard. “It’s a multiple of five.” said Elise.
Several students remained standing, “Or 50,” added Julie.
and a few others stood up. “What “My number is a prime number,”
numbers might be standing up right Jenny continued.
now?” I asked. “Can someone describe what a
“I think the numbers that are prime number is?” I asked.
standing up now all either end in zero “It’s a number that has only two
or five,” guessed Michael. factors, like two is prime and it has
 Stand Up and
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119

itself and one as factors and that’s all,” “What numbers could be standing
Don explained. now?” I asked.
“What else can we say about prime “Thirty-one,” said Julie.
numbers?” I probed. “It could also be 22,” added
“Well, I think most of them are Denny.
odd but two is prime so not all of “Eleven is a factor of my number,”
them are odd numbers,” said Mark. José continued.
“I want the students who are “What numbers could be standing
standing to call out your number one now?” I asked.
at a time, and I’ll record them on the “Forty-four,” Katie replied,
chalkboard,” I said. Students called out “because 11 times four is 44.”
2, 7, 11, 19, 23, and 47. “Let’s “Also 22, because 11 times two is
examine these numbers to see whether 22,” Kimberly noted.
they have only one and themselves as “It could be 11, 22, 33, 44, 55,
factors,” I told them. The students 66, 77, 88, and 99,” said Carl.
studied the numbers, and after a “There’s a pattern, too! It’s like 11
moment most were nodding their head times one, 11 times two, 11 times 3,
in agreement. like that.”
“All of them are odd except for the “My number is the number of Emitt
number two,” Mark observed. Smith of the Cowboys,” said José. He
“That’s correct,” I said. I then then stood up and announced that his
motioned to Jenny to continue. number was 22.
“My number is under 40,” Jenny “Now let’s have students read a
read as she finished her statements. statement from their paper that has
“Okay, Jenny. Tell us what your only one correct answer,” I in-
number is,” I said. structed.
“It’s 23,” she told the class. Xavier began waving his hand
“Who else would like to read their back and forth with enthusiasm. “The
statements?” I asked. I called on José. number on Steve Young’s jersey!” he
“My number is even,” he began. exclaimed. Everyone laughed.
About half the class stood up. “My “For those of us who aren’t ’49er
number has two digits.” fans or who don’t watch football, could
“Do I need to have a number you tell us your number?” I asked him.
that’s both even and two digits to stand “My number is eight,” he said as
up?” asked Kimberly. he stood up.
“Those students with two-digit “Two times a decade plus ten,” said
numbers, even or odd, can stand up Terry. Xavier sat down and Terry was
now,” I replied. “Listen to each clue the only student who stood up.
separately to see whether it’s true for “My number is the sum of 12 plus
your number.” 12 and the product of 12 times two,”
“The sum of my digits is four,” José said Devin. Devin stood up and Terry
read. Some students sat down, while sat down.
others stood up. “Can someone read a statement so
Navigating the
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120

that more than one person will be numbers have different meanings
standing?” I asked. depending on the person who is
“The difference between the digits in thinking about the numbers.”
my number is one,” Anne read. Understanding the relative size or
“What numbers could be standing magnitude of numbers is an important
now?” I asked. element of number sense.
“Numbers like 45 or 54,” said That ended math class for the
Daniel. day, but Pam Long used Stand Up
“Or numbers like 98 or 89,” and Be Counted throughout the week
added Elise. as a warm-up. She found that with
“My number is a composite practice, the game’s procedural
number,” Katie read. elements became easier for the
“What’s a composite number?” I students. This freed them to focus on
asked, suspecting that some students the characteristics of the numbers
would need clarification. used and how the numbers were
“It’s not a prime number,” she related.
answered, “and it has more than two
factors.” This time, lots of students
stood up. Extending the Activity
Elise read next. “It’s a number when
you are old.” It took a few seconds for Patti Reynolds’s fifth graders had been
students to stand up; many of them playing Stand Up and Be Counted for
were thinking hard about this state- several days when I introduced an
ment. extension of the activity called Same
“What numbers could be standing and Different. I wanted them to focus
up now?” I asked. on how numbers relate to one another.
“Well, I think it depends on what While these fifth graders were building
you think old is,” said Andy. on the work they did with Stand Up
“I’m curious about the numbers and Be Counted, it isn’t necessarily a
that are standing up now,” I said. prerequisite.
“My number is 79,” said Xavier. Each student had already drawn a
“That’s how old I think my great- number from 1 through 100 and had
grandmother is, and she’s old.” written several statements about this
“My number is 45,” added Daniel. number. Their statements were in front
“That’s the age of my dad.” of them on their desks. I began by
“I wonder what age would be writing the number 25 at the top of
considered old by a kindergartner?” I the chalkboard. “Would anyone like to
asked the class. volunteer their number so that I can
“Probably 11 or 12, like us!” write it down next to 25?” I asked.
Jennifer exclaimed. Everyone laughed. Jaime wiggled his hand in the air,
“I agree,” I said. “You all would desperate to volunteer. I finally called
probably seem pretty old to a child on him.
who is only five years old. Sometimes “Seventy-one,” he said. “I don’t
 Stand Up and
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121

like my number. It’s too hard to think “Well, it’s like a number that’s easy
of things to say about it.” to work with,” he replied. “Like if you
I wrote 71 next to 25 on the have to multiply 26 times five, you
chalkboard and asked Jaime why he could go to 25 times five first and
thought his number was difficult. that’s easier.”
“I don’t know,” he replied. After a “What other numbers are easy to
few seconds, he said “Maybe because work with?” I prodded.
it’s a prime number. It’s kind of weird.” “Numbers like ten, 50, and 100,”
“Let’s see if we can learn more Angela said.
about Jaime’s number,” I said to the “Or 500 or 1,000,” added
class. “We’re going to compare the Jaime.
numbers 25 and 71. I want you to Landmark numbers are numbers
think about how these numbers are the which are familiar landing places,
same and how they’re different.” which make for simple calculations (as
“They’re both odd numbers,” José pointed out), and to which other
Jaime said. “I knew that already about numbers can be related. Because our
my number.” I wrote odd numbers on number system is based on powers of
the chalkboard in the Same column. (I ten, the numbers 10, 100, and 1,000
added each successive comment to the are especially important landmarks.
chart as the students shared their Knowing about these landmark
ideas.) numbers, their multiples, and their
“They both have two digits,” factors is the basis of good number
offered Anna. sense.
“Both numbers have themselves as “How else do 25 and 71 com-
factors,” added Joe. pare?” I continued.
“Seventy-one is prime and 25 is a “Twenty-five is one fourth of 100
square number,” said Mary. “When we and 71 is almost three fourths of 100,”
learned how to play Stand Up and Be observed Vicky.
Counted, we talked about the number “Twenty-five is divisible by five
25.” and has three factors, and 71 has only
Lots of hands were raised now. I two factors,” said Steve.
called on Asha. “Twenty-five is a day of the month
“Seventy-one is greater than 25,” and 71 can’t be,” Krissy said.
she said.
“The sum of the digits in 25 is
seven, and the sum of the digits in 71 A Writing Assignment
is eight,” added Vicky.
“When you double 71, you get an When the chart on the chalkboard was
answer in the hundreds,” said José. filled with phrases describing how the
“Twenty-five is a landmark number numbers 25 and 71 were the same and
and 71 isn’t.” how they were different, I gave the
“Explain what you mean by a students directions for their next task.
landmark number, José,” I said. “Now I’d like for you to find a
Navigating the
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122

partner,” I began. “When you have a years! Also, if you round both of our
partner, raise your hand and I’ll give numbers to the nearest hundred, you’d
you a piece of paper. You and your round them to 100.”
partner will write your names at the “Our numbers are 88 and 87,”
top and also write your two numbers. said José. “They’re only one number
Work together to write as many away from each other, and Roald
statements as you can about how your Dahl’s book Esio Trot has 88 pages.
two numbers are the same and how And if you rounded them to the
they’re different, just like we did with nearest ten, you’d round them to 90.”
the numbers 25 and 71. I would like “Both of our numbers, 88 and 33,
you to take turns doing the writing, have digits that are the same and both
and remember that each of you needs have 11 as a factor,” said Carryanne.
to contribute ideas.” “Eighty-eight is the age of an old adult
and 33 is the age of a young adult.”
(See figure 9.3 for the rest of
A Class Discussion Carryanne and her partner’s work. )
“Our numbers are 78 and 83,”
After about thirty minutes, I called the Samuel chimed in. “One is odd and
class together for a discussion. “What one is even, and when we added them
was easy and what was difficult about together we got 161, and that’s odd.
this task?” I asked. When we multiplied them together we
“It helped that we already wrote got 6,474 and that’s even!” (Samuel
about our numbers before,” said and his partner’s work is shown in
Shaun, “and it helped that we worked figure 9.4.)
with a partner. It was more fun.” When partners had finished
“I liked taking turns writing,” sharing ideas about their numbers,
offered Antonio, Shaun’s partner. “It Brandy asked a final question: “Why
made it easier.” are we doing this activity?”
“Sometimes it’s hard to figure out I paused and several students
what factors the numbers have in giggled nervously. “That’s a good
common,” said Angela. “We had to question,” I said. “Whenever I teach a
find the factors of each of our numbers lesson, I need to know why I’m
and that took some time.” teaching it and how it helps you with
“It helped that we worked with 25 math. I think this is a good activity for
and 71 before to give us an idea about several reasons. One is that it helps you
how to do the job,” Melissa said. recognize that numbers can be used in
“Would anyone like to share many different ways. It also helps you
something you think is interesting understand what numbers mean and
about your numbers?” I asked. how they relate to one another. This
“Our numbers were 75 and 66,” activity may also help us all think
Tabatha reported. “Vicky told me that about math in a different way.”
the longest-living parakeet has lived 75 “I think this is a good activity
 Stand Up and
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123

because it gives me an idea of what you used in the world.” Later, Patti
know about numbers,” added Patti commented that she thought having
Reynolds, their teacher. “I’m impressed the students work together and discuss
that you know so much about factors, their thinking was a very effective
prime and square numbers, odd and approach.
even numbers, and how numbers are

FIGURE 9.3
Carryanne and her partner compared 88 and 33.
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FIGURE 9.4
Samuel and his partner compared 83 and 78.
 Stand Up and
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125

a two-column table or a Venn

RUSTY ANSWERS diagram, for example.
YOUR QUESTIONS
What do I do if my students don’t
What is the purpose of this have much experience thinking
activity? and talking about numbers?
Number sense has often been described For students with little experience in
as good intuition about numbers and talking about numbers in different
their relationships. The purpose of this ways, this activity may seem difficult at
activity is for students to learn about first. In that case, you may want to
the characteristics of numbers, to see model the activity several times before
how they’re related, and to use turning the students loose on it
mathematical vocabulary to discuss themselves. Also, asking the following
them. questions will help students generate
ideas:
Are there ways to do the activity
differently?
• How is your number used in the
Instead of writing about their numbers real world?
individually, students could work with • Is your number odd or even?
partners. This might provide more • Is your number prime or composite?
support for children who have dif- • Is your number a multiple of
ficulty thinking about the charac- another number?
teristics of numbers. • What are the factors of your
There are times during any number?
activity when someone’s question or • What is the sum of the digits in
conjecture can lead to a stimulating your number?
class discussion. For example, in Pam • In what ways can your number be
Long’s sixth-grade class, Carl thought taken apart and put back together?
that in half of the numbers between • Is your number a square number?
one and 100, the digit in the tens • How many factors does your
place would be larger than in the number have?
ones. We didn’t have the time to • Is it a number of a day of the
explore this idea fully. It’s always a month?
good idea to record on chart paper • Can you relate your number to
any ideas about which the class is money? What coins could you use
curious, confused, or in disagreement; to add up to your number?
that way, it’s easier to return to them • Which is greater, the digit in the
at a later time. ones place or the tens place?
When doing the Same and • Does your number have one, two,
Different extension, you might want to or three digits?
talk with students about various ways • Can you relate your number to
they can organize their comparisons— measurement?
Navigating the
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126

• Can you relate your number to • Are students familiar with the
someone’s age? Does your number language of numbers and
represent the age of a young person? operations? This might include such
a teenager? an older person? things as factor, multiple, sum,
• What’s half of your number? twice difference, divisible, prime numbers,
your number? composite numbers, and square
• Can you get to your number numbers.
counting by twos? fives? tens? • Are students able to figure out the
• Is your number greater or less than factors of their number?
the number of students in the • Do students know whether their
room? number is a multiple of other
numbers?
• Do students understand the relative
What are some ways to assess a
size of numbers? Do they use or
student’s number sense in this
understand clues like more than, less
activity?
than, and halfway between?
This activity can be used to assess • Are students able to think about
what an individual student or the class numbers in different ways? Can they
as a whole knows about numbers, relate numbers to a variety of
operations, and mathematical contexts?
vocabulary. When teaching this • Do students understand that
activity, keep the following questions numbers can be taken apart and put
in mind: back together? (For example, the
number 50 can be thought of as 25
• Do students know if their number is plus 25, or ten times four plus ten,
odd or even? or 20 plus 20 plus 10, etc.)
 G

10 Guess My
Number

Overview
Guess My Number is a simple warm-up activity that gets students thinking and
participating. Students always enjoy guessing games, and this one gives them
practice with thinking about characteristics of numbers as well as experience with
thinking strategically. Students guess a secret number from within a range on the
basis of being told whether their guesses are greater or less than the number. The
game (and variations of it—see the extensions below) can be played many times
over the year.

Teaching Directions

1. Choose a secret number.

2. Tell the class the range of numbers your number falls within (1 to 10, 50 to 100,
1 to 100, whatever).
3. Have individual students guess your secret number; if their guess is incorrect,
announce whether your number is greater or less than the number guessed.
4. Continue until someone guesses your secret number.

Extensions

1. Choose a secret number within a wider range (1 to 500, 1 to 1000). Then give
one clue about your secret number (ends with zero; odd; sum of the digits is ten;
etc.). Ask students to investigate the possible numbers and play the game as before.
2. Play the game using a fraction or a decimal as the secret number.
127
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IN THE CLASSROOM and 89. Antoine’s guess of 51 was

WITH CAREN superfluous. There were a few snorts
and heavy sighs.
Since a safe environment in which
Introducing the Activity to think about new ideas and take risks
is critical to a successful math class, I
“I’ve got a secret number between one needed to address this head on. I was
and 100,” I told Serena Thakur and concerned that Antoine and several
Dina Calvin’s third and fourth graders. other students would be reluctant to
“Raise your hand if you want to guess participate if the threat of humiliation
what it is.” Almost everyone wanted to loomed. As a teacher, I need to provide
guess. I called on Eddie. the appropriate arena and set the
“Ten?” he asked. proper tone. I can’t let snide comments
“My number is greater than ten,” I or belittling remarks slide by. I need to
responded. show the class, through my words and
“How about 50?” suggested Mae. actions, that all thinking is valued and
“My number is greater than 50,” I all individuals are respected.
told her. “When we are learning a new
Since the class was just learning game like this,” I told the class, “all
the game, I recorded each child’s guess guesses are fine. It’s not okay to make
on a projected transparency, and drew anyone feel bad about his guess.
an up arrow next to it to indicate my Everyone has the right to think and
number was greater. (Sometimes I play talk about his ideas without feeling
the game without giving any visual bad. If people are worried about being
clues. Then the students are forced to made fun of, they’re not able to do
listen very carefully to each guess and their best thinking. Brain researchers
remember my responses.) I called on have proved this. Your brain doesn’t
Hans next. work as well when you don’t feel safe
“Ninety?” he guessed. and respected. So, when someone says
“My number is less than 90,” I something, even if you disagree, you
said as I wrote down 90 and drew a need to listen quietly and respond
down arrow next to it. respectfully. Does everyone un-
“Sixty-five?” guessed Carolina. derstand why this is so important?” I
“My number is greater,” I replied. paused, making eye contact with
“Fifty-one?” asked Antoine. everyone. “Now, who else has a
“My number is greater than 51,” I guess?”
told him. “Sixty-nine?” Donald ventured.
Some of the students were less “My number is greater than 69,” I
than pleased with Antoine’s guess. told him as I recorded it on the
Since I had already said that my overhead.
number was greater than 65 and less “Seventy-three?” offered Reggie.
than 90, most of the students knew my “My number is greater than 73
number was somewhere between 66 also,” I answered. I pointed to the
 Guess My Number

129

numbers and arrows on the overhead, logical thinking to try to narrow down
which were: the possibilities.
I asked for another guess.
90 ↓ “Eighty?” asked Hans.
65 ↑ “My number is greater,” I told
51 ↑ him.
69 ↑ “Eighty-nine?” guessed Carolina.
73 ↑ “It’s less than 89. Put a thumb up
if you think you have a pretty good
“Okay, I’m going to give you a idea of what my number might be,” I
minute or two to talk at your tables directed the class. I wanted to make
about my secret number. Tell each sure everyone was still actively
other what you think you know about involved. “Okay, raise your hand if
my number and what number you you want to guess.” I called on Mae.
might want to guess next.” After a “Eighty-five?”
short time, I called everyone back to “My number is greater than 85.”
attention. “Can someone tell us “Eighty-eight?” guessed Eddie.
something you think you know about “Yes. That’s my number. Now let’s
my secret number? I’m not asking for a try the super challenging version of
guess right now. I’m asking about my Guess My Number,” I invited. “This
number.” time I’m going to pick a secret number
“We know it’s less than 90 and between one and 500. That’s a lot of
greater than 73,” Abbie said. numbers. Since there are so many
“All right,” I replied. possibilities I’m going to give you one
“I think it’s in the 80s, most hint. The hint is that my number ends
likely,” added Jack. with a zero. Would someone give us an
“Why do you think that?” I example of a number that’s possible?”
questioned. Many students were ready and willing.
“Because there’s more numbers left “One hundred,” suggested Andy.
in the 80s than in the 70s,” Jack “Yes, 100 is possible because 100
explained. “It can’t be 70 or 71 or 72 ends with zero,” I agreed. “How about
or 73 because we already guessed 73 an impossible number? Can you give
and you said it’s greater. But it can be an example of a number you can
anywhere in the 80s.” definitely eliminate?”
Brief discussions like this help “Two hundred and sixty-eight,”
build number sense. Having students offered Joaquin.
think, talk, and explain their views “Right,” I said, “because 268 ends
helps them build confidence and with eight and not zero. So who wants
strengthen their understanding of the to guess my number?”
number system. Students have time to “How about 410?” volunteered
consider relative quantities and use Linda.
concepts such as greater than, less “My number is less.” I wrote 410
than, and in between. They also use with a down arrow next to it.
Navigating the
Number System

130

“Three hundred and thirty?” asked impressed with her number sense. She
Eddie. clearly had a grasp of the problem and
“Less,” I replied. understood how to use division to find
Ryan tried 150. the answer.
“It’s greater than 150,” I told him. Although the question itself hadn’t
been much of a challenge for Andy, I
decided to push her by asking her to
Introducing an write about her thinking. “Wow,” I
Investigation said, “that’s an interesting way to think
about it. Can you write that down and
Since the students understood the explain it on your paper? That way I’ll
parameters and were engaged in be able to remember.”
thinking about the numbers, this Donald also had a “chunking”
seemed like a good time to push a little approach. He counted by tens on his
harder. “I’m getting curious about fingers to 100. “Oh, it’s 50,” he
something. I wonder how many announced upon reaching 100.
numbers there are between one and “How do you know?” I asked.
500 that end in zero.” He explained. “There’s 10
“Fifty,” Andy blurted out almost numbers that end in zero up to 100, so
instantly. times that by five for 500.”
I ignored her for the moment. I visited some other tables to see
“I’m going to give you a little time to how they were doing. My visits
talk at your tables about this. Don’t uncovered a range of thinking, and I
just come up with an answer. I want to was able to make some important
hear how you figured it out. Use paper observations about the students’
and pencil so you can prove your number sense. Carolina was struggling
idea.” with 50 times ten. She had been
sitting next to Andy and had
overheard our earlier conversation. I
Observing the Students think she was trying to use Andy’s
idea, which didn’t really make sense to
While the students worked on this her. I asked her why she chose the
question, I circulated. I asked Andy numbers 50 and 10, and she couldn’t
about her answer. “It’s simple,” she tell me. I was also alarmed to see she
explained, “because every ten numbers was implementing the standard
ends with zero, and 500 divided by ten multiplication algorithm to solve the
is 50.” It took me a moment to digest problem. She had written:
this. Andy realized that numbers that
end with zero are multiples of ten. So 50
she had divided 500 into groups of ten × 10
to find out how many multiples of ten 00
there were. Those numbers would be 50
the numbers that end in zero. I was 500
 Guess My Number

131

Why did she go to all that trouble? trying to hint that a plan is a good
If there was ever a problem for a fourth thing.
grader to solve mentally, 50 × 10 is it. “I’m writing down numbers that
Was it possible that she really didn’t end with zero,” he replied.
have the ability to solve the equation “How will you know you found
any other way? Or had she just been them all?” I asked, again hinting at a
programmed to deal with all bigger picture.
multiplication problems only in this “I’ll just count them when I’m
way? Did she stop to think about the done.”
numbers at all before she began? I The conversation appeared to be
couldn’t make a judgment about going nowhere. I decided to let him
Carolina’s number sense from this one continue his haphazard quest for the
event. I had a lot more to find out moment. I counted on the upcoming
about her. I knew she was struggling whole-class discussion to help him see
with the problem in general, so I didn’t other ways to think about the job.
want to put additional pressure on her
at the moment. I needed to get back to
her in another context and ask her to Continuing the Activity
solve 50 × 10 in her head. That way I’d
know if she was able to do it mentally It was time we finished the game we
and she just didn’t think to use mental had started. I referred to the three
arithmetic in this situation. clues we already had. “So you know
Some other students were my number is less than 410, less than
counting by tens and writing each 330, and more than 150. You also
number down. Then they were know a lot about numbers that end in
counting up all the numbers on their zero from all the work you just did.
paper. Others were counting by tens Who would like to take a guess?” I
aloud and keeping track with their called on Chalisa.
fingers. While these methods didn’t “Two hundred and fifty?” she
have the elegance of Andy’s, the asked.
students were at least organizing their “My number is greater.”
work in a systematic way. “Three hundred and fifty?” Reggie
I was concerned about the tried.
students who were just randomly “My number is less.”
writing numbers that ended in zero. “Three hundred,” guessed Abbie.
They didn’t seem to be organizing their “My number is less than 300,” I
work or taking control of the problem. replied.
Joey, for example, had started by “It has to be 260, 270, 280, or
writing the guesses the class had started 290,” Donald volunteered.
with: 410, 330, 150. Then he “Really?” I challenged.
continued adding to the list: 240, 60, “Yeah,” interjected Andy, “because
110 . . . . it’s between 250 and 300.”
“So what’s your plan?” I asked, “How about 280?” Eddie asked.
Navigating the
Number System

132

“My number is less.” lengthier investigation. “Okay,” I said,

“Two hundred and seventy,” Jack “this time I’ve got a number between
stated with authority. one and 500. I have one hint for you.
“My number is less,” I announced. The digits in my number add up to
The students now knew my secret ten. Can anyone give an example of a
number and hands were flailing number it might be?” I called on
frantically. Rather than pick one Courtney.
student to be the hero, I decided to let “Nineteen,” she said.
the whole group answer. “Put your “Yes,” I agreed, as I wrote 19 on
hands down please,” I asked as I waited the board, “19 works because one plus
for calm. “I’m going to count to three, nine equals ten. How about another
and when I say three you will use your example?”
indoor voice to say the answer. One. “Two hundred and eighty,”
Two. Three.” volunteered Albert.
“Two hundred and sixty!!!” was the “Right,” I responded, “because
enthusiastic chorus in a slightly louder two plus eight plus zero equals ten.
tone than I had bargained for. How about some other possibilities?”
“That’s right,” I acknowledged. “Four hundred and forty-two,”
“So now you know how to play the said Mousqa.
super challenging version of Guess My “Six hundred and forty.” This
Number. Maybe next time one of you came from Johnna.
can think of a secret number and a As I wrote 640 on the board,
hint and we can try to guess your several students protested. At first I
number.” The students seemed excited didn’t understand their concern.
by the possibility. “What’s wrong with 640?” I asked.
“Six and four and zero make ten.”
“Yeah,” explained Edwin, “but it’s
Using the Activity with supposed to be between one and 500.”
Sixth Graders “Oh, I see.” I turned to Johnna.
“You’re right that the sum of the digits
I started the activity with Pam Long’s of 640 equals ten, but 640 is more
sixth graders exactly as I had with the than 500. So it can’t be my secret
third and fourth graders. We played a number.”
quick game with a number between
one and 100. Then we moved on to a
number between one and 500 that
Introducing an
ended in zero, this time going right Investigation
into a whole-class discussion about
how many possibilities there were Seeing that the students understood
rather than taking time for each table my rule, I decided to incorporate a bit
to work on it first. of estimation. “So, I have this secret
Then I started a third game with number somewhere between one and
the class, in which I planned to pose a 500. You know there are fewer than
 Guess My Number

133

500 possibilities, because the number about your job right now?” The
has to have digits that add up to ten. I students were clear on the assignment,
wonder how many numbers there are so I let them get to work.
between one and 500 that fit my rule.
When we played Guess My Number
earlier, we found that there are 50 Observing the Students
numbers between one and 500 that
end with zero. Do you think there are The investigation was very rich, and I
more or fewer numbers with digits that had a lot of time to circulate
add up to ten? Let’s get some throughout the room while the
estimates.” students worked on the problem. My
“I think there are going to be 50 visits to different tables were fascinating
again,” speculated Bryan. and told me a great deal about the
“I’d say 100,” countered Serena. students’ number sense. The primary
“Probably 55,” Andy estimated insight I gained was about different
“More like 400!” Vicky jumped in. views of the number system. Many of
I accepted all the estimates the students began randomly listing
without comment. My goal was to numbers that fit the rule. Others
get students to think and make began systematically, breaking the
predictions. They really didn’t have range of one to 500 into smaller, more
enough information or experience to manageable groups of 100. As they
make an accurate judgment at this continued working, quite a few of the
point. I just wanted them to start to students noticed patterns emerging.
think—and wonder—so they’d be The patterns were powerful tools for
motivated to investigate. organizing their papers and for
“Okay, here’s the plan,” I establishing the total number of
proceeded. “You’re going to have some possibilities. I talked to the children
time to work at your tables to while they were working and I also
investigate this question. Just how had them write a little about their plan
many numbers are there between one of attack and how they found all the
and 500 whose digits add up to ten? possibilities.
You’ll probably want to use paper and Quite a few tables figured out how
pencil to organize your work and keep to apply the commutative property to
track of the numbers you find. I also identifying numbers that fit the clue. If
think it will be very helpful for you to 19 works, 91 works; if 361 works, so
work together and talk at your tables. do 163, 136, 316, 613, and 631. As
There are probably different ways you Kate wrote: Well first we tried to figure
can work on this problem so you can out what adds up to ten and we wrote
get a lot of ideas from one another. the numbers on a piece of paper and I
After you’ve had some time to also got some numbers by putting them
investigate we’ll get back together to backward like: 73–37, 91–19, 64–46.
discuss your findings and to play Guess Bhavna found a handy use for
My Number. Are there any questions zero. After she had written all the two-
Navigating the
Number System

134

digit possibilities, she added zero to the I started this pattern. It was to make the
end of them for a bunch more. tens digit number to go up one and the
Edwin noticed that if one digit is ones digit number to go down one. 19,
decreased by a certain amount while 28, 37, 46 . . . . But after you finish the
another digit is increased by the same pattern with the tens you look for the
amount, the sum stays the same. He lowest number that equals 10 but in the
used this discovery to help him one hundreds, then 2, 3 and 4 hundreds.
organize his work. He wrote: I started But you do the exact pattern as you did
by looking for the smallest number that in the tens. Edwin had then
equals 10. I got 19. After that I went on systematically listed every number
and got 28. Right when I got 28 a using the method he had described:
pattern popped in my head. Mousqa and 19, 28, 37, 46, 55, 64, 73, 82, 91,

FIGURE 10.1
Albert used columns to organize his work.
 Guess My Number

135

109, 118, 127, 136, 145, 154, 163, possibilities in each column also
and so on. appears to have a bell shape and
Interestingly, he was not confident corresponding numerical pattern, 9,
that he had found all the numbers. He 10, 9, 8, 7. I was impressed. Here was
wrote at the end of his paper: I don’t an opportunity to consider many
think you will know all of these numbers properties of numbers simultaneously
through 1 and 500. But if you work on to build number sense.
this problem for maybe a while you can
find them all. This taught me a
valuable lesson. Even when children Continuing the Activity
find patterns, they need time to realize
their usefulness and applicability. The With less than ten minutes of math
search for and discovery of patterns in class left, the students were at many
the number system is a fundamental different stages in their work. Pam and
building block of number sense. I agreed they needed some time the
However, the next step is to use these following day to finish up their papers
patterns to help solve problems. The and share their work. For the moment,
connection does not occur auto- I decided to bring them back together
matically. Children need many to finish the game of Guess My
opportunities to use the patterns in Number before I left. I called for their
order to appreciate their value in attention.
problem solving. “Now you have quite a bit of
Several tables used columns as information about numbers whose
their organizing tactic. Some students digits add up to ten,” I told them.
divided their paper into five categories, “I’ve seen a lot of incredible work and
1–100, 100–200, 200–300, 300–400, thinking going on here. I’m going to
and 400–500. Then they listed all the give you an opportunity to put your
possibilities under each column, some knowledge to the test. You can use
doing so randomly, others being more your papers to help you when we play
organized. Guess My Number. I have a secret
Albert focused on the digits in number whose digits add up to ten.
each column to provide additional Who would like to take a guess?”
organization. He headed each column Everyone signaled. I called on
with three lines, for three digits. Then Andrea.
he filled in the first digit of each “Three hundred and twenty-five?”
column and listed the possibilities for “My number is less than 325,” I
the second and third digits underneath responded.
(see figure 10.1). I was intrigued by the “Two hundred and forty-four?”
elegance of this method, which reveals asked Joelle.
several patterns at once. Looking across “My number is greater than 244,”
the rows shows one pattern. Going I told her.
down each column shows the pattern “Two hundred and eighty?” Lisa
Edwin described. The total number of guessed.
Navigating the
Number System

136

“You’re right!” I said. “My number these patterns as a potent problem-

was 280. How many guesses did that solving tool.
take?”
“Three!” the class replied amidst What are some other hints I can
high fives and grins. use in games?
“I guess your hard work and
There are many options. It’s sometimes
thinking really paid off,” I said. “I’ll try
useful to decide on the range first and
to think of another tricky rule next
then decide how many numbers you
time.”
want to eliminate with your clue. For
example, if the range is one through
100 and your clue is that your secret
CAREN ANSWERS number is odd, half of the numbers in
YOUR QUESTIONS the range are still possibilities. If the
range is one through 100 and your
clue is that your secret number has two
Is this activity really that
identical digits, you’ve narrowed the
beneficial?
possibilities considerably.
I feel I get a lot of mileage out of You can also ask your students to
Guess My Number. I stop at various brainstorm a list of clues they might
points during the game to ask use if they were leading the game.
questions that force the students to You’ll be impressed at what they come
think about numbers and relative up with and can use them in future
quantities. The mini-investigations I games.
introduce (finding the numbers that
end in zero or add up to ten) are a Why were you concerned that
great assessment tool. By observing, Carolina used the standard
listening, and questioning the multiplication algorithm for 50 ×
students, I get a window into their 10?
number sense.
First, both 50 and 10 are landmark
numbers. Third and fourth graders
How can I use this activity in my
need to be familiar with these numbers
classroom?
as quantities and as addends or
Guess My Number can be used as a multiples. Whether or not Carolina
warm-up throughout the year. You or had much prior experience in dealing
your students just need to create new with two-digit multiplication, she
hints or different ranges of numbers. should have had ways to think about
Fractions, decimals, and percents can 50 ten times or 10 fifty times.
even be incorporated. Spending time Another part of number sense is
on related investigations is motivating efficiency. We don’t want our students
and loaded with learning. Students are counting on their fingers into the
able to see relationships and con- thousands. It’s just not efficient. Nor is
nections between numbers and use it efficient to use a multistep paper-
 Guess My Number

137

and-pencil procedure for a problem quantities she can manipulate

that can be solved mentally in a matter mentally. This is a symptom of the
of seconds. limitation of a traditional approach to
The most disconcerting thing teaching arithmetic skills. Children
about Carolina’s approach is her need the latitude to think freely about
seeming to reach for a procedure numbers and the encouragement to do
before thinking about the numbers as so.
G

Estimation

W
e estimate every day. Do I have enough spaghetti to feed
the six people who are coming for dinner? After I pay the
rent and my bills, can I afford a weekend getaway? About
how much punch should I buy for my daughter’s birthday party? We
answer these questions through a combination of mental computation
and estimation. We don’t usually pull out a calculator in order to figure
the tip in a restaurant. We don’t use paper and pencil to decide whether
we have enough time to stop at the grocery store before meeting a friend
for lunch. Estimating also helps us spot an answer that doesn’t make
sense. When the cashier rings up a dozen donuts and the total comes to
over $20, we both know something is wrong.
It’s extremely important that students have many opportunities to
estimate, because the skill develops over time and with experience. The
types of practice, discussion, and thinking associated with estimating
help build number sense. Estimating helps students think of numbers as
quantities, and opportunities to think about numbers in context are key.
Context makes numbers real. It is also important for students to be able
to decide when accuracy is essential and when an estimate will be good
enough (or even better).
As students gain skill and experience with estimating in different
contexts, they bring more and more number sense to tasks. They learn
to use benchmarks—I know how many beans are in the small scoop so I
can use that information to estimate how many beans are in the larger
scoop. They begin to get a feel for quantities that are reasonable—there
are 30 students in our class, and it looks like there are enough chairs in
the auditorium for five classes. They develop a sense of relative 139
Estimation

140

magnitude—if I have 150 cookies, will eight serving plates be enough to

hold them all?
The activities in this section focus on estimation. Through games,
discussions, and investigations, students are asked to employ estimating
skills. Students in the math classroom need occasions to delve into
estimating tasks and analyze them in detail.
 G

11 How Many Beans?

Overview
A jar, a scoop, and a quantity of beans are common materials that students can use
in estimating activities. In this whole-class activity, students first estimate how many
beans a jar will hold. Then, they determine the number of beans in a scoop and
begin filling the jar with scoops of beans, adjusting their estimates with each scoop
they add. Repeating this activity with different-sized jars, scoops, and beans can
provide further experiences with estimation.

Materials Needed
A jar.
A scoop or a large spoon.
A bag of dried beans.

Teaching Directions
1. Show the students an empty jar, a scoop, and a bag of beans. Ask students to
estimate how many beans the jar will hold and record their estimates.
2. Have the students determine how many beans a typical scoop holds.
3. Put a few scoops of beans in the jar and ask the students to calculate mentally
approximately how many beans are in the jar and to explain their thinking.
4. Ask students to reestimate how many beans the jar will hold.
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the jar is full.
6. Have students count the beans in the jar to find an exact total; ask them to
compare this total with their final estimate. 141
Estimation

142

IN THE CLASSROOM scoop, filled it with beans, and held up

WITH RUSTY the scoop of beans and the jar so
everyone could see. “I have a scoopful
of beans and this empty jar,” I said.
Introducing the Activity “Can someone think of a way we could
find out about how many beans will fit
“About how many beans do you think in the jar?”
will fit in this jar?” I asked Christina “That’s easy,” Jaz said. “All you
Stamford’s fourth and fifth graders, have to do is find out how many beans
holding up an empty jar in one hand there are in the scoop, then fill the jar
and a bag of kidney beans in the other. and count the scoops.” Students
“You mean to the very top?” nodded their agreement.
Tammy asked. “You could just pour scoops in the
“Yes,” I replied. “To the very top.” jar and we could count by the number
“Exactly how many beans or can of beans in the scoop,” added Jill.
we say about how many beans?” Joe “What if the cup held ten scoops
asked. of beans?” I asked. “How would that
“I’m interested in having you help us know about how many beans
think about making a reasonable there are?” Again, hands shot up. This
estimate, not in finding an exact group seemed to find this an obvious
answer,” I said. “Finding the exact question, but I wanted them to think
number of beans isn’t important for and talk about what we needed to do
this activity, or really for any reason. in order to solve the problem.
I can’t think of a situation when “You have to use multiplication to
knowing an exact number of beans is figure that out,” said Joe.
useful. But thinking about estimates is “What would you multiply?” I
useful for your math learning.” asked.
I walked around the room, giving “You multiply the number of
students a closer look at the jar and the beans in each scoop times the number
beans. Students began to whisper their of scoops,” he replied. Everyone
estimates to one another, then I called seemed to be listening intently to Joe’s
them back to attention. “Raise your explanation. (I often tell my students
hand if you want to share your that it’s important to be quiet while
estimate with us,” I said. Lots of hands someone is explaining his or her
shot up. I began calling on students thinking, but that it’s more important
and recording their estimates on the to try to understand what’s being said.)
chalkboard. Their estimates ranged “Does that make sense? Joe said
from 100 to 1,000 beans, with most that you need to multiply the number
estimates between 100 and 350. Only of beans by the number of scoops,” I
one student, Mark, thought the jar clarified. “So we need to know about
would hold 1,000 beans. how many beans there are in a scoop.”
When I’d written all their I poured a scoopful of beans on the
estimates on the board, I took a small table where Megan was sitting and
 How Many Beans?

143

asked her to quickly count them. She how many scoops fill the jar.” I asked
reported there were 29 beans in the for a volunteer to record the numbers
scoop. “Do you think every scoop will on the chalkboard. Then I took a level
have the same number of beans in it?” scoopful of beans and poured them
I asked the class. They responded with into the jar. I held the jar up high, so
a chorus of nos. “Why not?” I asked. everyone could see.
“Because some of the beans are “Thirty!” the class chanted.
probably big and some are little,” I poured three more scoopfuls of
Crystal explained. “They’re different beans into the jar.
sizes.” “Sixty, 90, 120,” students
“That’s right, Crystal,” I con- counted. Skip counting by 30s was
curred. “Each scoop might have a easy for these fourth and fifth graders.
slightly different number of beans.” Everyone was engaged, their eyes fixed
I knew that taking one sample on the jar, which now held a layer of
wasn’t going to give us the best number beans at the bottom.
for a typical scoopful. I could have “That’s four scoops,” I said. “Raise
given each pair of students in the class your hand if you’d like to change your
a scoopful of beans and had them estimate.” About a fourth of the class
count them, after which we could have raised their hand. “It’s okay to change
taken an average to arrive at a typical your estimate,” I assured them. “In
number of beans per scoop. But to fact, I want you to think about your
keep the focus of the activity on estimate every time you see me pour
estimation and mental calculation, I more scoops into the jar. Think about
decided to collect only one sample. what your new estimate might be and
“I’m going to put scoopfuls of why.” Asking students to think about
beans in the jar, and you’re going to their new estimate based on what’s
keep track of the number of beans,” I already in the jar is important. Having
continued. “But could we use another a reference, or benchmark, to guide
number of beans per scoop instead of their thinking helps them produce
29, to make it easier for us to count?” I reasonable estimates.
wanted the students to think about I poured three more scoops of
using friendly numbers in problem beans into the jar as students counted:
situations. Rounding the number of “One hundred and fifty, 180, 210.”
beans made sense, since they’d already After seven scoops, the jar was over a
realized that each scoop wouldn’t have third of the way filled. “About how
the same number of beans. many beans do you think the jar will
“How about 30 beans,” suggested hold now?” I asked, waiting until
Barbara. “That’s only one more, and many hands were raised.
30 is easier to count by than 29.” Wait time, as it’s commonly
“Watch carefully while I scoop referred to, is critical during class
beans into the jar,” I instructed. “I discussions. It allows students to
want you to count the running total of formulate thoughtful ideas rather than
beans out loud. Let’s also keep track of quick guesses. It also helps you include
Estimation

144

the children who are not fast thinkers about 20 scoops when we’re done, and
or strong personalities. Waiting isn’t ten times 30 is 300, so 20 times 30 is
easy for me; my impulse is to call on 600.”
the first student whose hand goes up. Reba waved her hand vigorously
Although this moves the discussion after Jean’s comment. “I don’t think
along, it doesn’t serve students’ it’ll be twice as much, because the jar is
thinking. Children need time to think bigger at the top.” She had noticed
about numbers in order to develop that the jar was slanted, so that its
their number sense. circumference continued to get bigger
“I think there will be about 500 bottom to top. Reba’s observation
beans,” said Jill. caused a stir, and a lot of hands were
“Because . . . ,” I prompted. raised.
“Because there’s already 210 beans “I think the jar will hold more
and there’s room for a lot more,” she than 600 because of what Reba said,”
explained. Josh agreed.
“Other ideas?” I asked. Josh’s comment gave me an idea
“I think there’s gonna be 500, too, for a question that would prompt all
because the jar isn’t half full yet and the students to rethink their estimate.
400 is twice 200, so it’s gonna be more “Raise your hand if you think the jar
than 400,” reported Nick. will hold more than 600 beans,” I said.
I continued scooping beans into Most students did. “Raise your hand if
the jar. “Two hundred and forty, 270, you think the jar will hold about 1,000
300,” students chanted. I held up the beans,” I continued. This time no one
jar and walked slowly through the raised a hand, not even Mark, who had
room so that the students sitting in the originally thought the jar would hold
back could get a closer look. 1,000 beans.
I returned to the front of the room “I think it’ll hold somewhere
and said, “We have ten scoops of beans between 600 and 800,” said Tammy.
in the jar. That’s about 300 beans so Estimating gives students a chance to
far. Now how many beans do you compare quantities and think about
think the jar will hold?” number relationships. Children need
“About two times 300,” offered to develop a feeling for what it means
Simon. to use relative terms like between,
“Why do you think that?” I asked. about, near, close, and so on.
“Because the jar’s about half full “Let’s keep scooping so that we
and 300 times two is 600,” he can find out about how many beans
explained. Estimation often involves the jar will hold,” I said. I put scoop
mental computation as a preliminary after scoop into the jar as the students
step. Lots of students nodded their counted: “Three hundred and thirty,
head in agreement. 360, 390, 420, 450, 480, 510, 540,
“I think about 600, too,” said 570.” The entire class was focused on
Jean. “But I thought about it different. the jar, the scoop, and the beans.
We have ten scoops now, so we’ll have Comments were flying.
 How Many Beans?

145

“It’s almost full!” cried Jaime. of beans in the jar,” I said, “but when
“It’s going to be over 600!” Reba would it be important to figure an
exclaimed. exact answer? And when is an estimate
“It’s gonna hold another 30, good enough?” I allowed the students
probably 60!” Mark added. some time to think and talk about
I continued to scoop beans until different situations that required
the jar was full—22 scoopfuls, or estimates and exact answers, then I
about 660 beans. asked them to report their ideas. “So
what do you think?”
“Well, I agree with Juan that with
A Class Discussion the beans we only have to have an
estimate,” said Simon. “But when I go
After an initial moment of excitement, to the store and buy something, I want
the room grew quiet. Then Reba raised to get the exact change when I pay for
her hand. “Are there really 660 beans something.”
in the jar?” she asked. Up until now, “If the beans were like quarters or
the activity had been about estimation, something, and we wanted to share
not exact answers. Reba was shifting them, I’d want to know exactly how
the focus, and if she hadn’t asked the many,” said Megan.
question, I would have. “You need to be exact when you
I handed the question back to her. do your taxes, that’s what my mom
“What do you think?” says,” added Crystal.
“Well, I don’t think so, because “Sometimes my dad just estimates
every scoop didn’t really have exactly when he cooks,” said Juan. “He just
30 beans,” she said. throws in a little of this and a little of
“Do you want to find out how that.”
many beans there really are in the jar?” “So what about the beans?” I
I asked the class. asked. “If an estimate is okay, how
“Not really,” Juan said. “They’re close is close enough? Our estimate is
only beans. Let’s just stick with the 660. How close do we have to be in
estimate.” Other students, however, order for our estimate to be
were curious about how close our reasonable?” This question stumped
estimate was. the class. I don’t think they really
I used Juan’s comment to propel understood what I was asking.
the activity in another direction. In “If there are really 2,000 beans in
order to build number sense, children the jar, would you be satisfied with our
need to have opportunities to estimate estimate of 660?” I asked.
and opportunities to be precise. They “No!” they responded.
also need experience making decisions “Why not?” I asked.
about how precise an answer needs to “Because that’s way off,” said Jill.
be, and this depends on the problem’s “It should be closer than that.”
context. “Maybe some of you aren’t “What if the actual number of
interested in finding the exact number beans is 700? Would 660 be close
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146

enough then?” I asked. Students estimates the previous day. Only one
nodded, and seemed content with this student, Tasha, had a significantly
amount of difference. larger estimate—5,000 beans.
“I’d be happy with anything that After I recorded their estimates on
was about 100 away,” said Jill. the chalkboard, I held up the new
“Let’s count them and see how scoop. “This scoop holds about 40
many beans there are!” Nick piped up. beans,” I told them. I wrote about 40
So that we could accomplish Nick’s beans per scoop on the chalkboard. “I’m
suggestion quickly, I poured some going to put some scoops into the jar,
beans on each table for partners to then I’m going to ask you a question
count. As pairs finished counting, I about the beans.” I carefully poured
wrote the totals on the chalkboard. five scoops of beans into the jar.
Together, we calculated that the jar “About how many beans are in the
held exactly 702 beans. jar now?” I asked. This was the same
question I’d asked the day before, only
this time I didn’t give them a chance to
Continuing the Activity skip count. I waited very briefly, then
called on Joanna.
I liked what had happened during the “I did 40 times ten first, because I
first experience with the jar, the beans, know that’s 400, then I took half of
and the scoop: students had gotten that, which is 200,” she explained.
experience with estimating and “I just counted in my head by
computing in context. Since skip 40s,” added José.
counting by 30 had been easy for the “Another idea?” I asked.
students, when I returned to “I think there’s about 200 beans in
Christina’s class the next day, I posed a the jar now,” said Branden. “I did four
similar problem that would challenge times five equals 20, then I added a
them in a different way. I brought with zero and it’s 200.”
me the jar, the scoop, and the bag of “Why did you add the zero?” I
red beans we’d used the day before. I asked.
also brought a bigger jar and a wider “Because it’s not really four times
scoop. five, but that makes it easier to do. I
I showed the class the new jar and learned that you just look at it like it’s
scoop, and we compared them with four times five, and you add a zero,
the ones we’d used the day before. and you get the answer.”
Students noticed that the new jar was I had to stop and think. Did
taller and bigger around and that the Branden really understand the
new scoop had a wider mouth than the numbers, or was he applying a trick or
first one we’d used. I then asked them shortcut he’d learned? Although
about how many beans the new jar shortcuts can eliminate a lot of work,
would hold. I thought the students’ they can also prevent students from
estimates—ranging from 850 to thinking about the numbers and what
2,000—were better than their initial they really mean. I pressed on. “Can
 How Many Beans?

147

someone else explain why Branden’s students a new benchmark from which
method makes sense?” to make an estimate. I was also curious
“It’s not really four times five, it’s about how they would think about 20
40 times five, and four times five is 20, times 40. “How many beans do you
and you add the zero from the 40 to think are in the cup now?” I asked.
the 20, and it’s 200,” explained Juli. When only a few hands popped up, I
“What happens to a number when asked them to talk to the person next
you add a zero to it?” I asked. “For to them about the problem. Soon,
example, when you add a zero to two, there were lots of hands in the air. I
what happens to the two?” called on Jill.
“It becomes 20,” said Courtney. “There’s about 800,” she said.
“How do two and 20 compare?” I “Two times four is eight and 20 has
asked. one zero and 40 has one zero, so it’s
“Twenty is a lot bigger,” Megan 800.”
responded. “Forty times ten is 400, so I
“It’s 18 more than two,” added doubled it to make 800,” explained
Ben. Orlando. “I remember us talking
“Twenty is ten times bigger than about 40 times ten before.”
two, because two times ten is 20,” “I tried to count by 40s,” added
Orlando explained. Najee. “But you were going too fast.
“When you add a zero to the two So I did what Orlando did.”
it makes it ten times bigger, so if four These students were in control of
times five is 20, then if you add a zero their own reasoning and calculations,
to 20 it’s gonna be ten times bigger and their explanations made me
than 20, and that’s 200,” said Branden. realize how important mental
Sometimes I worry that a di- calculation is to number sense. After
gression like this will lead us too far listening to several additional
afield. In this instance, I think the explanations, I wrote 20 scoops =
conversation was worthwhile, because about 800 beans on the chalkboard.
it helped both to clarify Branden’s idea Then I walked through the room,
and to illustrate the importance of showing the students the jar, which
place value. was now over half full of beans. As I
“Now that you know that there’s made my way around, I posed a
about 200 beans in the jar so far, raise question. “How many beans do you
your hand if you want to change your think the jar will hold now?” I gave
original estimate,” I said. Only about students time to mull this over, and
six students raised their hand. there was lots of conversation. Then I
I wrote 5 scoops = about 200 beans called on Dave.
on the chalkboard, then I put fifteen “Now I think the jar will hold
more scoopfuls into the jar. I held up 1,400 beans, because I think 600 more
the jar so everyone could see. It now will fill the jar, and 800 plus 600 is
held 20 scoops of beans, and it was a 1,400,” Dave said.
little over half full. I wanted to give the “I think the jar will hold about
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148

1,200 beans, because it’s over halfway replied. “So it’s a little more than half
full and there’s about a quarter of the full now, so it’s about five eighths.”
way to go,” added Jill. “About how many beans would be
“I think the jar will hold 1,200 in the jar if it were half full?” I con-
beans, because we’re two thirds of the tinued.
way with 800,” explained Orlando. “About 700,” he said. “Seven
“I think 1,300 beans, ’cause we’re hundred plus 700 is 1,400, and that’s
a little over halfway, so I think about how many beans I think the jar will
500 more will fill it, and 800 plus 500 hold.”
is 1,300,” said Chris. “About how many beans would be
“Other estimates?” I asked. in the jar if it were two-eighths full?” I
“I think the jar will hold 1,000, asked, pressing for more information
beans because there’s one fourth of the about his understanding of eighths.
way to go before we fill it,” said Nick thought for a couple of
Cheryl. seconds, then replied, “About 350
“What makes you think that?” I beans.” His thinking was solid.
probed. Sometimes probing questions can
“Well, it’s about three-fourths full reveal a student’s number sense. My
now, so a couple hundred more would conversation with Nick also gave other
be 1,000,” she replied. “There’s about students an opportunity think about
250 something for each quarter of the the problem in a different way.
jar.”
“I think it looks about half full
now, so my estimate is 1,600, ’cause A Writing Assignment
800 and 800 is 1,600,” said Vanessa.
“I’m estimating 1,400, because When the students had finished
there are 800 beans now and the jar is discussing their estimates, I told them I
five-eighths full,” said Nick. wanted them to explain their thinking
“What made you think about in writing so that I could get some
eighths?” I asked. I was curious about insight into their reasoning. I put two
whether Nick was just guessing or if he prompts on the chalkboard:
really had an understanding of
fractions in this situation. • Twenty scoops is about 800 beans
“Well, I used eighths because I because ___________ .
wanted to be different than everyone • Now I think the cup will hold ____
else,” he began. “The higher the beans because _____________.
denominator is, the more detail you
can put into your estimate. I was just The class wrote for the remainder
estimating when I thought five of math period, about fifteen minutes.
eighths.” Before I left, I collected their papers
“If the jar was half full, how many and finished scooping beans into the
eighths would that be?” I probed. cup. The cup held 31 scoopfuls, for a
“That would be four eighths,” he total of about 1,250 beans.
 How Many Beans?

149

The papers were very revealing. 1,600 beans in the cup, and they
Most of the students who had supported their estimates with logical
participated in our class discussions arguments that made sense. (Figures
seemed to have pretty good number 11.1 and 11.2 are two examples.)
sense. Most estimated that there would Their reasonable estimates and
be somewhere between 1,000 and calculation methods made me think

FIGURE 11.1
Megan explained why 20 scoops is about 800
beans.
Estimation

150

FIGURE 11.2
Orlando thought the jar would hold 1,200
beans because at two-thirds full the jar holds
about 800 beans.

they had a good understanding of Explaining why 20 scoops equaled

numbers and numerical operations. 800 beans, Tasha calculated 20 times
A few enthusiastic participants in 40 using the standard algorithm.
a class can sometimes give a false When I probed her thinking later, she
impression that everyone is at the stuck with this estimate: Now I think
same place. As I read the remaining the jar will hold 10,000 [beans] because
papers, I saw soft spots in some of the it is 3 quarters in till it is all the way
students’ thinking. There were three up. (See figure 11.3.) It’s possible for
students whose estimates weren’t students to learn to use procedures
reasonable or whose explanations correctly and still not have good
raised questions for me about their number sense. In fact, focusing only
number sense. on learning procedures can actually
Crystal estimated that the cup inhibit the development of number
would hold 10,000 beans. When I sense.
asked her about this later, I found Mike thought the cup was three-
that she had mistakenly added an fourths full with 800 beans in it. He
extra zero, and had meant to write wrote: I think that the jar will hold
1,000 as her estimate. If I hadn’t about 700 because it looks littler than
followed up, I would have been left 800. When I asked Mike what he
with a false assumption about her meant, he looked puzzled. It was
number sense. difficult for him to explain his
Tasha’s estimate was also 10,000. thinking, and he seemed to lack
 How Many Beans?

151

FIGURE 11.3
Tasha’s estimate for the number of beans is
unreasonable.

confidence in his ability to reason with RUSTY ANSWERS

numbers. YOUR QUESTIONS
There aren’t always “quick fixes”
for students like Tasha and Mike.
What is the purpose of this
Number sense develops over time, and
activity?
children need regular opportunities to
estimate, calculate mentally, reason It has two important aspects. One is
with numbers, and hear others express that it is an experience designed to
their ideas. They need to experience improve estimation skills. During the
activities like How Many Beans? so activity, students are continually
that they can see that numbers have provided with benchmarks that help
meaning and are useful for solving guide their thinking and improve their
problems. And students need to have estimates. The first time I did the
the chance to build their confidence by activity in Christina Stamford’s
working in environments where they classroom, for example, students were
feel safe taking risks and making able to readjust their estimates several
mistakes. times, first after the jar held four
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152

scoops, then after it held seven scoops, rather than make a wild guess. The
again after ten scoops, and finally manipulatives also give students a way
when it was full, at 20 scoops. Along to verify whether their final estimate is
the way, students readjusted their reasonable or not. Once they arrive at a
thinking based on the new final estimate, they are able to count
mathematical information made the items and compare the total
available. number to their estimate.
The other important aspect of the
activity involves mental computation. You mention that one sample isn’t
To arrive at a reasonable estimate, sufficient to find the best number
students are required to calculate of beans for a typical scoop. Can
mentally as a preliminary step. For you say more about this?
example, when the jar was about half
As teachers, we make decisions based
full with ten scoops and about 300
on the goals of the activity and the
beans, Simon offered this line of
amount of time we have to teach it.
reasoning: “[There are] about two
In How Many Beans? one of my
times 300, because the jar’s about half
goals is for students to gain ex-
full, and 300 times two is 600.”
perience estimating and calculating
mentally. The focus isn’t on
Is it important to use beans in collecting and organizing data or
this activity? learning about averaging. Finding
the typical number of beans in a
There’s nothing magical about using
scoop is certainly important here, but
beans; cubes or pennies work just as
finding the best number takes too
well. What’s important is that these
much time.
concrete objects provide a context for
thinking about a problem. A math
How can I vary this activity?
problem with a context is more
meaningful for students and gives There are many ways to structure an
them a purpose for computing and estimation activity. You could start
estimating. with a jar full of beans (or cubes or
Whatever manipulatives you use whatever) and then ask your students
help students view numbers as to estimate the total number. After
quantities and establish benchmarks that, the students could count about
from which to make estimates. For half (or a fourth or an eighth) of the
example, the first time I did the beans in the jar and then make another
activity, when the jar was a little over a estimate of the total number.
third of the way filled, it held about No matter how the activity is
210 beans. Students used this reference structured, you can help your students
to guide their thinking when develop their number sense by asking
estimating how many beans the jar them to rethink their estimates along
could hold. In other words, the beans the way and to explain their reasoning
helped them think mathematically once they’ve made an estimate.
 How Many Beans?

153

You mentioned that there aren’t While we need to support

always quick fixes for students struggling students, we also need to
like Tasha and Mike. What are keep in mind that confusion is a
some things you could have done natural and important part of the
to help them with this activity? learning process. Just because a student
is confused or having difficulty with
While all students should have access
one activity doesn’t necessarily mean
to the curriculum being taught,
that a student is deficient or lacks
sometimes it’s necessary to adjust an
number sense. Children must be
activity so that the numbers are smaller
allowed to make mistakes in a
and more easily accessible. For ex-
supportive environment and be given
ample, I might have posed a similar,
many opportunities to learn
smaller problem for Tasha and Mike
something new.
to solve. I think they would have
benefited from thinking about fewer
numbers of beans, say 100 or 200. How can I assess students’
This might have given them a better number sense in this activity?
starting place from which to think During the activity, I kept these
about the numbers. Finding out what questions in mind in order to assess
size number a student is comfortable students’ number sense:
or capable of working with is an
important part of the assessment • Are their estimates reasonable or
process. not?
Like all students, Tasha and Mike • Are their estimates based on some
need many experiences over time in mathematical reasoning?
order to develop number sense. They • Are they improving their estimation
also need opportunities to work with skills through experience? Do they
other students so that they have a make use of benchmarks in order to
chance to listen to different ways of improve on their estimates?
thinking. In my classroom, I try to give • How large or small a quantity of
struggling students some initial beans are they comfortable with?
support before sending them off to • Are they able to calculate mentally?
work by themselves or with a partner. What strategies do they use? Do
This support comes in different forms. they use mental calculation to assist
Sometimes I’ll ask a student questions them in making better estimates?
that will stimulate his thinking. At • Do they use fractions when making
other times I’ll think out loud, estimates? Do they seem to
modeling how I would approach a understand the fractions they’re
problem. using?
 G

12 Hit the Target

Overview
While it is important for students to learn to multiply accurately, it is equally
important for them to learn to estimate answers to multiplication problems. When
students can estimate, they are better able to judge whether answers, in whatever
way obtained, are reasonable. In this game, students work in pairs. They figure
mentally or use a calculator to multiply numbers together to produce a product that
falls within a predetermined range. The goal is to hit the target in as few steps as
possible. (In a more advanced version of this activity, students often need to
multiply using decimals—see extension 1, below.)

Materials Needed
A calculator for each pair of students.

Directions for Playing the Game

1. Players choose or are given a target range (800–850, for example), in keeping
with the kinds of numbers they are comfortable with.
2. Player 1 chooses a number between 1 and 100 (50, for example).
3. Player 2 chooses another number to multiply the first number by, either
mentally or with a calculator (50 × 10, for example), and player 1 verifies and
records the result.
4. If the product doesn’t hit the target range, player 2 goes back to the original
number and multiplies it by another number (again, either mentally or with a
calculator), and player 1 verifies and records the result. 155
Estimation

156

5. Players repeat step 4 until the product falls within the target range.
6. Players repeat the game, this time alternating roles.

Sample Game Scenario

Target Range: 800–850
Starting Number: 50
50 × 10 = 500 The number is too low.
50 × 20 = 1,000 The number is too high.
50 × 15 = 750 The number is closer but still too low.
50 × 17 = 850 The number is within the target range.

Extensions

1. If the product doesn’t fall within the target range, students use the product (not
the original number) as their new starting number and determine what number
to multiply it by to hit the target range. This version of the game often involves
multiplying by decimals to get to the target. Before playing it, students should
have spent some time exploring decimal numbers with calculators, seeing what
happens when they multiply a number by another number that is less than one,
what happens when they multiply a number by 1.5, etc.
2. Play Hit the Target using addition and subtraction rather than multiplication.
 Hit the Target

157

IN THE CLASSROOM 5. If the product didn’t hit the target,

WITH RUSTY player 2 chooses another number
to multiply by.

Introducing the Activity After reading the directions out

loud, I said, “Mindy, give me a
“I have a new game I want to teach number between one and 100 to start
you called Hit the Target,” I said, as I with.”
began the activity with Pam Long’s Mindy went up to the overhead
sixth graders. “In this game, you’ll use projector. “How about two,” she
mental math and a calculator to suggested, writing 2 on the projected
multiply numbers. transparency.
“The game is called Hit the Target “Now I have to think of a number,
because the goal is to hit a target any number, so that two times the
range—800 to 850, for example—by number will give an answer that’s
multiplying a starting number by some between 800 and 850,” I said to the
other numbers. The idea is to do this class. “Raise your hand if you have a
in as few multiplications as possible.” I suggestion for me.”
placed an overhead calculator on top of “Try multiplying by 425,” said
a blank transparency. I wrote Hit the Gordon.
Target at the top of the transparency, “Why did you suggest 425?” I
and then wrote Target Range: 800–850. asked.
“Two people play,” I continued. “Because if you double 425, it’s
“Player 1 picks the starting number 850. It’s easy,” he answered. Mindy
and player 2 mentally figures out what wrote 425 × 2 = 850 on the
to multiply by to get into the target transparency.
range. When you play, you and your “Gordon already checked the
partner take turns being player 1 and answer for me using mental math,” she
player 2. Would someone like to play said. “You hit the target in one move!”
Hit the Target with me?” Lots of hands Mindy returned to her seat.
wiggled in the air. “You be player 1, “Thanks, Mindy,” I said. “If
Mindy, and I’ll be player 2,” I said. “To Mindy and I were to continue with the
play, we both have a few jobs.” I game, we’d switch and I would be
pointed to the directions, which I’d player 1 and she would be player 2.
written on the chalkboard beforehand: But this time, I’ll be player 1 and the
class will be player 2. I’m going to
1. Player 1 picks the starting number choose 12 to start.” I wrote the
(1–100) and records it. number 12 on a new transparency.
2. Player 2 chooses a number to “Now you have to think of a number
multiply by. to multiply by 12 to hit the target,” I
3. Player 2 multiplies mentally. reminded them. “Any suggestions?”
4. Player 1 checks player 2’s The room was quiet. After several
multiplication and records it. seconds, I asked a question to
Estimation

158

stimulate their thinking. “How about 120, so 12 times 60 is 720,” she

multiplying 12 by five?” I asked. explained. “So you go another 120,
“That’s only 60,” said Anita. “You and you get 840, which is within the
have to try a much bigger number.” range.”
“Well, how about 100 then?” I Anne was building on what she
inquired. Students were shaking their already knew, 12 times 50, to think
heads in disagreement. “Why shouldn’t about 12 times 70. I recorded 70 × 12
you do that?” I probed. = 840 on the transparency, then
“Because 12 times 100 is 1,200, verified the answer on the calculator.
and that’s way over the target range,” “Let’s try it again,” I said. “This
Katie said. “Let’s try 12 times 50.” time, I’ll be player 2 and the class will
“Okay,” I said to the class. be player 1.” Nicky volunteered to
“Multiply 12 times 50 mentally.” I come up to the front of the room to
knew this would be challenging for record for the class and use the
some students, so I gave the class time overhead calculator to verify answers.
to think about the problem. After “Let’s do 50,” Michael suggested.
more than half of the students had Nicky recorded 50 on the trans-
raised their hand, I called on Xavier. parency.
“It’s 600, because 12 times five is “I have to think of a number to
60, and you have to do ten times more multiply by 50 and get into the target
than that, and that would be 600,” he range. I’d like you to help me think of
reasoned. a number,” I said to the class. “Tell the
Jenny did it another way. “Ten person next to you what you think.” I
times 50 equals 500, and two more 50s made a quick tour of the room,
make 600.” listening to students’ ideas, then called
“I thought about it like this,” them back together.
Mindy said. “Twelve times ten is 120. “I think you should multiply 14
Then you need five 120s. One times 50, because in the last game we
hundred and twenty and 120 is 240; figured that 12 times 50 is 600, and we
that’s two. Two hundred and forty and need to go higher than that,” said
240 is 480; that’s four. So 480 and Michael.
another 120 is 600, because 480 plus “You’re right, Michael,” I said.
100 is 580 plus 20 more is 600.” “We need to multiply 50 by more than
I recorded 12 × 50 = 600 on the 12, since 12 times 50 is only 600.”
transparency, then verified the answer Michael nodded. “And your suggestion
on the overhead calculator. is to do 14 times 50,” I added. “How
“Let’s try a bigger number, like much is 14 times 50? How could we
70,” Xavier suggested. figure that out mentally, class?”
“What’s the answer to 12 times “Oooh, that’s hard,” Gordon said.
70?” I asked. I gave the students a I waited a moment and no hands
moment and then called on Anne. were raised. I decided to model my
“If 12 times 50 is 600, then 12 thinking for the students, to help them
times 60 is ten more 12s and that’s get their mind around the problem.
 Hit the Target

159

“Listen to my idea and see if you can with a partner,” I told them. “Let’s
explain why it makes sense,” I said. “I switch again. I’ll be player 1, and the
know that 12 times 50 is 600, that’s class will be player 2. I’m going to have
twelve 50s. But I need two more 50s to you start with 75. Is there a friendly
get fourteen 50s, and two more 50s is number you can multiply 75 by to
100 more. So 14 times 50 is 100 more give you a good start?”
than 600, and that’s 700. Can Multiplying by “friendly” numbers
someone explain my idea in your own is a strategy some students don’t think
words?” of using. Suggesting strategies can be
“Well, to start with, we already helpful, but I’ve learned that if
figured out that 12 times 50 is 600,” students don’t understand why a
said Rebecca. “So 12 times 50 is like strategy works, they won’t apply it to
twelve 50s. It’s like you’re counting by other situations in which it makes
50s. So you keep counting up a couple sense to do so. Since number sense is
more 50s, and that’s 700.” making “sense” of mathematics, it’s
“So we know that fourteen 50s important that students understand
won’t get us into the target range,” I what they’re doing.
said. Nicky recorded 14 × 50 = 700 on “Seventy-five times ten is 750, and
the transparency and checked the add another 75 and that’s 825,” said
answer on the overhead calculator. Anita. “Do 75 times 11, and you’ll get
“Does anyone have an idea about within the range.”
where we could go from here?” I asked. “Why did it make sense to
“Multiply 50 times 17, because 50 multiply 75 by ten to start with?” I
times 16 is 800, and you add another asked.
50 to get 850,” Jenny explained. “Because the target range is 800 to
“How do you know that 50 times 850, and multiplying 75 by ten makes
16 is 800?” I asked. it in the hundreds real fast. You add a
“Well, in 100 there’s two 50s, and zero to the 75 to make 750, because
split 16 in two you get eight, and eight it’s ten times bigger than that,” she
times 100 is 800,” she reasoned. explained.
“You could do 50 times 16 or 17, I wanted students to get the idea
because both answers are within the that there are many ways to calculate.
range,” observed Rebecca. “Is there another way to think about
“Do you think 50 times 18 would this?”
work?” I asked. “Pretend 75 is like three quarters,”
“That’s too high,” answered Don. said Anne. “So try to get up to 800 or
“If 50 times 17 is 850, then 50 times 825 by counting by 75s in your head.
18 is 900, and that’s above the range.” Like 75 and 75 is 150, and four 75s is
Again, Nicky recorded the 300, and so on.”
equation, then checked the answer on “You could divide 825 by the
the calculator. number and see what happens,” added
“Let’s do one more together, then Michael.
you’ll be able to play Hit the Target “Tell us more,” I prodded.
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160

“Like, divide 825 by 75 and then Nicky pushed 23 × 37 into the

you’ll get the number you need to calculator and got 851 for an answer.
multiply with 75,” he said. Michael “Man!” Anne moaned. “Just one over!
knew that multiplication and division I’ll try 37 times 22.” Nicky tested
were related. Understanding Anne’s idea, and both girls shouted,
relationships between numbers and “Yes! That’s it!”
between operations is an indicator of Nicole and Anita were struggling
number sense. with the number 72. “Anita gave me
I finished the game by recording the number 72 to start with, and I
the equation and checking the answer, multiplied 72 times 12 and got 864,”
then I explained to the class what they Nicole reported. “Then I multiplied
were to do next. “Now I’d like you to 72 times 11, and that’s 792! So
partner up and play Hit the Target,” I anywhere I go I’m over or under the
said. “You and your partner need a target range.” Anita and Nicole were
calculator, a piece of paper, and a on the verge of bumping into decimals.
pencil.” I then pointed to the While I wanted to avoid ex-
directions for the game on the plaining or giving away too much, I
chalkboard and asked Gordon to read also wanted to prod them just enough
them aloud one more time. When he so that they could think for them-
had finished, the students excitedly selves. This balancing act between
fished their calculators out of their how much to explain and how much
desks and began. time and space to give students to
explore on their own is always a
challenge. “So what can you do?” I
Observing the Students asked.
“Nothing, I’m stuck,” she replied.
Anne and Nicky were partners, and “You need something between 11
Nicky had just given Anne the number and 12,” I hinted.
37 to start with. Anne was thinking “I don’t get it,” said Anita. “There’s
out loud. “I know that 30 plus 30 plus nothing we can use between 11 and 12
30 is 90,” she mused. “So I know that to multiply.”
37 times three is a little over 100. I’ll “If you had a ruler, what would be
add 30s until I get there, because 30 is between 11 and 12?” I asked.
easier to count by. One, two, three, “Oh!” Nicole exclaimed, “11 and a
that’s 100; four, five, six, that’s 200, half!”
seven, eight, nine, that’s 300. . . .” She “What’s 11 and a half on the
continued this way until she got to calculator?” I asked.
twenty-one 30s, which makes 700. “So “That’s 11 point five,” said Anita.
try 21 times 37 on the calculator,” she Nicole quickly multiplied 11.5 times
said to Nicky. 72 and got 828.
“That’s 777,” reported Nicky. Michael and Don encountered a
“So I’ll go a couple more. I’ll try similar problem with the number 99.
23 times 37,” Anne thought aloud. “I’m working with the number Don
 Hit the Target

161

gave me, which is 99,” said Michael. With a little help, Cam multiplied
“Ninety-nine times nine is 891, and 99 nine times 80 by subtracting 80 from
times eight is 792. I can’t get in the 800 to get 720 and realized he needed
range.” to go higher. With Mitch’s help, Cam
“What’s between eight and nine?” used trial and error to make his way to
I asked. 89 times nine and was able to get into
“Eight point five?” Michael said, the target range.
smiling. He multiplied 99 times 8.5 At another table, Katie wanted to
and got 841.5. start with 99.5 just for the challenge!
When I visited Cam, he was trying
to think of a number to multiply by
the starting number, nine. Cam A Class Discussion
struggles with arithmetic and often
needs help getting started. His partner, After about twenty-five minutes, I
Mitch, didn’t seem to know how to called the class together for a dis-
help. cussion. “Did anything surprise you
“Is there a number that’s close to while you were playing Hit the
nine and friendlier to start with?” I Target?” I asked.
asked. “All the numbers we used were
He thought for a moment, then easy,” Gordon reported.
hesitantly said, “Ten?” “What numbers did you use?” I
“Yes, let’s start with ten,” I asked.
confirmed. “We want to get an answer Gordon scanned his paper.
between 800 and 850. Let’s focus on “Twenty, 60, 90, and eight,” he said.
getting to 800. What can we multiply “I think even numbers are easier
by ten to get to 800?” Cam stared into to start with,” said Jenny. “Numbers
space, wearing that look that’s so like 37 or 77 are kind of hard.
familiar when students haven’t made Whenever my partner gave me a
sense of an idea. I posed a question number like that, I rounded it off to
that I hoped would stretch his thinking an easier number and worked from
or at least give him a way into the there.”
problem. “What’s ten times ten?” I “I think higher numbers are easier
asked. to work with,” said Terry. “Like if you
“One hundred,” he replied. start with 85, you can multiply that by
“How about ten times 20?” I big numbers and it’s easier to think
continued. about getting to the target range.”
“Two hundred?” he said. “When we started with 72, we had
I pressed on. “Ten times 30?” to multiply it by 11 point five on the
“Oh, I get it!” he exclaimed, calculator to hit the target,” said
beaming. He continued until he got to Mindy. “We forgot that there were
ten times 80. numbers between 11 and 12, then we
“Now we’re at 800,” I said, “but remembered about decimals.”
we need to multiply by nine, not ten.” “Raise your hand if you had to use
Estimation

162

decimals in this game,” I said. Several “What did you do then?” I asked
hands went up. “What if we changed Katie.
the rules of the game so that your “Then we multiplied 1,200 by
partner could give you any starting point six and got 720,” she replied.
number, not just numbers between one “We kept going, multiplying next by
and 100?” I wondered. “How would point seven, and we hit the target!”
that change the game?” “I noticed that when you multiply
“Let’s try it!” Blanca said. “How a number by a decimal, you get a
about starting with a number bigger smaller number,” said Brennon.
than the target range.” Blanca’s idea fit “Is that always true?” I asked.
perfectly with where I was going. If she Brennon looked puzzled, as did several
hadn’t made the suggestion, I would other students. “Eight point five is a
have done so. decimal number that’s greater than one,”
“Okay, let’s start with 1,200,” I I said. “Try multiplying eight point five
said. “You and your partner use your by five and see what happens.”
calculators and explore this problem. “I got 42 point five!” several
Start with 1,200 and see if there’s a students chorused.
number you can multiply it by to hit “What’s another decimal number
the target.” that’s greater than one?” I asked.
This exploration was initially “How about five point three?”
confusing and challenging. I let the suggested Anne.
students struggle as they experimented “Multiply five point three by ten
with lots of different numbers. After and see if the answer is larger or
several minutes, I called for their smaller than ten,” I said. “Make a
attention. “What did you find out?” I prediction first.” After several seconds,
asked. lots of hands were raised. I called on
“I realized that you can’t multiply Jenny.
1,200 by a whole number or you’d get “The answer’s larger than ten,” she
a larger number than 1,200,” said said.
Jenny. “When you multiply a number by
“You have to multiply by a a decimal number that’s smaller than
decimal number, and it’s hard,” added one, the answer will be smaller,” Katie
Xavier. “We tried all sorts of things.” concluded. “That’s what we did when
“Was anyone able to hit the we multiplied 1,200 times point five.”
target?” I asked. This spontaneous exploration in
“We knew that point five is a half, the activity was exciting for the
so we multiplied point five by 1,200 students. It was a detour that I hadn’t
and got 600,” said Katie. expected to make, but it was
“Let’s try it,” I suggested. worthwhile because it gave students an
Students tested Katie’s idea on their insight into decimal numbers. In order
calculator. to allow my students to take the
“It’s like dividing by two,” activity in different directions, I have
observed Michael. to be familiar with the mathematics
 Hit the Target

163

involved and flexible in my approach gave me was 17. That took me more
to teaching. than 3 tries to figure it out. First I
guessed 17 × 90 which equals 1190.
Finally I guessed 17 × 40 which is 680
A Writing Assignment so then I knew it had to be in the 50s so I
chose 17 × 50 which is 850.
I then asked the students to write Rebecca wrote: I like Hit the
about the game. On the chalkboard, I Target. It isn’t easy sometimes, but I like
listed several questions they could use how it gets your mind thinking.
to help them get started: Michael wrote: This was a pretty
fun game. I like mostly because I’m good
• What did you like about Hit the
at the game. I got all the ones he gave
Target?
me on the first try. Except when
• What was easy?
he gave me 95.5. That was the only
• What was difficult?
hard one. Some of my strategys were
• What surprised you?
if he gave me a number between 80–85,
• What methods did you use to
I would multiply in my head. If he gave
multiply numbers mentally?
me a number under that but in the 70s,
• If you used decimals, what did you
I would multiply that by 10.5.
learn?
Additional examples of student
Cam wrote: When I played hit the work are shown in figures 12.1
target with David the hardest one that he through 12.4.
Estimation

164

FIGURE 12.1
Katie used decimal numbers while playing Hit
the Target.
 Hit the Target

165

FIGURE 12.2
Katie and Mindy’s score sheet for Hit the
Target.
Estimation

166

FIGURE 12.3
Anita noticed that Hit the Target helped with
her mental math skills.
 Hit the Target

167

FIGURE 12.4
Nicole’s score sheet for Hit the Target.

RUSTY ANSWERS beginning of math class. She changed

YOUR QUESTIONS the target range frequently and
reported that the experimentation with
numbers called for in the game helped
How does this game help develop improve students’ estimation and
students’ number sense? mental computation skills. Most
When students rely on their intuitive important, she said, the game required
reasoning about numbers and students to calculate for a purpose and
operations, they’re using their number to apply multiplication meaningfully
sense. The focus on estimation and and flexibly.
mental calculation in this activity When students estimate while
helps students develop this intuition. playing Hit the Target, they have
After sixth graders had learned the opportunities to compare numbers
game, Pam Long played Hit the Target and think about number relationships.
with them for several weeks at the Forming an estimate also involves the
Estimation

168

student in mental computation as a students were solving the problem in a

preliminary step. For example, if the way that made sense to them.
target range is 800–850 and the Calculating mentally facilitates these
starting number is 50, a game might unique ways of making sense.
play out like this:

50 × 10 = 500
What are some questions I could
The number is too
ask that would stimulate students’
low.
50 × 20 = 1,000 The number is too
thinking about the mathematics
in this game?
high.
50 × 15 = 750 The number is As a teacher, you play an important
closer but still too low. role in building students’ number
50 × 17 = 850 The number is sense. One way to help facilitate the
within the target development of number sense is to
range. ask questions that require more than a
right answer and that can prompt
With each calculation, the player students to explore a mathematical
is thinking about the product and idea. The following questions, which
comparing it to the target range. By can be asked while students are
estimating, she produces an ap- playing Hit the Target, during a class
proximate answer, one that is “close discussion after the game, or as
enough” to allow her to decide What prompts for a writing assignment, will
do I do next in order to get into the target help you stimulate students’ thinking
range? and generate important discussions:
Calculating mentally helps
students develop their own strategies • What numbers were difficult to start
for applying operations and helps them with and which were easy? Why?
think flexibly. When I used the activity • What strategies did you use when
in Pam Long’s classroom, for example, calculating mentally? Explain your
we were trying to hit the target range strategy.
of 800–850 by using 75 as a starting • Did you change the target range?
number. Anita said, “Seventy-five If so, what new target range did you
times ten is 750 and add another 75 use? How did the target ranges
and that’s 825.” Anne thought about compare?
money when solving the problem: • Did you ever start with a number
“Pretend 75 is like three quarters. So that was greater than the target
try to get up to 800 or 825 by range? If you did, explain what
counting by 75s in your head. Like 75 happened.
and 75 is 150, and four 75s is 300, and • How did the calculator help you in
so on.” Michael took a completely playing this game?
different approach. He suggested that • Did you have to use decimal
we divide 825 by 75 to get the number numbers in the game? If you did,
you need to multiply 75 by. All three explain what happened.
 G

13 In the Ballpark

Overview
While many estimation activities involve students with thinking about whole
numbers, this activity engages them in thinking about fractions and percents.
Students first think about real-world examples for various quantities—less than 1/4,
about 2/3, close to 33%, and so on. They then analyze other real-world examples
and apply them to the students in their class.

Materials Needed
9 pieces of chart paper, each bearing a label:
less than 1/4
about 1/3
about 1/2
about 2/3
about 3/4
about 25%
close to 33%
a little less than 50%
more than 75%
81/2-by-11-inch sheets of paper labeled with different categories (are only children,
have an older brother, had cereal for breakfast, etc.)

Teaching Directions

1. Post the sheets of labeled chart paper, in nonconsecutive order, along the front
of the room.
169
Estimation

170

2. Have students generate real-life examples of things that would fit under each
quantitative heading.
3. Present the students with one of your predetermined categories, have them apply
it to the students in the class, and ask them to discuss which quantitative
heading it fits under and why.
4. Show the students the rest of your predetermined categories and have them
choose one to explore and write about.
 In the Ballpark

171

IN THE CLASSROOM “But what about the whole

WITH CAREN school?” I asked. “There are probably
some classes that have more girls and
others that have more boys. Do you
Introducing the Activity think overall in the whole school it’s
safe to say about half of the students
I posted nine pieces of chart paper at are girls and half are boys?”
the front of Pam Long’s sixth-grade “I guess about a half,” Tanetta
classroom, in this order: about 1/2 , less conceded.
than 1/4 , about 1/3 , about 3/4 , a little less “What are some other real-life
than 50%, about 25%, close to 33%, examples that might fit under one of
about 2/3 , more than 75%. “Okay,” I these ballparks?” I continued.
said to the class, “the posters taped on “I know,” offered Guillermo.
the chalkboard represent ballparks. “More than 75 percent of the kids play
Does anyone know what I mean by soccer at recess.” While I personally
ballpark here?” had not spent a lot of time with the
“It means about,” Rafael re- kids at recess, the nods of assent from
sponded. the rest of the class indicated that
“Like estimating a number,” Nida soccer was indeed a popular activity.
added. Sariah piggybacked on Guillermo’s
“Right,” I replied. “When I say recess estimate. “Less than one fourth
Give me the ballpark price of that car or play double Dutch at recess,” she
What’s the ballpark number of kids in volunteered.
this school? I want to know about how “And less than one fourth eat
much or about how many. The papers lunch at the picnic tables,” Leu added.
I put up on your chalkboard are some “Almost everyone likes to eat in the
ballpark numbers for you to think cafeteria.”
about. Can anyone think of a real-life Now that the students understood
example of something that fits under my original question, I widened the
one of these categories?” Sensing some field. “Okay, so now think about
hesitation and seeing quite a few examples outside school,” I told the
puzzled looks, I narrowed the class. “Take a few minutes to talk to
question. Pointing to the sheet that your neighbors and see whether you
said about 1/2 , I said, “Think about can come up with an example or two
this school. Is there something here at for each of the ballparks.” I let the
school that you can say is about one students talk with one another at their
half?” tables and then called them back to
Mick brightened. “There’s about attention. “Who has an example?” I
one-half girls and one-half boys at asked.
school.” Kathy raised her hand. “We think
“Not in our class,” countered about half of the people in the United
Tanetta. “We have way more girls in States like pizza,” she reported.
our class.” Quoch’s table had talked about pets.
Estimation

172

“About one third of the families in the class back together and asked
Oceanside have dogs,” he predicted. students to share their ideas.
Brenda had a pie comparison. Alicia began. “I think it’s about
“When you cut up a pie for people to one third,” she announced, “because
eat, each piece is less than one fourth there aren’t as many boys as girls in the
of the pie.” class.”
I made sure the students provided “It could be less than one fourth,”
at least one example for each ballpark countered Alberto.
posted, writing their ideas on the “Why do you think that?” I asked
appropriate sheet. Then I continued to him.
explain the activity. “Here’s what’s “There are nine boys in the class
going to happen now. I have some and 17 or 18 girls,” he explained.
pieces of paper with me on which I’ve Although the numbers didn’t support
written some categories of things. his idea, I decided not to push him at
When I hold up the first category, your this point but to check in with him
job is to think about which of these later. My goal was to explore different
ballpark numbers the category belongs ways to think about the question. I
under.” I held up the first piece of looked around the room and counted
paper, which said Boys in the room. the boys. “I just counted nine boys in
“Now take a few minutes to talk at the room. How many people are there
your tables about where you think Boys in the room altogether?” After a
in the room fits. And when you talk to moment of counting, we determined
each other, make sure you’re explaining that there were 26 people in the room,
your thinking, not just telling answers. including the students and the
It’s the thinking that’s really important teachers.
here and your reasons for your an-
swers.”
I circulated among the tables as A Writing Assignment
the students discussed where Boys in
the room might fit. All students began “Okay,” I said, “so there are nine boys
talking eagerly and animatedly, but the out of 26 people altogether.” I wrote
9
effectiveness of their discussions varied /26 on a projected transparency. “I’m
greatly. Some students fixated on going to give you a few minutes for a
determining the exact number of boys quickwrite. Each of you will write your
in the class. They counted and ideas about which ballpark you think
9
recounted the boys present and /26 is closest to. Don’t just write an
identified who was missing. Other answer. Explain why you chose the
students quickly agreed that there were ballpark you did.”
fewer boys than girls in the class, “Can we make a picture to show
eliminated the about 1/2 option, and it?” Mary asked.
concentrated on identifying which of “Sure, a picture or diagram is a
the other categories could be used to great way to show an idea,” I replied,
quantify the number of boys. I called “but you’ll also need to write some
 In the Ballpark

173

words to explain your picture and how 13.1). Alicia drew a pie graph divided
it helps you.” into 26 sections and shaded nine of
I gave the class about ten minutes them, showing that it was close to 1/3
for their quickwrite. There were two (see figure 13.2). She also rounded
reasonable options: close to 33% and 26 to 27 in her written explanation.
about 1/3. I wondered whether anyone Even the papers of the students who
would mention both, but no one did. did not choose the most reasonable
But the papers were interesting. Gary ballpark provided useful information
used words and a picture to explain about their number sense.
why he chose close to 33% (see figure

FIGURE 13.1
Gary told why 9/26 is close to 33%.
Estimation

174

FIGURE 13.2
Alicia used a pie graph to help with her
estimate.
 In the Ballpark

175

A Class Discussion review the activity before I sent the

students off to work on their own. It’s
important to clarify language and
“Okay,” I told the class, “now you’re
expectations at the outset. “Well, I
going to do some work at your tables.
guess I haven’t really thought deeply
You’re going to have some choices
enough about what it means to be a
about which problem to work on. I
tennis shoe,” I confessed. I took the
have three topics for you.”
paper containing the too general
I held up three more of the
category, crossed out the word tennis,
category papers:
and wrote PE in its place. “Here’s the
Are wearing tennis shoes new way to think about it,” I
Had cereal for breakfast explained. “Focus on whether or not
Have a younger sister the shoes would be appropriate for you
to wear during PE. There are some
I like to provide students with shoes that are okay for PE and others
choices when possible. Offering several that are not. What fraction or percent
options rather than dictating one gives of people in the room right now are
students more independence and wearing shoes that are PE approved?
ownership. In this instance the subject Does that make it clearer?”
of the hypothesis didn’t matter: I The ensuing nods and murmurs
would be able to see the students’ ideas indicated that they understood but were
about numbers regardless of the topic disappointed that a potentially exciting
they chose. discussion about footwear had been
I explained the task. “You are squelched. “So, talk at your tables about
going to choose one of these categories these three categories. Then decide
and decide which ballpark it fits in. which one you’re going to focus on. Try
Remember, we are talking about the to figure out which ballpark it fits in. Be
people in the room right now. So you prepared to explain how you decided on
need to think about what fraction or your answer.” The students began
percent of people in the room are talking and working at their tables. I
wearing tennis shoes or had cereal this went from table to table, checking in
morning or have a younger sister. and helping students refocus.
Spend a little time talking at your
tables about each of these. Then you’re
going to pick one to concentrate on.
Another Writing
Your job will be to write about the one Assignment
you chose and explain where you think
it fits. Are there any questions?” About fifteen minutes before the lunch
Mick raised his hand. “Ms. break, I made an announcement.
Holtzman, when you say tennis shoes, “You’ve had some time to talk about
do you mean sneakers or high tops or these three categories at your table and
platforms or what?” choose one to think about more. Now
I was glad I had taken the time to it’s time for everyone to concentrate on
Estimation

176

writing your ideas. Let’s take some ballpark is close to 33% because every
quiet time so that everyone has a week day kids around the world are
chance to get some ideas down on getting up early for school. We don’t get
paper.” enough time to eat cereal so we want
I collected the papers before the something on the go so we eat something
students went to lunch. Interestingly, we like—toast—and we can eat it
all three choices received about equal quickly. She included illustrations to
attention. The papers showed a variety emphasize the morning-rush breakfast
of approaches and a range of thinking. dilemma.
Some of the students used Many students worked on the PE
empirical information exclusively to shoe category. Sariah included a
explain their ballpark choice. Mary written explanation and a picture on
wrote, About 75% of the people in this her paper (see figure 13.4). She
class are wearing P.E. shoes because I took imagined what the two groups
a peek under everybody’s desk. Calvin (wearing PE shoes and not wearing PE
used his own experiences as well. He shoes) would look like if they were on
wrote, I think about 1/2 the class has a two different soccer teams. She wrote,
younger sister because I know 9 people I think that more than 75% of the class
and 5 of them have a younger sister. is wearing P.E. shoes today, because if you
Since there’s more than 9 people in the were playing a soccer game, and you
class I think it’s about 1/2. needed to have even teams. So if you took
Several of the students used a the people that were wearing P.E. shoes
broader generalization as a rationale for for a team and boots, high heels, ect. in
their decision. Although the task another team to make two teams it
focused on people in the classroom, would be very uneven.
these students started with a bigger The papers gave me an insight
picture and then worked back to the into the students’ number sense,
smaller. (For some reason, this type of particularly their estimation strategies.
broad thinking occurred mostly in Did they use sample data to predict?
connection with the breakfast cereal Which ballpark did they equate with
category.) Emma was thinking which numbers? Did they compare
nutritionally. She explained, About 1/3 whole numbers with fractions and
of the kids in my class eat cereal for decimals? How? The assessment
breakfast. That is because when kids get possibilities of this activity are rich,
older they need more to eat, not just and repeated discussions and writing
cereal. Nida had a global perspective assignments will definitely strengthen
(see figure 13.3): I choosed cereal. My the students’ estimating capabilities.
 In the Ballpark

177

FIGURE 13.3
Nida explained the breakfast dilemma.
Estimation

178

FIGURE 13.4
Sariah pictured uneven soccer teams.
 In the Ballpark

179

CAREN ANSWERS there are important fraction and percent

YOUR QUESTIONS benchmarks. Once students have a solid
grasp of these numbers, they are better
able to negotiate the number system.
How does this activity promote They can handle unfamiliar numbers by
the development of number sense? comparing them with more familiar
Estimation requires a feel for benchmarks.
quantities, relative magnitude, and These students seemed more
benchmarks. It’s vital for students to comfortable with the fraction ballparks
have many opportunities to estimate in than with the percents. This is not
math class, so that they will develop surprising at the beginning of sixth
these abilities. This activity gives grade. I was curious whether anyone
students a chance to estimate and also would notice that several of the
to discuss and write about their fraction ballparks were essentially the
thinking: not only are they practicing same as the percentage ones. No one
estimation, they are being given mentioned it. An interesting follow-up
opportunities to think about es- activity would be to ask the students to
timation in different ways. Thinking put the ballpark choices in ascending
about their own methods of estimating order or to find ones that were very
and listening to their classmates’ ideas close to each other.
build their estimation proficiency.
Many estimation activities involve
Can this activity be adapted for
guessing how many of something.
other grade levels?
This activity asks students to think
about estimation in a different way. With these sixth graders, I used
Presenting the students with real ballparks that involved fractions and
situations and a number of ballparks percents. However, you can choose any
requires them to think about relative numbers. In a third-grade class, you
quantities. They need to collect data might use close to 10, close to 20, close
or use a benchmark to help them to 50, and close to 100. Ballparks can
make sense of the situation and even be ranges of numbers: 1–50,
choose the most reasonable 51–100, etc. As students develop solid
quantification. In most instances foundations and clear pictures of what
students do some mental computation numbers look like, use more
to help them choose the most challenging quantifications.
reasonable estimate. Students can also generate their
own ballparks or their own topics. You
can devote part of a class session to
Why did you choose these brainstorming ideas of things to explore
particular “ballparks”? and categorize. Or you can present a
I deliberately chose “landmark” fractions subject such as number of crayons in the
and percents. Just as there are landmark room and ask students to name a
whole numbers (10, 25, 50, 75, 100), ballpark that seems reasonable to them.
 Bresser and Holtzman
DEVELOPING

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Number sense is not a specific skill or concept, but a broader
idea that encompasses students’ ability to think and reason
flexibly, make sound numerical judgments, and see numbers as
useful. Along with computation and problem solving, number
sense is an important part of instruction that builds arithmetic

NUMBER SENSE
competence and confidence.

Rusty Bresser and Caren Holtzman present lessons rich with

strategies for helping children build their number sense.The
lessons provide practice in mental computation, the basics,
navigating the number system, and estimation. Woven
throughout the book are strategies for assessing students’
understanding and samples of student work.
Grades 3-6

DEVELOPING NUMBER SENSE

3/
This book is for teachers who are just beginning to focus on
number sense as well as for those seeking new lessons and
strategies for the classroom.

Ca re n Holtz m a n was an elementary classroom

teacher in Oceanside, California, for ten years and
is currently working in the teacher education
program at the University of California, San Diego.
She is also the author of two Scholastic Hello
Math Readers, A Quarter From the
5% 4 29
1.5 18
Tooth Fairy and No Fair!

=+
Rusty Bresser has been an elementary
classroom teacher since 1979. He

7
currently teaches in the Oceanside
Unified School District in Oceanside,
California. He is also the author of Math
and Literature (Grades 4–6), Math
Solutions Publications, 1995.

Both Caren and Rusty are Math Solutions Inservice instructors, Math Solutions Publications
teaching courses offered by Marilyn Burns Education Associates
to elementary and middle school teachers nationwide.

Math Solutions ®
Rusty Bresser and Caren Holtzman
P U B L I C AT I O N S

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