Miscellaneous Pre-Algebra

Classification of Numbers

Real Numbers Imaginary Numbers

Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

Integers
Whole Numbers

Natural Numbers

Real Numbers:
Rational Numbers:
• Natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4
• Whole numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
• Integers: -3, -2, -1, 0, -1, -2, -3
• Rational numbers:
!
• Fractions example: 3
"
• Decimals that do not repeat: example .6
• Negative numbers example: : -8
• Perfect Square roots: 16 = 4
Irrational Numbers:
• Repeating decimals: 3.445445445
• 𝜋
• Radicals that are not perfect squares: 35

Non Real (Imaginary) Numbers:

• Complex Numbers: 3i, 6i
Prime Numbers: Number only divisible by 1 and itself
• Example: 7: 1, 7
Composite Numbers: Divisible by more numbers than 1 and itself
• Example: 35: 1, 5, 7, 35

Example 1: Which of the following is a rational number?

A. 2 = 1.414213563273095 − Irrational Number
B. p= 3.141592653589793- Irrational Number
C. 7= 2.645751311064591- Irrational Number
>
D. = .44721595499958- Irrational Number
?>
@A C
E. = Rational Number
AB "

Example 2: How many prime numbers are there between 30 and 50?
A. 4
B. 5 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
C. 6
D. 7
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
E. 8

1
 Algebraic Jargon
• Variable- a letter that stands for an unknown number
• Coefficient- a number that the variable is being multiplied by Example: 3x x=variable 3= constant
• Addition: Sum, more than, higher than, in addition to, increased by, plus
• Subtraction: Difference, less than, fewer than, decreased by, subtract, minus
• Multiplication: product, of (when referring to fraction and percentages), times, for every, twice, double, triple
• Division: quotient, divided by, divided into, per, half, ratio
• =: equal, is equal to, is, costs, weighs, quantifies to, exactly
• Parenthesis: The quantity of, twice the sum of, times the sum of, plus the difference of
• <: less than, no more than, is under, shorter, smaller than, fewer than, beneath
• ≤: less than or equal to, a maximum of, at most, bottom, no more than
• >: more than, greater than, at least, top, is no less than, minimum
• ≥: at least, a minimum of, is no less than
• ≠: is not equal to, is not the same as, is different from

Examples:
"
- The quotient of 7 and e decreased by 8: -8
I
- Two more than the difference of w and 12 is 7: (w-12) + 2= 7

Example 1: A tortoise moves x times as fast as a snail. A hare moves y times as fast as the tortoise. The hare moves how many
times as fast as the snail?
J A tortoise moves x times as fast as a snail: t=xs
A.
K A hare moves y times as fast as the tortoise: h=yt
K
B. Substitute t in first equation for t in second equation: h=yxs
J
C. xy è The hare moves xy times as fast as the snail
D. y – x
E. y + x

Example 2: The larger of two numbers exceeds twice the smaller number by 8. The sum of twice the larger and 3 times the
smaller number is 65. If x is the smaller number, which equation below determines the correct value of x?
A. 3(2x + 8) + 2x = 65
B. 3(2x - 8) + 2x = 65
C. (4x + 8) + 3x = 65
D. 2(2x + 8) + 3x = 65
E. 2 (2x – 8) + 3x = 65

The larger of two numbers exceeds twice the smaller number by 8.

The measurement of the larger number depends on the smaller number.
Therefore, the smaller number is x and the larger number is 2x + 8 (exceeds twice the smaller number by 8)
Larger Number Smaller Number
2x+8 x
The sum (Add) of twice (2) (Multiply) the larger (2x+8) and 3 times (3) Multiply) the smaller number (x) is (equal) 65.
Larger Number Smaller Number
2(2x+8) + 3x = 65
2(2x+8) + 3x= 65
Number Properties
Distributive Property
• Multiply the sum of two numbers by a number
• Example of How to Use Distributive Property: 3(5+6)= 3(5) + 3(6) 4(n+m)= 4n +4m
• Example of How NOT to Use Distributive Property:
(3x +6)6+18 18 and 6 can not be added because 6 is attached to 3x +6 not 18 NOT TRUE: 18+6= 24 (3x+6)
24
First you distribute the 6 into 3x+6 and then add 18 (3x +6)6+18= 18 +18x +36= 18x+54
Associative Property
• Regrouping a Number sentence- how you group the numbers does not affect the answer

2
 • Adding Associative Property: a + (b+c) = (a+b)+c
• Example: 4 + (5+6) = (4+5)+6
• Multiplication Associative Property: a * (b*c)= (a*b)*c
• Example: 5* (6*7)= (5*6)*7
Commutative Property
• Changing the position of the numbers
• Adding Commutative Property: a + b= b+a
• Example: 5+6 = 6+5
• Multiplication Associative Property: (bc=cb)
• Example: 5(6)= 6(5)
Reflexive Property Symmetric Property Transitive Property
Each real number equals itself If x= y then also y=x If a= b and b=c then a=c
Example: a=a Example: x= y+5 then y+5=x Example: x=y+5 and y+5= 8 then x=8

Types of Solutions for Equations

• Unique (One) Solution: Only one answer for the equation
• Infinitely Many Solutions: Infinite number of solutions, same expression on both side of the equal sign, same slope, same
line
• No Solution: when the number sentence is not accurate, also known as an empty set- slopes are equal, parallel lines
Example of One Solution:
2x+6=10
-6 -6
2x=4
x=2
Example of Infinitely Many Solutions:
x+3x+3+3= 4x+6
4x+6=4x+6 Both sides of the equation are the same, this means that there are infinitely many solutions.
No matter what is plugged into the equation for x, both sides of the equal sign will give the same
answer
Example of No Solution:
x+2x+2= 3x+2+4
3x+2=3x+6
-3x -3x
2=6 Two does not equal six. This is number sentence is not true, therefore creating an empty set.

Example 1: Which of the following is the set of all real numbers x such that 𝑥 + 2 > 𝑥 + 5?
A. The set containing only zero
B. The set containing all nonnegative real numbers 𝑥 + 2 > 𝑥 + 5
C. The set containing all negative real numbers -x. -x
D. The set containing all real numbers 2 > 5 2 is not greater than 5 therefore it is an empty set
E. The empty set

Ordering Numbers
Questions on the ACT require that you place a set of numbers from least to greatest or vice versa
Always convert the numbers into decimal form first
If there are various decimals involved, then extend the decimal to the last value of the largest value in the list

Example 1:
A. 0.34
B. 0.345
C. 0.3444
D. 0.3
E. 0.3

Extend the decimals to the same place value- the largest place value is of 0.3444
Extended Answer Choice A. Two place values for 0.34 Becomes 0.3434 Because .34 is repeating
Extended Answer Choice B. One place value for 0.345 Becomes 0.3454 Because.45 is repeating

3
 Extended Answer Choice C. No place values Stay. 0.3444
Extended Answer Choice D. Three place value for 0.3 Becomes 0.333 Because.3 is repeating
Extended Answer Choice E. Three place values for 0.3 Become 0.3000 Because there is no repeating
0.3000 E
0.3333 D
0.3434 A
0.3444 C
0.3454 B

Example 2: Which of the following numbers has the digit 5 in the thousandths place?
A. 5,000.00 5 in the thousands place
B. 50.0 5 in the tens place
C. 0.05 5 in the hundredths place
D. 0.005 5 in the thousandths place
E. 0.0005 5 in the ten thousandths place

Example 3: What is the 135th digit to the right of the decimal point in the repeating decimal 0. 428571?
A. 1
B. 2 There are 6 digits in the repeating value.
C. 5 Therefore, any number with 6 as a factor will correspond with the last digit.
D. 7 Divide 135 by 6 as there are 6 repeating values.
th rd
E. 8 The remainder 3 indicates the 135 digit will be the 3 digit to the right of the decimal point, which is 8.
22
6√135
−12
15
-12
3

Distance Word Problems

• Distance= Rate * Time
Example 1: Ms. Lewis plans to drive 900 miles to her vacation destination, driving an average of 50 miles per hour. How many
miles per hour faster must she average, while driving, to reduce her total driving time by 3 hours?
A. 5
B. 8 First find how many hours it will take to drive 900 miles at 50 miles per hour.
C. 10 The equation that relates time, rate, and distance is d=rt
BQQ >QR
D. 15 =
>Q >Q
E. 18 ℎ = 18
Reduce hours by 3 and find new speed.
18 − 3 = 15
900 = 15𝑥
BQQ O>K
=
O> O>
x=60 miles per hour
60-50= 10 miles per hour less

O
Example 2: Bus X travels 40 miles per hour for 2 hours; Bus Y travels 60 miles per hour for 1 hours. What is the difference, in
?
miles, between the number of miles traveled by Bus X and the number of miles traveled by Bus Y?
A. 10
B. 20 D=rt
C. 50 Bus X: Bus Y:
D. 80 D=? D=?
E. 90 R= 40 R=60
T= 2 T=1.5
D= 80 D=90 90-80=10

4
Example 3: If Tom traveled 45 miles in 12 hours and Jim traveled 4 times as far in one-third of the time, what was Jim’s
average speed in miles per hour?
A. 5 Tom= D=rt Jim=D=rt
B. 15 D= 45 D= 45*4(4 times as far as Tom) = 180
C. 30 R= x R=x
D. 45 T= 12 T=4 (one third of a the time of Tom)
E. 90 45=12x 180=4x
x=3.75 x=45- Rate

Rounding Up Word Problems

• When calculating how many cans of paint, number of students, number of items, in which you cannot have a fraction of
something

Example 1: A warehouse dispatcher is arranging the delivery of 83,000 condensers. She will use 2 large-size trucks, each
carrying a maximum of 18,000 condensers. The remaining truck are small-size trucks, each carrying a maximum of 7,000
condensers. Each truck she uses will make exactly 1 trip. Along with the 2 large-size trucks, what is the minimum number of
small-size trucks needed to deliver all the condensers?
A. 4
Multiply 18,000 by the 2 large trucks to quantify the amount of condensers that the large trucks transported.
B. 6
Then subtract that amount from the 83,000 to see how many condensers would be transported by small-size trucks.
C. 7
83,000 = 2(18,000) + 7,000𝑠
D. 9
83,000 = 36,000 + 7,000𝑠
E. 10
−36,000 − 36,000
A",QQQ ",QQQ]
= 𝑠 = 6.7 which rounds to 7.
",QQQ ",QQQ
Because you can not have 6.7 trucks you have to round to the next nearest whole number = 7

Example 2: Nick needs to order 500 pens from his supplier. The catalog shows that these pens come in cases of 24 boxes with
10 pens in each box. Nick knows that he may NOT order partial cases. What is the fewest number of cases he should order?
A. 2
>QQ
B. 3 = 50 𝑏𝑜𝑥𝑒𝑠 Dividing total pens by how many pens are in a box tells you how many boxes of pens
OQ
C.18
D. 21
E. 50

Coin Problems
O O
• 38 ¢ 38 ¢ does not exist it really means .385 cents
? ?
•
O
Example: The total cost of renting a car is $30.00 for each day the car is rented plus 28 ¢ for each mile the car is driven. What is
?
the total cost of renting the car for 5 days and driving 350 miles?

Create an expression for the total cost of renting a car.

Total Cost = Fixed Cost +Variable Cost
Fixed Cost- The cost that does not change which is $30 per day. No matter how much you drive you still have to pay $30 per
day in order to have the car
Variable Cost- The cost that changes according to a certain variable. In this case, every time a mile is driven in the car you must
O
pay 28 ¢ per mile driven.
?
O
28 ¢- DNE- it means .285
?

Cost = 30𝑑 + .285𝑚 d= number of days and m= number of miles

Cost = 30(5) + .285(350)
Cost = 249.7

5
Overtime Problems
When calculating overtime, you must calculate first the amount of salary for the first 40 hours and then calculate the rest of the
salary by multiplying the amount of hours he worked over 40 hours by the overtime rate.

Example: Joelle earns her regular pay of $7.50 per hour for up to 40 hours or work in a week. For each hour over 40 hours of
O
work in a week, Joelle is paid 1 times her regular pay. How much does Joelle earn for a week in which she works 42 hours?
?
A. $126.00
B. $315.00 Salary for 40 hours: 40 * 7.5= $300
C. $322.50 Salary for 2 hours: (1.5*7.50)(2)= $22.5
D. $378.00 Total Salary: 322.50
E. $472.50

Statements

• Conditional: 𝑝 → 𝑞
• Converse: 𝑞 → 𝑝
• Inverse: ~𝑝 → ~𝑞
• Contrapositive: ~𝑞 → ~𝑝

Examples:
P → Michael goes to the mall Q → Susie makes cookies
• Conditional: Michael goes to the mall; Susie makes cookies.
• Converse: Susie makes cookies; Michael goes to the mall
• Inverse :If Michael does not go to the mall; Susie does not make cookies
• Contrapositive: If Susie does not make cookies, Michael does not go to the mall.

Example 1: If the statement “If a cat is tricolor, then it is a female” were true, which of the following statements would also
have to be true?
A. “If a cat is a female, then it is tricolor.”
P: Cat is tricolor
B. “If a cat is not a female, then it is tricolor.”
C. “If a cat is not a female, then it is not tricolor.” Q: Then it is female
D. “If a cat is not tricolor, then it is a female.” ~𝑞 → ~𝑝
If it is not a female, then the cat is not a tricolor.
E. “If a cat is not tricolor, then it is not a female.”

Example 2: Jim makes the statement “If you have visited the White House, then you have been to Washington D.C.” Which of
the following statements is logically equivalent to Jim’s statement?
A. You have visited the White House, or you have been to Washington, D. C.
B. You have visited the White House, and you have been to Washington D. C.
C. If you have been to Washington D. C., then you have visited the White House
D. If you have not visited the White House, then you have not been to Washington D. C.
E. If you have not been to Washington D. C., then you have not visited the White House
P: You have visited the White House
Q: Then you have been to Washington DC
~𝑞 → ~𝑝
You have not been in Washington DC , then you have not visited the White House.

6
 Least Common Multiple, Factors, LCD, LCM

Finding the lowest common multiple between two or more numbers

First list the multiples of the numbers until you find the number they both
•15: 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 90, 105, 120, 135,...
•40: 40, 80 120, 160, 200,...
•Least common multiple is equal to 120
• TIP: Use your answer choices in the ACT problems, instead of listing them
• In an ACT word problem, when it stated that two mechanisms are working at the same time, and the problem is interested in
understanding when the mechanisms will work at the same time…find the least common multiple.

1. A copy machine makes 60 copies per minute. A second copy machine makes 80 copies per minute. The second machine
starts making copies 2 minutes after the first machine starts. Both machines stop making copies 8 minutes after the first
machine started. Together, the 2 machines made how many copies?
A. 480 In order to know when they make the same copies you must find the multiple they have in common:
B. 600 60 ∶ 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 𝟒𝟖𝟎
C. 680 80 ∶ 80 160 240 320 400 𝟒𝟖𝟎
D. 720 Since there are two machine 480 × 2 = 960
E. 𝟗𝟔𝟎

2. One traffic light flashes every 6 seconds. Another traffic light flashes every 9 seconds. If they flash together and you begin
counting seconds, how many seconds after they flash together will they next flash together?
A. 6
B. 9 In order to know when they flash at the same time you must find the multiple they have in common:
C. 18 6 ∶ 6 12 𝟏𝟖
D. 36 9 ∶ 9 𝟏𝟖
E. 54

• In an ACT problem that asks for the least common denominator of variables, you chose one of each variable, and the highest
degree of the variable in the denominator.

3. Which of the following is the least common denominator for the expression below?
1 1 1
+ ? +
𝑎 ×𝑏×𝑐 𝑏 ×𝑐 𝑏×𝑐 ?
?
A. 𝑏×𝑐
B. 𝑎×𝑏×𝑐 Choose the variables with the largest exponent in the denominator
C. 𝑎 ? ×𝑏×𝑐
D. 𝒂𝟐 × 𝒃𝟐 × 𝒄𝟐 1 1 1
? A
E. 𝑎 × 𝑏 × 𝑐 > + + → 𝑎? ×𝑏? ×𝑐 ?
𝒂 ×𝑏×𝑐 𝒃 ×𝑐 𝑏×𝒄𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

• In an ACT problem that asks for the least common denominator of numbers, you divide the number values of the
denominators into the answer choices. If the all of denominators divide evenly into one of the answer choices, then that answer
choice is the answer.

l m n o
4. What is the least common denominator when adding the fractions ? , ! , B, and O>?
A. 45
B. 𝟗𝟎 Divide each multiple choice answer by the denominators 2, 3, 9 and 15
C. 135 A>
D. 270 A: →not divisible, so answer choice eliminated
?
E. 810
BQ BQ BQ BQ
B:
? ! B O>
45 30 10 6 → all whole numbers, therefore B is answer

7
 Interpreting a Graph
Piecewise Functions

Notice that the top graph is broken up into three pieces. It is made up of 3 different functions, a parabola, horizontal line, and a
line. Each of the parts of the graph have their own domain.

Domain: of the function is all the possible x values that exist in the function from least to greatest or left to right.
•closed circle – x value is included.
•open circle – x value is not included.

Range: is all the possible y values that exist going from least to greatest or bottom to top of the graph

When interpreting a graph and a horizontal line is shown, this means that there is a stop. Either a person stopped walking, a car
stopped moving, or even a train stops for a certain amount of time. Time will continue but no movement occurs. This also
means the slope is zero.

Percentages
• Percentages are another way of expressing a fraction, decimal or ratio
• Percentage is a decimal * 100
• Percentages are used to understand the fraction of something out of 100%
• Equation: Original Amount * Percentage (divided by 100) = Percent Amount
Example: 70 is what percent of 85.
Original Amount * Percent (divided by 100) = Percent Amount
85 * ((x%)/100) = 70

• Example: What is 20% of 66

Original Amount & Percent(divided by 100) = Percent Amount
66 * ((30%)/100) =x

Calculate a reduction in Price (Sale):

Original Amount * Percent (divided by 100) = Amount of Discount
Original Amount- Amount of Discount = New Price
Example: The shirt costs $12, but it is now on sale for 30% off. What is the new price of the shirt?
$12 * .30=$3.60 (amount of discount)
$12-$3.60 = $8.40

Calculate an increase in Price (Tax/Tip):

Original Amount * Percent (divided by 100) = Amount of Increase
Original Amount + Amount of Increase= New Price
• Example: Amuni and Annie went to eat dinner and the bill was $25.36. Amuni decided to leave a 20% tip. How
much was the price of the meal including tip?
$25.36 *.20= $5.072
$25.36 + $5.072= $30.43
tuvwxuy
• Placing a percentage onto a circle graph, calculate the ∗ 360
zuwl{

• Calculating the change in percent: The question is usually phrased by asking the percent increase/decrease over time
}vx~xyl{ •€u•yw‚ƒI„ •€u•yw
∗ 100%
}vx~xyl{ •€u•yw
8
 Probability

-Probability describes the likelihood that an event will or will not occur

-How is the probability of an event occurring or not occurring written?

Probability is a Ratio, Fraction, and Percentage

†Rlw „I †lyw uv ‡uyˆ w †lyw

Formula for Probability:
zuwl{
Add probabilities: when there are two or more alternatives and when the events do not need to occur at the same time
Multiply probabilities: when there are two or more alternatives that occur at the same time, but the events do not affect the
other’s outcome

Combinations & Permutations

Combinations
•Utilized to find an arrangement/order of a sequence of numbers when order does not matter
•Examples: Pulling items out of a bag, the order in which people are elected, playing music choices

y y!
Combination: v
𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝐶𝑟: Order does not matter
v! y‚v !
N = is the total
R = is the choosing
!= the countdown of the number being multiplied Example: 5!= 5*4*3*2*1

Examples:
1. A hiking group will go from a certain town to a certain village by van on 1 of 4 roads, from the village to a waterfall by
riding bicycles on 1 of 2 bicycle paths, and then from the waterfall to their campsite by hiking on 1 of 6 trails. How many routes
are possible for the hiking group to go from the town to the village to the waterfall to their campsite?
Answer: 6*4*2= 48

2. A standard deck consists of 52 cards that are divided into 4 suits: clubs, spades, hearts, and diamonds. How many 12 card
hands can be made from a deck of 52 cards?

3. In a conference of 10 schools, how many intra conference baseball tournaments are played during the season if the team all
play each other one time?

Permutations
•Utilized to find an arrangement/order of a sequence of numbers when order DOES matter
•Examples: Spelling of words, when select number of people get an award based on ranking.

y!
Permutation: (yv) or nPr: Order does matter
y‚v !
N = is the total
R = is the choosing
!= the countdown of the number being multiplied Example: 5!= 5*4*3*2*1

1. In how many ways can a chairman, vice-chairman, and treasurer can be chosen among 10 candidates?
Answer: 10*9*8= 720

2. A zip code contains 5 numbers. How many different zip codes can be made with the 0-9 digit if a digit is not used more than
once and the first digit cannot be 9?

3. How many can the word Florida be arranged?

9
 Statistics
]•€ u• wRI y•€mIv] xy wRI {x]w
Mean: 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
wRI y•€mIv u• xwI€] xy wRI {x]w
Mode: The number that occurs the most in the series
Range: Subtract the smallest value in the number set from the largest value
Median: Order the number from least to greatest then find the middle number
If there are two numbers in the middle you take the average of the two
Example 1: List B consists of all the integers in List A below and also 3 integers a, b, and c, where a ≤ 17, b=c, and b ≥ 42.
What is the median of the integers in List B?
List A: 12, 16, 17, 29, 29, 35, 41, 42, 46, 47, 50

We are looking for the median, or middle, number of the entire group.
Also, let a = 17, b=42 and c=42 since they are also a part of the group.
Now we need to order the numbers from least to greatest.
12, 16, 17, 17(a), 29, 29, 35, 41, 42, 42(b,) 42(c), 46, 47, 50
Now we look for the middle term.
12, 16, 17, 17(a), 29, 29, 35, 41, 42, 42(b,) 42(c), 46, 47, 50
Notice that 35 and 41 are both in the middle, so take the average (mean) of them.
!>‘AO "@
= =38
? ?

Example 2: The average (arithmetic mean) of a and b is 6 and the average of a, b, and c is 11. What is the value of c?
We are looking for the value of c. They also tell us that the mean of a and b is 6 and the mean of a, b, and c is 11
mean of a and b is 6.
a, b, and c is 11
l‘m l‘m‘n
=6 = 11
? !
Now we can solve for a+b and substitute that into the other equation to solve for c.
l‘m
Step 1: = 6. Multiply both sides by 2.
?
Step 2: 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 12
l‘m‘n
Step 3: = 11 Substitute this into the other equation
!
O?‘n
Step 4: = 11 Solve for c. Multiply both sides by 3 and the subtract 12.
!
Step 5: 12 + 𝑐 = 33
Step 6: c = 21

Stem and Leaf Graph & Standard Deviation

For a Stem and Leaf Plot the number to the left of the stem is the tens digit and the numbers to the right of stem are the ones
digit.

Row 1: 56, 59
Row 2: 64, 65, 69
Row 3: 70, 71, 73, 76, 77, 78
Row 4: 80, 82, 82, 85, 86
Row 5: 91, 91, 92, 92, 95, 98, 99

Standard deviation means how far a value is from the mean of the set of numbers.
It represents a bell curve.

Notice in this graph that the mean is in the middle and going to the left or right 1 unit.
It has a standard deviation of 34.13%.
To go two unit in either direct, it has a standard deviation of 47.72% from the mean.

10
 Ratios/Proportions
• Relates two quantities to each other
• Ratios are also percentages, decimals, and fractions but in a different form
•Example: 1: 2 (Ratio), 1/2 (fraction), .5 (decimal), 50% (percentage)

• Ratios are also benchmarks, a way of relating one measurement to another

•Example: 1:4 means that for every 1 of an object the second object is 4 times the first one

• Proportions are two ratios that are equal to each other

• To solve the proportion, cross multiply the fractions and solve for the variable
𝒙 >
•Example: = Cross Multiply
CQ OQ
10x= 400
x= 40

• When triangles are said to be SIMILAR (~) or have all angles congruent, then proportions are utilized to find the missing
sides of the triangle.

• When creating expressions involving Ratios, they are used for benchmarks, stating that there is an original variable x, but the
objects are a ratio of x.

Example: Beck College Prep created a 40 page workbook into 2 pieces. The ratio of the volume of the 2 pieces is 3:5. What is
the volume, to the nearest foot, of the shorter piece?
Solution: 3x+5x= 40
(Xs are attached to 3 and 5 because they are the ratios of the two volumes that equal the entire workbook, but both volumes are
not equal to, so we have to differentiate the difference in the measurement)
8x= 40
x= 5
Shorter piece= 3(5)=15 Larger piece 5(5)= 25

Direct & Inverse Variation

• Used to describe the relationship between y and x, with a constant, k
• If y varies directly with x, that means that if x increases so does y and if x decreases do does y
• If y varies inversely with x, that means if x increases, y decreases and if x decreases then y increases
• Relationship when x varies directly with y 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 Graph is a line
š
• Relationship when x varies inversely with 𝑦 = Graph is a reciprocal function and rational function
K

Example 1: If variables x and y vary directly when x=5 and y=15, then find the value of y when x=6.
1.Find the value of k which is the constant. y=kx
2.Substituting 5 into x and 15 into y 15=5k k=3
3.Substitute 3 for k and the new x value of 6 to solve for y
y=kx y=(3)(6) y=18
š
If the problem was requesting the x or y value of the inverse relationship then the 𝑦 = equation would be used
K
" O
Example 2: If c is directly proportional to s2 and c= when s= . What is the value of s when c = 175?
O@ A

2 n
Since c and s are directly proportional we know . We want to find what s is when c = 175.
]’
Create a proportion. Substitute into the proportion what is known
n O"> 2
Step 1: ’ = Set up proportion. Remember though that x = s not s at end we will take the square root.
] K

“ “
n O"> O"> O">
Step 2: = = ”•
”’
= = ”•
” = Substitute in the values
]’ K K K
– ”•
Step 3: 𝑥 = 25 = 𝑠 ?
Step 4: 𝑠 = 5
11
 Line

Two points make a line- There are infinite amount of points on a line- Two planes intersect at a line

K” ‘K’ J” ‘J’
Midpoint: = 𝑥€ , = 𝑦€
? ?
Distance: 𝑑 = 𝑥? − 𝑥O ?+ 𝑦? − 𝑦O ?

Segment Addition Postulate

The segments of a line added together create a complete segment: AD= AB +BC +CD
Example: Points B and C lie on segment AD as shown below. The length of segment AD is 25 units; the segment AC is 19 units
long; and the segment BD is 14 units long. How many units long, if it can be determined, is the segment BC?
AC+CD=AD
19+x=25
CD=6
BD=BC+CD
14=x+6
BC=8
Two Types of Line Equations: Standard & Slope Intercept Form

•Standard Form= Ax +By= C A ≠ radical, decimal, fraction, or negative

•Slope Intercept Form= y=mx+b m=slope b= y-intercept
•To Change from Standard Form to Slope Intercept Form- Solve Equation for y
•To Change from Slope Intercept Form to Standard Form

Example 1:
Group Ax and By on one side of the equation and C on the other side of the equal sign.
‚!K‘"
𝑦= Slope Intercept Form
O?
Multiply both sides by twelve to eliminate the denominator
−3𝑥 + 7
12 𝑦 = 12
12
12𝑦 = −3𝑥 + 7

Group Ax and By together

12y= -3x +7
+3x +3x
3x +12y = 7 Standard Form

Example 2:
Solve the equation for y
3x+5y-13=0 Standard Form
-3x +13 +13-3x
>J ‚!K‘O! ‚!K‘O! ‚!K‘O!
= 𝑦= 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚: 𝑦 =
> > > >

Find the Slope of a Line Given Two Points:

J ‚J
Plug two points into the formula 𝑚 = ’ ”
K’ ‚K”
In some problems, the slope can be called the average rate of change on the ACT

Slope of a Line
Slope Intercept Form= y=mx+b m=slope b= y-intercept
To obtain the slope of a line in Standard Form change from Standard Form to Slope Intercept Form by solving the Equation for
y
12
Example 3:
3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 13 = 0 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
−3𝑥 + 13 + 13 − 3𝑥

5𝑦 −3𝑥 + 13 −3𝑥 + 13
= 𝑦=
5 5 5
−3𝑥 + 13 −3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚: 𝑦 = 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
5 5
Find the Y-Intercept
Y-Intercept- is the point where the line crosses the y-axis- at this point x=0
To find the Y-Intercept in Standard Form- Plug in 0 for x and solve for y
To find the Y-Intercept in Slope-Intercept Form- it is (0,b)

Find the Y-Intercept in Slope Intercept Form

Y= mx +b
y=6x-2 Slope Intercept Form
(0,b) where b =-2, (0, -2)
Y- Intercept: (0,-2)

Find the Y-Intercept in Standard Form

3x+5y-13=0 Standard Form
3(0) +5y-13=0 Plug in zero for x solve for y
5y-13=0
+13 +13
5𝑦 13
=
5 5
13
𝑌𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: 0,
5

Find the X-Intercept

X-Intercept- is the point where the line crosses the x-axis- at this point y=0
To find the X-Intercept in both Slope Intercept & Standard Form:
Plug in 0 for y and solve for x

Find the X-Intercept in Standard Form

3x+5y-13=0 Standard Form
3x+5(0)-13=0 Plug in zero for y solve for x
3x-13=0
+13 +13
3x= 13
3𝑥 13
=
3 3
13
𝑋 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: ,0
3

Find the X-Intercept in Slope Intercept Form

y=6x-2 Slope Intercept Form
0 = 6x -2
+2 +2
2= 6x
? @K O
= 𝑋 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡: , 0
@ @ !

Find the Line Given Two Points- THE ACT Problem will SAY Linearly Related
•First find the Slope of the two points
•Then plug the Slope into y= mx+b
•The plug in the x and y coordinate of one of the two points into y=mx+b
13
Once you have plugged in x, y, and m, solve for b, which is the y-intercept

Example 1: Find the line given the points: (3,7) and (5,8)
J ‚J "‚ C ‚O O
Step 1: Find the Slope: 𝑚 = ’ ” = = =
K’ ‚K” !‚> ‚? ?
O
Step 2: Plug in slope into Slope Intercept form (y=mx+b) equation: : 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑏
?
Step 3: Plug in x and y from one of the two points into x and y of y=mx+b
Point: (3,7) x=3, y=7

Step 4: Solve for b

𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡: 3,7 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 7
1
𝑦 = x+b
2
1
7 = (3)+b
2
3
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 4: 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏 7 = +b
2
! ! OO
− − 𝑏 =
? ? ?

O OO
Answer: y= x+
? ?

Sample ACT Problem: Linearly Related

When running at 64% of its potential power, an aircraft engine consumes fuel at a rate of 11.5 gallons per hour. When running
at 70% of its potential power, the engine consumes fuel, the engine consumes fuel at a rate of 14.7 gallons per hour. The rate of
fuel consumption is linearly related to the percent of potential power. Which of the following is the best estimate of the fuel
consumption of the aircraft engine, in gallons per hour, when running at 60% of its potential power?

Types of Lines
Line y=x
Vertical Line Y-intercept: (0,0) the origin
x= a number Slope 1
Slope is undefined
Example: x=3 5
3 Not a Function
Because X s can not Horizontal Line
repeat in the domain for y= a number
a function Slope is zero
Example: y=5

Perpendicular Lines Intersecting Lines

Parallel Lines Slopes are opposite reciprocal Slopes must be different
Same slope Form 4- 90 degree Angles Create a point of intersection:
Different y-intercepts Example of Perpendicular Line Slope where a point on one line= the point of another line
Slope of first line: 2 To find the point we use elimination or substitution
Slope of second line:
O
- - the opposite reciprocal of the slope of the first line
?

14
 System of Equations

To find where two functions intersect then we utilize two methods to solve a system of equations
Method 1 is Elimination and Method 2 is Substitution

Method 1: Elimination
• Place both equations in Standard Form, Ax+By=C
• Determine which variable to eliminate with Addition
• Make the coefficients of the x variable or y variable the same, but in one equation positive and in the other negative
• Solve for the remaining variable
• Substitute in the variable that you solved for into one of the two equations and solve for the remaining variable

Example 1:
y= 10 –x
5x= y+2

Step 1: Convert both equations into Standard form:

y= 10-x 5x=y+2
+x +x -y -y
x+y= 10 5x-y=2

The coefficient in front of the y variable (1) is already the same. One is negative and one is positive. Eliminate y
x+y=10
+5x-y=2 Add both equations
6x=12
6x/6= 12/6
x=2

Substitute x=2 into the x variable of one of the original equations. y= 10-x y=10-2 y= 8. Point of intersection (2, 8)

Method 2: Substitution
• Solve one equation for one variable (y=, x=; a=)
• Substitute the expression from the first step into the other equation
• Simplify and solve the equation
• Substitute the solved variable for back into the either of the original equations to find the remaining variable
Example 1:
y=4x
3x+y= -21
Step 1: Solve one equation for one variable
y=4x (this equation is already solved for y)
Step 2: Substitute the expression from Step 1into the variable of the second equation
y=4x
3x+y=-21
3x +4x= -21
Step 3: Simplify and solve the equation
7x=-21
x = -3
Step 4: Substitute back into either of the two original equations to find the missing variable
3x +y=-21
3(-3)+y= -21
-9 +y =-21
+9 +9
y= -12 Point of Intersection (-3, 12)

15
 Inequalities
• Solve like a normal equation following PEMDAS
• If you multiply or divide a negative number, the sign will flip
• > < is an open hole on a number line or a dashed line on a function graph
• ≥ ≤ is a closed hole on a number line or a full line on a function graph

Example:
-3x -1 >5 Solving Normal Equation
-3x > 6 Flip Inequality Sign- Dividing by a Negative
x < -2
Graphing Inequality Lines
Graphing Inequality on a Number Line

x<3
A

-5<x<10 x<10 and x>-5

B

7<x<-6
7<x<-6 x>7 or x<-6
C

Graph B:
When graphing on a number line meet you write and
Graph C:
When graphing on a number line and the shading doesn’t meet or

Graphing System of Inequalities

• Graph both lines and following inequality rules
• Find where the shading of both lines meet - if they meet AND if they don’t meet OR
AND OR

Graphing Linear Systems

• Graph the inequalities
• They form a geometric figure
• Place the vertices into an expression
• Minimum- the lowest value from expression
• Maximum- the greatest value from expression

16
 Evaluating a Function
Meaning
• F(x) is the same way of saying y. 

o So...f(x)= 3x-2 also can mean y=3x-2
Doing a Basic Operation with Functions
When asked to find f(2) from the function listed above, you are being asked:
Plug in the number 2 into every x variable of the function and solve using order of operations.

Operations with Two Functions

Follow the Operation dictated by the directions:

Addition & Subtraction: Combine Like Terms

Example: f(x) + g(x) & (f+g)(x)
f(x)= 3x+ 2 & g(x)= 2x+ 6
f(x) +g(x)= 3x+2 +2x+6 Combine like Terms: 3x+2x= 5x -2-6=-8 Answer: 5x-8

Example: g(x) - f(x) & (g-f)(x)

f(x)= 3x+ 2 & g(x)= 2x+ 6
2x+ 6- (3x+2)= 2x+6-3x-2 (Distribute the negative to 3x+2)= Combine like terms: 2x-3x= -x and 6-2=4 Answer:-x+4

Multiplication
Example= f(x) * g(x) & (f*g) (x)
f(x)= 3x-2 & g(x)= 2x-6
f(x) * g(x)= (3x-2)(2x-6) FOIL: 5𝑥 ? − 18𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 12 =
Answer: 5𝑥 ? − 22𝑥 + 12

Division:
•(K)
~(K)
!K‚?
f(x)= 3x-2 & g(x)= 2x-6 =
?K‚@

Composing Functions:
𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑔 𝜊 𝑓 Plug in the g(x) function into ever x variable of the f(x) function
𝑔 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓𝜊 𝑔 Plug in the f(x) function into ever x variable of the g(x) function

Example:
f(x)= 3x-2 & g(x)= 2x-6
g(g(x))= 2(2x-6)-6 Plug in 2x-6 into the x variable of g(x) so into x, which results in 2(2x-6)-6
2(2x-6)-6 Distribute the 2 and combine like terms
4x-12-6 Answer: 4x-18

f(g(x))= 3(2x-6)-2 Plus in g(x)= 2x-6 into the x variable of f(x)= 3(2x-6)-2
3(2x-6)-2 Distribute the 3 and combine like terms
6x-18-2 Answer: 6x-20

17
 Absolute Value
Absolute Value Operations
-Follow Order of Operations for computations within the Absolute Value
-Then take the Absolute Value of the number at the end of the operations
Example:
|-2(3)-5|
|-6-5|
|-11|= 11

Absolute Value Equations

1.Make sure the absolute value is isolated on one side and the constant is on the other side of the equal sign
2.Make two equations without the absolute values
a. The first equation remains the same
b. The second equation negates the constant
NOTE: Inequality cannot equal a negative number
Example:
|x-2|=4
Equation 1: |x-2|=4 Equation 2: |x-2|=-4 (negate the 4)
x-2= 4 x-2=-4
+2 +2 +2 +2
x= 6 x= -2

Absolute Value Inequality Equations

1.Make sure the absolute value is isolated on one side and the constant is on the other side of the equal sign
2.Make two equations with the inequality sign
a.The first equation remains the same
b.The second equations flip the inequality and negate the answer
NOTE: Inequality cannot equal a negative number
Example:
|x-2|<4
Equation 1: |x-2|<4 Equation 2: |x-2|>-4 (negate the 4 flip inequality)
x-2< 4 x-2 > -4
+2 +2 +2 +2
x< 6 x > -2
This is the parent function of all absolute value graphs
The Domain of this Function is all Real Numbers
The Range of this Function is y≥ 0
Every other form of an absolute value graph is a translation or reflection of the parent function
y=|𝑥| Absolute Value Graph Equation: f(x)= a|𝑥 − ℎ| + k
The Vertex of the Absolute Value is the opposite sign of h and the same sign of k (h,k)
The Variable a dictates whether the Absolute Value Vertex is a minimum or a maximum

This absolute value graph moved three units to the right of the parent function and two units up
The new equation is f(x)= |𝑥 − 3| +2
Remember inside the absolute value affects the x-coordinate of the vertex
Now that the Graph moved up the y-axis it will affect the k value of f(x)= a|𝑥 − ℎ| + k
The vertex of this Graph is (3,2) and it is a minimum since a of f(x)= |𝑥 − 3| is a positive 1
2
Domain: All Real Numbers
Range :y≥ 2 since now the y-values begin at 2 and continue onto positive infinity
3

18
Absolute Value Inequality Graphs

y ≤ -|𝑥|
y≥-|𝑥|
y≤
y≥ |𝑥|
|𝑥|

Since the y-values are greater

Since the y-values are less than Since the y-values are greater than the x-values the only Since the y-values are less than
the x-values the only place than the x-values the only place where y-values are the x-values the only place
where y-values are less is place where y-values are greater is along the positive y- where y-values are less is
along the negative y-axis so greater is along the positive y- axis so the shading is inside along the negative y-axis so
the shading is below the graph axis so the shading is above the graph and above the shading is inside the graph
the graph and below

**Remember when the graphs are > and < the line of the absolute graph is not solid it is dotted**

19
 Properties of Exponents
Adding & Subtracting Polynomials
-Only add/subtract the coefficients of terms that have the same bases with the same power
-8x2 8 is the base x is a base 2 is the exponent
-Example: 3x3y + 4x2 + 5x3y - 2x2 + 5xz3
8x3y +2x2 + 5xz3

Rules:
-Exponents can not be a negative number
-Any base to the zero power =1
-Any base to the first power= the number of the base

Multiplying Exponents
- Multiply the coefficients in front of bases but add the exponents of the bases
- Only multiply the exponents if an exponent is being raised to a power
Example 1: 8x2y(2x-1) = 16x1y = 16xy
8x3y(2x2) = 16x5y

Example 2: (x2)3(2x4)3 = (23)(x6)(x12) = 8x18

Dividing Exponents
•Divide coefficients
•Subtract exponent with the same bases
•Flip bases if the exponents are negative
•To make a negative exponent positive, then do the following:
•If negative exponent is in the denominator, move the base and exponent to the numerator
•If negative exponent is in the numerator, move the base and exponent to the denominator
AK ’ J ª K ’ K – J «ª K•
Example 1: = =
?AK «– J • @ @J ª
‚! O
Example 2: 𝑥 =
Kª
O !
Example 3: = 𝑥
K ǻ
O?>K  - ǻ ! O !
Example 4: = =
>K ª J – - • KªJ–- ® KªJ–- ®

Solving Exponential Equations

- All of the bases must be the same (Example 1)
- If they are not, equivalent bases must be formed (Example 2)
Exponential conversions have operations between two or more exponents

Example 1:
(3x)(32x-3) = 34x All the bases are the same
x + 2x - 3 = 4x When you multiply bases you add the exponents
3x - 3 = 4x Solve the equation
x - 3x = 6
x = -3

Example 2:
(32x)(93x) = (272x + 5) All the bases are not the same. Convert to the same base 31 = 3
(32x)(32(3x)) = 33(2x + 5) When you multiply bases you add the exponents 32 = 9
2x + 6x = 6x +15 Solve the equation 33 = 27
2x = 15
15
𝑥=
2

20
Scientific Notation
- Multiply or divide the whole numbers together
- Add or subtract the exponents on the base of 10
- The whole number must be less than 10 but greater than 1

- If it is not greater than 1, move the decimal to the right and add 1 to the power on the number 10.
- If it is not less than 10, then move the decimal on the whole number to the left and subtract 1 according to how many times the
decimal is moved

- Multiply Numbers in Scientific Notation

-(8 x 1012)(4 x 104)= 32 x 1016
-Since 32 is greater than 10, the decimal must be moved to the left until the value is between 1 and 10.
-3.2 x 1017

Divide Numbers in Scientific Notation

(4 x 106)
= 2 x 102 Divide 4 by 2 and subtract the exponents of the equal bases
(2 x 104)

Exponents and Radicals














21
 Logarithms
When to Use Logarithms
• Utilize always when there is a variable in an exponent
Example of Variables in Exponents when Bases can be Converted: You don’t need to use Logarithms
32x * 93x = 272x + 5
32x * 32(3x) = 33(2x + 5) Since there is more than one term then you can solve by making the bases equivalent
2x + 2(3x) = 3(2x+5)
2x+ 6x = 6x + 15
8x = 6x +15
-6x -6x
2x = 15
O>
x=
?
Example of Variables in Exponents when Bases cannot be Converted:
2x = 5 or 5x = 17 Cannot be converted into equivalent bases because there is only one term = use logarithms

Solving Exponential Equations with Logarithms

• Convert Exponential Equation into Logarithm
- ab = c → logac = b
- Example 1: log28 = 3→ 23=8
- Example 2: log636 = 2→ 62=36
O O
- Example 3: log3 = 13 → 3-3 =
?" ?"

How to Solve a Logarithmic Equation

• Change of Base Formula
¯°± n
- logac = b → 𝑏 =
¯°± l
x ¯°± >
- Example 1: 2 = 5 → log25 = x → x=
¯°± ?
x ¯°± O"
- Example 2: 5 = 17 → log517 = x → x=
¯°± >

Properties of Logarithms
Expanding and Condensing Logarithms
- Expanded to Condensed Form:
o Addition converts to multiplication
o Subtraction turns into division
o Exponents are placed on respective variables
K–
o Example: 4log3x - 6log3y + log5z = log3 * log5z
J•
§ Explanation for Expanded to Condensed:
• Variable y and z are added therefore they are being multiplied.
• Variable x is being subtracted from the sum of the y and z variables. Therefore, the x is the
numerator because of the subtraction sign there is a division bar and then y
• z gets multiplied because it is added together.
• The 4 exponent found is in front of 4 log base 3 x is placed on top of the x to signify that x is
to the fourth power and the 6 from 6 log base 3 y gets applied as an exponent to the y variable
to signify that y is to the 6th power.
Condensed to Expanded Form:
o Multiplication converts to addition
o Division converts to subtraction
o Exponents are placed in front of Logs
o Logs cannot be combined if they do not have the same base
o Example: log(xyz2) = logx + logy + 2logz
§ Explanation for Condensing to Expansion:
• Variable x, y, and z are multiplied so in expanded form those then get added.
• The exponent 2 applies to the z, therefore under expansion it gets placed in front of the Log.



22
 Radicals
Simplifying Radicals
• Factor Numbers in a Radical to the Lowest Prime Numbers
• Circle pairs of same numbers
• Each pair gets multiplied with other pairs and is taken out of the radical
• Numbers that do not have a couple are multiplied together and stay in the radical

Example: 3 54
1. Two factors of 9 and 6
2. Create a factor tree and simplify the 9 and 6 to the lowest prime numbers
3. Circle the pairs of a number
4. The pair of 3 will be removed from inside the radical (Couples go out (of the radical) as 1 on Friday night)
5. The non pairs of 3 and 2 (circled in green) are multiplied and remain in the radical
(Single people stick together (multiply) and stay inside (the radical) on Friday)
6. The 54 would now be 3 6
The initial problem had a 3 already out side of the radical 3 54, so substitute 3 6 for 54 3* 3 6 = 9 6

Adding & Subtracting Radicals

• Numbers outside of the radical are added/subtracted when the number in radicals are the same. Radicals do not change
• Simplify Radicals and then combine based on the operations
• Cannot combine radicals that are not the same
Example 1: 3 7 - 5 6 Can not Combine: Numbers in Radicals are not equal
Example 2: : 2 3 + 4 3 = 6 3 Numbers in Radicals only add numbers outside of the radical Add 2+4= 6
Example 3: 4 54 + 6 72 Simplify each Radical and then combine like terms

Multiplying Radicals
• Multiply coefficients of radicals together
• Multiply numbers inside the radicals together
• Make sure the product radical is fully simplified
Example: 3 8 * 4 6 = 12 48
There are two pairs of 2s, so the two 2s can be multiplied together = 4
The loner is 3 and that will go within the radical
Multiplying Binomials
• FOIL
• Combine Like Terms
• Simplify
Example: ( 2 + 7 )( 3 + 6)
First: ( 2)( 3) = 6
Outer: ( 2)( 6) = 12= 2 3 Simplify
Inner: ( 3)( 7) = 21
Last: ( 7)( 6)= 42
Final Answer: 6 + 2 3 + 21 + 42 None of the Radicals can be simplified down any further

23
Dividing Radicals
• Radicals can never be in the denominator
• To eliminate the radical in the denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by the denominator √40
?
Example 1:
?Q 8*5
? ?Q AQ
1. Multiply the numerator and denominator by the denominator * =
?Q ?Q ?Q
2. Multiplying a radical times itself eliminates the radical in the denominator 4 2
AQ ? OQ
Simplify the Numerator 2 10 Substitute 2 10 for 40 in the numerator
?Q
=
?Q 2 2
? OQ
1. The 2 and 20 of can reduce but not the 10 inside the radical because it is not the same type of term
?Q
OQ
2. When the fraction is reduced by a factor of 2 the final answer is
OQ

Dividing Radicals with Conjugates

If a number added or subtracted to a radical in the denominator, multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the
denominator
• Conjugate: Keep numbers the same and change the sign attached to the radical
!
Example 1:
A‘A >
1. Identify the conjugate of 4 + 4 5, which is 4 − 4 5
! ! A‚A >
2. Multiply the denominator and numerator of by 4 − 4 5 *
A‘A > A‘A > A‚A >
!(A‚A >) O?‚O? >)
3. Distribute the Numerator =
(A‘A >)(A‚A >) (A‘A >)(A‚A >)
O?‚O? >) O?‚O? > O?‚O? > O?‚O? >
4. FOIL the Denominator = = =
(A‘A >)(A‚A >) O@‚O@ >‘O@ >‚CQ O@‚CQ ‚@A
‚!‘! >
5. Reduce the Fraction by a common factor. In this case, the common factor is 4
O@

Solving Radical Equations

• Isolate the radical by combining like terms
• Raise the radical to the exponent that is the reciprocal of the root
–
Example: 3𝑥 − 5 +7= 10
-7 -7 Subtract 7 on both sides to isolate the radical
–
3𝑥 − 5 = 3
–
( 3𝑥 − 5)A = 3A Raise both sides of the equation to the fourth power to eliminate the 4th root
3x-5= 81 Add 5 to both sides
+5 +5
3x= 86 Divide by 3
C@
x=
!

24
 Imaginary Numbers

Occur when there is a negative number in a radical

Found usually in the Quadratic Formula
Imaginary Numbers have conjugates
• Because of the plus/minus sign in front of the radical of the quadratic formula; Example: 5+6i and 5-6i
The Parabola never touches the x-axis
• The Parabola will not have x-intercepts/roots/zeros/solutions
𝑖Q= 1
𝑖O= i
𝑖 ? = -1
𝑖 ! = -I
𝑖 A = 1 because 𝑖 ? = -1 and 𝑖 ? * 𝑖 ? =𝑖 A = -1*-1= 1
• Occur when there is a negative number in a radical
• Found usually in the Quadratic Formula
• Imaginary Numbers have conjugates
• Because of the plus/minus sign in front of the radical of the quadratic formula
• The Parabola never touches the x-axis
• The Parabola will not have x-intercepts/roots/zeros/solutions
𝑖Q= 1
𝑖O= i
𝑖 ? = -1
𝑖 ! = -I
𝑖 A = 1 because 𝑖 ? = -1 and 𝑖 ? * 𝑖 ? =𝑖 A = -1*-1= 1

Graphing on a Gauss (Complex) Coordinate plane

Points are written in a +bi or a-bi form
a=x and b=y
Example: Find the center of 4-7i and 6+5i on a coordinate plane.
4-7i= (4,-7) 6+5bi= (6, 5)
Then use the midpoint formula to find the center
𝐱 ” ‘𝐱 ’ 𝐲 ‘𝐲 𝟒‘𝟔 ‚"‘>
= 𝐱 𝐦 , ” ’ = 𝐲𝐦 = = 5, = −1
? ? ? ?
Center of 4-7i & 6+5i= 5-i

The 𝑖 powers cycle through the four products of 1, I, -1, and i. For that reason when evaluating any 𝑖 y , divide the n by 4, then
utilize the remainder to count the place that the remainder is in the cycle.
Example: 𝑖 @> – you must solve with normal division and then use the remainder to cycle through the 4 products
16
4[65
-4
25
-24
1 Since the remainder is 1 then the first place in the cycle is 𝑖 O = i

Adding & Subtracting Complex Numbers

Combine Like Terms
Example 1:
(5 + 3i) – (6 – 3i) =
5 + 3i – 6 + 3i =
-1 + 6i
Example 2:
(6 + 5i) + (-6 + 4i) =
9i

25
Multiplying Complex Numbers
Imaginary numbers should be multiplied by the FOIL Method or distributing
i2 = -1
Example:
2ix(3ix + 5y) =
6i2x2 + 10ixy
6(-1)x2 + 10ixy
-6x2 + 10ixy

Dividing Complex Numbers

When dividing imaginary numbers, multiply the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
Conjugate: a+bi and a-bi Example: 5-4i & 5+4i
Conjugates exist because when a square root of a number is taken it is ± Example: −2 is ± I 2 = i 2 & -i 2
𝟐𝒊‚𝟔
Example: Simplify
𝟐𝐢‘𝟕
𝟐𝒊‚𝟔 ‚𝟐𝒊‘𝟕
* Multiply the top and bottom by the conjugate of the denominator
𝟐𝐢‘𝟕 ‚𝟐𝐢‘𝟕
𝟐𝒊‚𝟔 ‚𝟐𝒊‘𝟕 𝑭𝑶𝑰𝑳 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 (2i – 6)(-2i + 7) ‚4i2 +14i +12i- 42 Combine like terms ‚4i2 +26i- 42
* = = = 2 = =
𝟐𝐢‘𝟕 ‚𝟐𝐢‘𝟕 𝐅𝑶𝑰𝑳 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 (2i + 7)(-2i + 7) ‚4i +14i -14i- 49 Combine like terms ‚4i2 – 49
‚4i2 +26i- 42 Substitute -1 for i2 ‚4(-1) +26i- 42 Combine like terms -38+26i
= = = =
‚4i2 – 49 Substitute -1 for i2 ‚4(-1) – 49 Combine like terms ‚𝟒𝟓





26
 Parabolas
The vertex can be a maximum or a minimum

Standard Form: Vertex Form:

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 ? +bx+c 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)? +k

Find the Vertex of a Parabola

Vertex Form:
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)? +k
Formula to Find Vertex of Vertex Form (h,k)
h= opposite the sign in the parentheses
k= is the same number as the equation
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 2(𝑥 − 4)? +9
Vertex: (4 (opposite the sign in the Parentheses, 9)
Standard Form
‚m ‚m
( , f( )
?l ?l
Example:
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥 ? +8x-3 a= 2 b= 8 c= -3
‚m ‚C ‚C
x= = = = -2
?l ?(?) A
‚m
y = f( )= 2(−2)? +8(-2)-3
?l
y= 8-16-3 = -3
Vertex: (-2, -3)

Minimum and Maximum of a Parabola & Axis of Symmetry

Standard Form:
a>0- the vertex is the minimum, parabola faces up
a<0- vertex is a maximum, parabola faces down
The axis of symmetry is x= the x-coordinate of the vertex
‚m
x=
?l

Standard Form:
𝑓 𝑥 = −3𝑥 ? +5x+12 a= -3 b= 5 c=12. A<0, vertex is maximum, parabola faces down
‚m ‚> >
x= = =
?l ?(‚!) @
>
x= = axis of symmetry
@
Vertex Form: 𝑓 𝑥 = 2(𝑥 − 4)? +6 a>0, vertex is minimum, parabola faces up
Axis of Symmetry: x= 4
Y-Intercept of a Parabola

To find the y –intercept of the function x must equal zero

Find the Y- Intercept from a Parabola in Standard Form

𝑓 𝑥 = −3𝑥 ? +5x+12
𝑓 𝑥 = −3(0)? +5(0)+12
(0, 12)

Find the Y- Intercept from a Vertex Form

𝑓 𝑥 = 2(𝑥 − 4)? +6
f(x)= 2(x-4)(x-4) +6
f(x)= 2 (𝑥 ? - 8x+16) +6
f(x)= 2𝑥 ? -16x +32 +6
f(x)= 2𝑥 ? -16x +38
f(x)= 2(0)? -16(0) +38
(0, 38)

27
Find the Translations of a Parabola Graph
f(x)= 𝑥 ? Parent/Main Function
f(x)= (𝑥 − 4)? Numbers within the parentheses correlate with the x-coordinate of the Vertex move left/right
Moves 4 units to the right-opposite of the sign
f(x)= (𝑥 − 4)? + 5 Numbers outside of the parentheses correlate with the y-coordinate of the Vertex moves the function up and
down
This Parabola moves 4 units to the right and 5 units of the parent function 𝑥 ?
f(x)= (𝑥 + 6)? − 4 This parabola moves units to the left (opposite of the sign in the parentheses and 4 units down
𝑎 =1 = Normal parabola
𝑎 > 1= Narrow Determines how wide or narrow the parabola is
𝑎 <1= Wide

Finding X- Intercepts/Zeros/Roots/Solutions
• X-intercepts/Zeros/Roots/Solutions are the points on the parabola that cross the x-axis
• To Solve for the Parabola’s X-intercepts/Roots/Zeros/Solutions
• Set the equation equal to Zero
• Then Factor the Quadratic Equation (Trinomial, 2nd Degree)
• Three Ways to Factor the Quadratic Equation
• Factoring
• Quadratic Formula
• Completing the Square

Method 1 to Find X-Intercepts/Roots/Zeros Solutions of a Parabola: Factoring

• First Substitute 0 for y
• Taking out the Greatest Common Factor Out of the Equation for y=𝑎𝑥 ? +bx
Example:
y=3x2 + 27x
0=3x2 + 27x Factor out the Greatest Common Factor which is 3 and x
0=3x(x + 9)
3x = 0 and x + 9 = 0
x = 0 and x = -9

28
Method 1 to Find X-Intercepts/Roots/Zeros Solutions of a Parabola: Factoring
• First Substitute 0 for y
• If the parabola is y= 𝑎 ? +bx + c, and a= 1, then first multiply the coefficients of a and c, then find the factors of ac that
add to equal b
Example:
y= x2 + 5x +6
0= x2 + 5x +6

a=1 b= 5 c= 6 a=1c=6 ac= 1(6) = ac= 6

List the factors of 6: 1, 2, 3, 6 which two factors add up to 5 and multiply to 6 2,3
Set the factors:
0= (x+2)(x+3)
Solutions/Roots/X-intercepts/Zeros: -2, -3
If the parabola is y= 𝑎 ? +bx + c, and a>1, then first multiply the coefficients of a and c, then find the factors of ac that add to
equal b

Rewrite the initial quadratic equation but do not place anything in the space designated for bx
Example: 2x2 + 7x – 9
a= 2 b= 7 c= -9
ac = 2(9)= -18

2x2 +______-9 what factors of -18 when added will give 7: Factors: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9,18, -1, -2, -3, -6, -9, -
18

Then you attach xs to the two factors that multiply to -18 and up to 7 and then substitute them in the slot designated for b
2x2 +______-9 Factors: 1, 2, 3, 6, 9,18, -1, -2, -3, -6, -9, -18 9x, -2x

2x2 + 7x – 9

2x2 +9x -2x -9 = 0 Then place a bracket under the first two terms Then place a bracket under the third & fourth
term
[2x2 +9x] –[2x -9] =0
x [2x +9]- 1[2x +9] = 0 Then factor out the GCF of the first two terms Factor out the GCF of the third & fourth term

As long as the terms that remain in the brackets are the same you may combine the GCF of the 1st & 2nd Term and the 3 & 4th
Term as one factor of the quadratic equation and the other factor are the terms in the brackets

x [2x +9]- 1[2x +9] = 0

B
(x-1)(2x+9)= 0 → Factors x=1, - → solutions/roots, x-intercepts/zeros
?

Method 2 to Find X-Intercepts/Roots/Zeros Solutions of a Parabola: Quadratic Formula

Make Equation Equal to Zero
Substitute a, b, c from quadratic equation into formula
Simplify Radical if Needed
Reduce the Fraction
‚ʱ Ê2 ‚4ËÌ
Quadratic Formula= 𝑥 =
2Ë
To Find the Number & Type of X-intercepts/Roots/Solutions/Zeroes
Substitute into Discriminant Formula
• b2 – 4ac = 0 that means only one x – intercept/root/zero
• b2 – 4ac > 0 means two intercepts
• b2 – 4ac < 0 means no real solutions/x – intercepts/roots/zeros
Example of Using the Quadratic Formula and the Discriminant Formula f(x)= 3𝑥 ? +5x-7 a=3 b=5 c=-7
‚ʱ Ê2 ‚4ËÌ ‚ʱ Ê2 ‚4ËÌ ‚>± >2 ‚4(!)(‚") ‚>± ?>‘CA ‚>± OQB
x= = = = =
2Ë 2Ë 2(!) 2(!) @
‚>‘ OQB ‚>‚ OQB
Zeros/roots/x-intercepts/solutions: ( , 0) ( , 0)
@ @
Using Discriminant Theory: b2 – 4ac = 52 − 4(3)(−7) = 109, which means b2 – 4ac >0; therefore, there are two real zeros.
29
How to Factor Using the TI – 84 Calculator
• Click “apps” button
• Press “alphabet” button
• Press button for the letter P
• Select option for polysmlt 2
• Click the “F7” button
• Put in values for a2 = a, a1 = b, and a0 = c
• Click solve

Method 3 to Find X-Intercepts/Roots/Zeros Solutions of a Parabola: Completing the Square

Place ax2 + bx on one side of the equation and c on the other
Under ax2 + bx=c place the in parenthesis the square root of ax2
Next to the square root of ax2 bring down the operation sign of ax2 + bx
Then half b and place it next to operation sign and the square root of ax2
Then square the b and add it to c
Solve the radical equation
Completing Square is also used to:
• Find Vertex of a Parabola
• Find the Center of a Circle

Example of Completing the Square

x ? + 6x − 7=0
x ? + 6x + ____=7 Move the c coefficient to the right of the = sign
(𝑥 + 3)? = 7 Took square root of a, dropped sign, and took half of b
x ? + 6x + 9=7+9 Squared 3 (the half of b) and added to both sides
x ? + 6x + 9=16
(𝑥 + 3)? = 16 Substitute x+3 for x ? + 6x + 9
Î(𝑥 + 3)? = √16 Solve the Radical Equation to Isolate x
x+3=4 x+3=-4
x=1 x= -7
Multiplying Binomials to Form a Quadratic Equation
Factors Given: (3x + 5)(2x +7)
FOIL:
(3x + 5)(2x +7)
First: Multiply the 3x times the 2x =6x2
Outer: Multiply 3x and 7= 21x
Inner: Multiply 5 and 2x=10x
Last: Multiply 5 and 7=35

6x2 + 21x + 10x + 35 Combine like Terms

6x2 + 31x + 35 Quadratic Equation

Attaining the Quadratic Equation from Solutions

Example:
Solutions: 5 and -7-
Place in binomial with opposite sign
Factors: (x-5)(x+7) –FOIL
Equation: x2 +2x-35

30
 Find the Measure of an Angle

Linear Pair: Supplementary (Two angles add up to 180 degrees)

Angles that are adjacent to each other
Pairs of Angles: 1&2, 2&4, 3&4, 1&3, 5&6, 6&8, 7&8, 5&7 1 2
Vertical Angles: Congruent (Equal) (Across/Diagonal from each other)
3 4
Pairs of Angles: 2&3, 1&4, 6&7, 5&8
5 6
Alternate Interior Angles: Congruent (Equal) 7 8
Pairs of Angles: 3&6 and 4&5

Alternate Exterior Angles: Congruent (Equal)

Pairs of Angles: 1&8 and 2&7

Corresponding Angles: Congruent (Equal)

Pairs of Angles: 2&6, 3&7, 1&5, and 4&8

Consecutive Interior Angles: (Supplementary)

Pairs of Angles: 3&5 and 4&6

31
 Triangles

Angle and Side Classification of Triangles

• The longest side will be opposite the longest angle
• The shortest side will be opposite the shortest angle
• The middle side will be opposite the middle angle

Scalene: All sides and angles of a triangle have different measurements.

Isosceles: Two sides of the triangle are congruent and the angle opposite those sides are congruent
Equilateral: All sides are equal and all angles measure 60 degrees
Right Triangle: a2 + b2 =c2 → Right
Acute Triangle: a2 + b2 > c2 → Acute
Obtuse Triangle: a2 + b2 < c2 → Obtuse

Triangle Inequality Theorem

If two sides are given and the question asks for a possible value of a third side, then you must add the two sides given and
subtract the two sides given. The third side must be within the range of those two figures, but does not include the numbers of
the range.
Example: To estimate what side s could be
5+3=8
5-3=2
2<s<8 s 3

5
Similarity Postulates & Theorems
• When two triangles are similar, their sides are proportional to each other
• When ACT problems mention similarity it means proportions usually
• Similarity postulates can be proven using the following theorems

Congruent Triangle Theorem

Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangle (CPCTC), or that two triangles are congruent to each other, can be proven using the
following theorems

32
Special Right Triangles
45 - 45 - 90 Triangle
• This triangle is formed by the diagonal of a square.
• It has two equal sides and two equal angles opposite to those sides that measure 45 degrees.
• Small leg= small leg
• Hypotenuse= small leg (square root of 2)
• This triangle is also known as an isosceles right triangle

30 - 60 - 90 Triangle
• This triangle is formed by cutting an equilateral triangle in half.
• Small leg= .5 (hypotenuse)
• Hypotenuse= 2 (small side)
• Long leg= Small side (Square root of 3)

SOHCAHTOA: Can only be used for Right Triangles

• Each ratio has 3 variables: two sides and one angle
• The angle designates the two sides of the triangle for the ratio of SOHCAHTOA
• To find the side: substitute the given angle into the respective variable and the given side into the respective length of
the ratio
• To find the angle: substitute the given sides into the respective lengths of the ratio and utilize the inverse trigonometric
ratio to find the angle
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜃
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜃 (𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒)𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
(𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑒) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜃
(𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡)𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜃

Finding the Angle Using SOHCAHTOA

● Based on the angle measure you would like to find you place the respective side measures given into the appropriate
trigonometric ratio.
● Then you utilize the inverse trigonometric function on your calculator to find the degree measure.
● The inverse trigonometric functions on the calculator look like

sin‚1 𝜃= arcsin 𝜃
cos ‚1 𝜃= arccos 𝜃
tan‚1 𝜃= arctan 𝜃

33
Inverse SOHCAHTOA Ratios
• Each SOHCAHTOA Ratio has an inverse Ratio
• Inverse SOHCAHTOA Ratios act just as the normal SOHCAHTOA Ratios

34
 Unit Circle
• The Unit Circle is comprised of the special right triangles of 30-60-90 & 45-45-90 in each quadrant on of the coordinate
plane and placed within a circle
• Angles in Quadrant I: 0, 30, 45, 60, 90 (Adding 30, 45, 60, and 90 to 0 degrees to establish increments)
• Angles in Quadrant II: 120, 135, 150 180 (Adding 30, 45, 60, and 90 to 90 degrees to establish increments)
• Angles in Quadrant III: 210, 225, 240, 270 (Adding 30, 45, 60, and 90 to 180 degrees to establish increments)
• Angles in Quadrant IV: 300, 315, 330, 360 (Adding 30, 45, 60, and 90 to 270 degrees to establish increments)
• The degree measure of each angle in the unit circle can also be stated in another way, radians.
Ö
• To change a degree measure into a radian, the degree needs to be multiplied by
OCQ
Ö @QÖ Ö
Example 1: 60 degrees in radian form is (60 * ) Reduce the fraction which becomes
OCQ OCQ !
Ö ?OQÖ "Ö
Example 2: 210 degrees in radian form is (210 * ) Reduce the fraction which becomes
OCQ OCQ @
• Radians can also be converted to degree measures. To change a radian into a degree, the radian needs to be
OCQ
multiplied by
Ö
>Ö >Ö OCQ (>)(OCQ)
Example 1: radians into degrees is ( * ) the 𝜋’s cancel. = 300 degrees
! ! Ö !
• Coterminal angles- are angles that share a side with one of the angles within the unit circle
• To Find the Coterminal angle you either subtract or add 360 degrees if the measurements is in degrees or 2𝜋 if
it is in radians
• Example 1: Find the positive coterminal angle of 160 degrees.
Solution: 160 +360= 520 degrees
• Example 2: Find the negative coterminal angle of 160 degrees.
Solution: 160-360= - 200 degrees (count 200 degrees counterclockwise on unit circle starting at 360 degrees )

Degree Measure, Radian Measure (Cosine, Sine), Tangent

Ö
90, ? (0,1)𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
Ö O √!
120,
?Ö O
(- ?,
√!
) -√3 60, ! (?, ? )√3
! ?

!Ö √? √? Ö √? √?
135, (- , ) -1 45, A ( ? , ? ) 1
A ? ?

Ö √! O √!
150,
>Ö
(-
√! O
, ) -
√! 30, @ ( ? , ?)
!
@ ? ? !

180, 𝜋 (-1, 0) 0 0, 360 , 2𝜋 (1, 0) 0

OOÖ √! O √!
210,
"Ö √!
(- ? , -?)
O √! 330, @
(?, - -?) - !
@ !

"Ö √? √?
>Ö √? √? 315, ( ? ,- ? ) -1
225, A
(− ?
,- ? ) 1 A

>Ö O √!
240,
AÖ O
(- ?,
√!
) √3 300, !
(?, - ? ) -√3
! ?

!Ö
270, ?
(0,-1)𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

35
Reference Angles
• Reference angle is the smallest angle formed by the terminal side of the angle and the x-axis
To find the Reference Angle:
1. Find where the Reference Angle is located in the unit circle.
2. Identify the Quadrant where the Reference Angle is located
3. Then follow the following rules
Example: Angle A measures 520 degrees from its initial side to the terminal side. Angle B has the same initial and terminal
side as Angle A. What is the reference angle of Angle B?
Solution
1. Subtract 360 degrees from 520 degrees to see what Quadrant 520 degrees is located in.
2. 520-360= 160, which means it is located in Quadrant II.
3. To find the reference angle in Quadrant II utilize the following expression, 180-x,
4. Substitute 160 degrees for x and solve 180-160= 20 degrees.

Quadrant Reference angle for x

1 Same as x

2 180-x
3 x-180
4 360-x

Non- Special Triangles in the Unit Circle

All Students Take Calculus- is an easy way for students to remember which trigonometric ratio is positive in a particular
quadrant
• When creating a Triangle in the Unit Circle, you must locate the Quadrant that the Triangle is located in
• The x-coordinate of the point is the base of the triangle, and the y-coordinate is the height of the triangle
O>
• Example: If 0° ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 90° and tan 𝑥 = , then cos 𝑥 =?
C
• Step 1 the Triangle is in Quadrant I: the problem stated that x is located between 0 and 90
• Step 2: Draw the Triangle in Quadrant I
• Step 3: Label the parts according to the position of the Trigonometric Ratio in relation to Theta
• Step 4: 15 is opposite Angle Theta, and 8 is adjacent to Angle Theta (according to Tan)
• Step 5: Use Pythagorean Theorem to Find the Hypotenuse in order to obtain Cosine
• Step 6: 𝑐 ? = 𝑎 ? +𝑏 ?
• 𝑐 = 𝑎? + 𝑏?
• 𝑐 = 15? + 8? = 𝑐 = 225 + 64 = 289 =17
C
• Cosine:
O"

36
 Law of Sines & Cosine- Used for Right or Non-Right Triangles
Law of Sines
• The Law of Sines can be used to find sides or Angles of Non-Right Triangles under these circumstances:
• SSA: Two sides with an angle opposite of one of those sides
• ASA: Two Angles and a side in between
• AAS: Two Angles and a side opposite to one of those angles
Øxy • Øxy Ú
Formula: =
l (ØxoI uÙÙu]xwI ly~{I •) m(ØxoI uÙÙu]xwI ly~{I Ú)
Example:
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐵
=
𝑎 𝑏
Øxy >> Øxy AC
= Cross Multiply because it is a proportion
O@ m
Sin55 (b)= Sin48(16)
Øxy >>m Øxy AC (O@)
= Divide by Sin 55 to isolate b
Øxy >> Øxy>>
Øxy AC (O@)
b= = 14.5
Øxy>>

Law of Cosines
• The Law of Cosines can be used to find sides or Angles of Non-Right Triangles under these circumstances:
• SSS: Given three sides and need to find the Angle (Use the inverse trig function to find Angle)
• SAS: Two sides and the Angle found in between them to find the remaining side or Angle
• Formula: a2 = b2 + c2 - (2bc)(Cos A)
Example:
a2 = b2 + c2 - (2bc)(Cos A)
18? = 3? + 16? − 2 3 16 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝐴
324= 9+256-96(Cos A)
324= 265-96(CosA)
-265. -265
>B ‚B@Ýu] •
=-
‚B@ ‚B@
59
= CosA
−96
>B
cos ‚1 = cos ‚1 (CosA)
‚B@
A= 127.9 degrees

37
 Polygons
• (n-2)180 Sum of all the Measures of a Polygon
y‚? OCQ
• Measure of an individual angle of a Regular Polygon
y
!@Q
• Measure of an exterior angle of a Regular Polygon
y
y y‚!
• Number of Diagonals of a Polygon
?
• Regular- The angles are all congruent to each other and the sides are all congruent to each other

Properties of Quadrilaterals
Parallelogram
• Opposite sides are congruent and parallel
• Diagonals serve as transversals in between the sides
• Sum of the interior angles is 360 degrees
• Same side angles sum up to 180 degrees- because of same side angles
• Opposite angles are congruent
• Area = (Base)(Height- Straight height not slant height)
• Perimeter = 2L + 2W

Rectangle
• Opposite sides are congruent and parallel
• Each angle measures 90°
• Sum of the interior angles is 360 degrees
• The diagonals bisect each other and they serve as a transversal
• Diagonal llengths can be found by the Pythagorean Theorem
• Area = (Length)(Width)
• Perimeter = 2L + 2W

Square
• All sides are congruent
• All Angles measure 90° 45
• The diagonals are congruent and bisect corner angles
• The diagonals bisect each other x√2
x
• Diagonals form 4 Isosceles Right Triangles- Which 4, 45-45-90 Triangles
• Area = s2
• Perimeter = 4s
45
x
Rhombus
• All sides are congruent
• Opposite Angles are congruent
• Diagonals bisect each other
• Diagonals are perpendicular
• Diagonals bisect opposite angles
• Area = (D1)(D2)(½) D1= diagonal 1 D2 = diagonal 2
• P = 4s

Trapezoid
• Bases are parallel
• In an isosceles Trapezoid:
o Legs are congruent
o Diagonals are congruent
o Diagonals form two isosceles triangles
• Area = (½)(B1 + B2)(h)
• B1 = Base 1, B2 = Base 2, h = height
• Length of Midsegment of Trapezoid = (½)(B1 + B2)
• Diagonals in a Trapezoid can act as transversals between the parallel sides
38
 Circles
Equation of a Circle:
• The Equation of a Circle is (x - h)2 + (y - k)2 = r2
• h and k are the coordinates for the center of the circle and r is the radius.
• When there is a negative in front of h or k, this means that the points on the coordinate are positive.
• Example: (x-3)2 + (y +7)2 = 81 Center: (3, -7) – Opposite the signs in the Parentheses Radius= 9

Area/Circumference of a Circle:
• The Area of a circle is given by the formula: A = πr2
• r is the radius of the circle
• The Circumference is the distance around the circle and is given by the formula: C = 2πr or dπ
• d is the diameter of the circle or twice the radius
• Finding the Circumference is like finding the perimeter of the circle

Area/Length of Arc/Sector:
y•€mIv u• oI~vII] u• wRI ]Inwuv
• Sector Area Formula: πr2 x C being the Angle measure of the arc
!@Q
• The sector area is the area of the circle multiplied by the percentage of the angle measure of the arc
y•€mIv u• oI~vII] u• wRI ]Inwuv
• Arc Length Formula: 2πr x
!@Q
• The sector length is the circumference of the circle multiplied by the percentage of the angle measure of the arc.
• The Angle measure of an Arc enclosed by two radii is the same as the central angle formed by the radii

Example: Points A and B lie on a circle with center C. The circle has a radius of 16 inches. The measure of ∠ACB is 90°.
What is the length, in inches, of minor arc AB?
A. 4π
B. 8π number of degrees
C. 16π Arc length = ∙ 2𝜋𝑟
360
D. 32π 90
Arc length = ∙ 2𝜋 (16)
E. 64π 360
1 32𝜋
(2𝜋 )(16) = = 8𝜋
4 4

Central/Intercepted Arc Tangency in Circle:
• A central Angle is formed by two radii in the circle
• The measure of the arc enclosed by the central angle is the same measure of the central angle
• The intercepted arc is encased on either side by two different chords or line segments that meet at one point
• The measure of an intercepted arc is twice the measure of the angle
• The point of a tangency of a circles is when a line touches a circle at exactly one point and it forms a 90 degree angle
Central Arc Intercepted Arc

39
Ellipses
• The general equation for an ellipse
• a is the radius of the x-axis
• b is the radius of the y axis
• x and y are the coordinates of any points on the ellipse
• If the value under the x is greater than under the y, the ellipse has a horizontal axis
• If the value under the y is greater than under the x, the ellipse has a vertical axis

40
 Arithmetic & Geometric Sequences
Arithmetic Sequences
• An arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers that have a linear relationship also know as the slope of a line.
• For arithmetic sequences the difference between each consecutive term is the same.
• This is known as the common difference. It can be denoted with the letter d.
• To find the common difference, d, take the first term and subtract it from the second term.
• Therefore, d = 2nd term – 1st term.
• Ex. Given the arithmetic sequence 1, 3, 5, 7,… Find the common difference. d=3–1=2
• Ex. Given the arithmetic sequence 6, 3, 0, -3,… Find the common difference. d=3–6=–3

To find an individual term of an arithmetic sequences use the formula

𝑎y = 𝑎O + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
n is the n^th term wanted, d is the common difference, and a_1 is the first term.

Ex. Find the 60th term of the sequence 5, 9, 13, 17, …

Let n = 60, d=4 and a_1= 5, plug it all in.
𝑎@Q = 5 + 60 − 1 4 = 241
This means that the 60th term is 241.

Ex. Find the 71st term of the sequence 27, 40, 53, 66, …
Let n = 71, d = 13, a_1= 27
𝑎"O = 27 + 71 − 1 13 = 937
This means that the 71st term is 937

Given the common difference, the first term, and the total number of terms in an arithmetic sequence, the total sum can be
found using the following formula:
𝑛
𝑆y = 2𝑎O + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
2
Where S_n is the total sum, n=the number of terms in the sequence, d = the common difference, and a_1 = the first term.
Ex. Given the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, … what is the total sum of the first 20 terms.
First find d. d = 3 – 1 = 2
y
Therefore, 𝑆y = 2𝑎O + 𝑛 − 1 𝑑
?
20
𝑆?Q = 2(1) + 20 − 1 2
2
𝑆?Q = 10 2 + 19 ∗ 2
𝑆?Q = 10 40 = 400

Ex. Your friend visits the Empire State Building and drops a penny off the roof. The distance the penny will fall is 16 feet the
first second, 28 feet the next second, 40 feet the third second, and continues until it hits the ground.
What is the total distance the object will fall in 8 seconds?
First find the d. d = 28 – 16 = 12. Also a_1 = 16 seconds, n = 8. Now plug it all in.
8
𝑆C = 2(16) + 8 − 1 12
2
𝑆C = 4 32 + 7 12
𝑆C = 464 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡
41
There is another way to find the sum of an arithmetic sequences for the natural numbers, meaning going from 1 to n, where n is
any natural number greater than 1.
The formula is
y
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑘=
2
šåO

This is sigma notation. It means summing up the first n terms.

Ex. Find the sum of the arithmetic sequence from 1 to 50.

y
𝑛 𝑛+1
𝑘=
2
šåO

>Q
50 50 + 1 50 51
𝑘= = = 1275
2 2
šåO

Geometric Sequences
• Remember an arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers that have a linear relationship also know as the slope of a
line.
• A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers that have an exponential relationship.
o Each consecutive term is multiplied by a common ratio to get the next term.
• An arithmetic-geometric sequence follow neither a geometric nor an arithmetic sequence.
• As mentioned above a geometric sequence has a common ratio denoted by the letter r.
?yo wIv€
• To find the common ratio, take the 2nd term and divide it by the first term, 𝑟 =
O]w wIv€
• Ex. Given the sequence 3, 9, 27, 81,…What is the common ratio?
?yo wIv€ B
Well 𝑟 = = =3
O]w wIv€ !
• Ex. Given the sequence 4, -2, 1, - 1/2, …What is the common ratio?
?yo wIv€ ? O
Well 𝑟 = =− =−
O]w wIv€ A ?

To find the n^th term of a geometric sequence us the following formula

𝑎y = 𝑎O 𝑟 y‚O
n is the nth term wanted, r is the common ratio, and a_1 is the first term in the sequence.

Ex. Given the sequence 3, 9, 27, 81,… What is the 13th term in the sequence?
9
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑛 = 13, 𝑟 = 3 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎O = 3 𝑎y = 𝑎O 𝑟 y‚O 𝑎O! = 3 3 O? = 4,782,969
3

Ex. Given the sequence 7, -49, -343, … What is the 17th term?
−49
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑛 = 17, 𝑟 = −7 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎O = 7 𝑎y = 𝑎O 𝑟 y‚O 𝑎O" = 7 −7 O@
= 232,630,513,987,207
7

To find the sum or a geometric sequence use the formula

1 − 𝑟y
𝑆y = 𝑎O
1−𝑟
n is the nth term wanted, r is the common ratio, and a_1 is the first term in the sequence.

Ex. Find the sum of the first 15 terms of the sequences 4, -8, 16, -32, …
1 3
1 − −2 ‚? 1−
𝑆O> = 4 =4 4 =44 =1
1 − −2 3 3

42
Ex. You want to put 1 grain of rice in the first space of a mancala board, 2 on the second, 4 on the third, and so on,
doubling the amount for each space, how many total grains of rice will be on the board? The board has a total of 14 spaces.
1 − 2OA 1 − 16,384 −16,383
𝑆OA = 1 = = = 16,383 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
1−2 −1 −1
A group of 25 cells triples in number every hour. At this rate, how many cells will be in the group at the end of the 5th hour?
A.125
B.375
C.3,125
D.6,075
E.9,375

43
 Trigonometric Identities

sin 𝑥 1 1 1
tan 𝑥 = = cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥 cot 𝑥 sec 𝑥 csc 𝑥

cos 𝑥 1 1 1
cot 𝑥 = = sec 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 =
sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛? 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? 𝑥 = 1 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛? K =𝑠𝑒𝑐 ? K 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ? 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ? 𝑥
1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? K = 𝑠𝑖𝑛? K 1 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ? K = 𝑡𝑎𝑛? K 1 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ? K − 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ? K
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛? K = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? K 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ? K + 𝑡𝑎𝑛? K
𝑐𝑜𝑡 ? 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 ? 𝑥 − 1

Trigonometric identities can be used to solve and prove algebraic expressions

The identities are used to substitute into other expressions to solve expressions in other expressions
çèÌ é çêë é
Example: Simplify S
ìËë é‘ nuw é
O çêë é Ì°ç é
Step 1: Rewrite sec 𝜃 𝑎𝑠 , tan 𝜃 𝑎𝑠 , and cot 𝑥 𝑎𝑠
Ì°ç é Ì°ç é çêë é
1
sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃
sin θ sin θ cos θ cos θ sin θ sin θ + cos θ cos θ
+ =
cos θ sin θ sin θ cos θ the common denominator
Step 2: Simplify the numerator and denominator
sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃
sin? 𝜃 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? 𝜃
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Step 3: There is a fraction divided by a fraction.
Multiply by the reciprocal.
çêë é Ì°ç é çêë é
Also recall sin? 𝑥 +𝑐𝑜𝑠 ? 𝑥 = 1 ∗
Ì°ç é O
?
Step 4: Simplify = sin 𝜃

ÌçÌ K‘Ì°ì K
Example 2: Simplify
ìËë K‘çêë K
Step 1: Rewrite all terms in terms of sine and cosine
1 cos 𝑥
+
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥
+ sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥
Step 2: Simplify the numerator and denominator
1 + cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥

Step 3: Simplify the denominator more

1 + cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 1 + cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥

Step 4: Multiply by the reciprocal

1 + cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
∗
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥( 1 + cos 𝑥)

44
Step 5: Simplify
cos 𝑥
sin? 𝑥

Step 6 : It can be simplified even more

1
∗ cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥
= csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
sin 𝑥

45
 Graphs of Cosine & Sine
• y=sinx y=cosx
• Period=2𝜋
• Domain: All Real Numbers
• Range: −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1
• Typical Sine Graph Format= f(x)= asin(bx+c)+d
• Typical Cosine Graph Format: f(x)= acos(bx+c)+d
• Amplitude: The distance from the maximum point to the minimum point of the graph
• Amplitude formula: a of the either the asin(bx+c)+d or acos(bx+c)+d
• A >1 the curve is stretched A<1 the curve is shrunk
• Period: the interval in which a full sine/cosine curve occurs
?Ö
• Period formula:
m
• b>1 the period is less than 2𝜋, which means horizontal shrinking
• Phase Shifts- left and right end points of the graph you solve the following equations bx-c=0 and bx-c= 2𝜋
• The vertical shift of the graph is affect by the d of asin(bx+c)+d or acos(bx+c)+d

Example:
Equation: y= -4cos (2𝜋x +4𝜋)+6
Amplitude: 4
?Ö
Period: =1
?Ö
Phase Shift: 2𝜋x +4𝜋 =0 2𝜋x +4𝜋 = 2𝜋
- 4𝜋 -4𝜋 - 4𝜋 -4𝜋
?Öx ‚AÖ ?Öx ‚?Ö
= =
?Ö ?Ö ?Ö ?Ö
x= -2 x=-1
Interval of the Graph occurs from -2 to 1
Vertical Shift: 6

Example: Equation: y=3 sin 5x

Amplitude: 3
?Ö
Period:
>
Phase Shift: 5x=0 5x=2𝜋
?Ö
x=0 x=
>
?Ö
Interval of the Graph occurs from 0 to
>
Vertical Shift: 0

Graphs of Tangent
• y=tanx
• Period=2𝜋
• Domain: Depends on the function
• Range: Depends on the function
• Typical Tangent Graph Format= f(x)= a tan (bx+c)+d
• Amplitude: None
• Period: the interval in which a full tangent curve occurs
Ö
• Period formula:
m
Ö Ö
• Vertical asymptotes are located bx+c= - and bx+c=
? ?
n
• Phase Shifts: -
m
• To find the 4 intervals of the graph take the period and divide by 4
Ö
• Period=2𝜋 intervals would occur ever
?
• Graph Example: 2tan(4x)
Ö
• Period:
A

46
 Reflection/Symmetry/Rotation
Reflection
Reflection x-axis y-axis origin y=x
Preimage to image (a, b) (a, -b) (a, b) (-a, b) (a, b) (-a, -b) (a, b) (b, a)

Symmetry
When cut in half the figure must look the same on the left and right sides of the line or top and bottom of the line.

Rotation

0° 90°180°270°360°
Surface Area and Volume

Surface Area is the sum of all the areas of each plane of a 3rd model
•Formulas
1. .Rectangular Prism: 2(wl + hl + hw) h= height, l =length, w =width
2. Cube: 6𝑠 ? s= length of the base
3. Right Cylinder: 2𝜋𝑟 ? + 2πrh r= radius h=height
4. Sphere: 4𝜋𝑟 ? r= radius
5. Right Circular Cone: 𝜋𝑟 ? + πr(sl) r= radius sl= slant height (can be found with Pythagorean theorem)
6. Right Square Pyramid: 𝑠 ? +2s(sl) s= length of base sl= slant height

Volume is a 2 Dimensional Figure turns into a 3 Dimensional Figure because it has height, which creates depth
•Formulas
1. Rectangular Prism: lwh h= height, l =length, w =width
2. Cube: 𝑠 ! s= length of the base
3. Right Cylinder: 𝜋𝑟 ?R r= radius h=height
A
4. Sphere: 𝜋𝑟 ? r= radius
!
Öv ’ R
5. Right Circular Cone: r= radius h= height
!
l’ R
6. Right Square Pyramid: a= edge of the base h= height
!

7. Diagonal of a Rectangular prism: 𝑙 ? ∗ 𝑤 ? ∗ ℎ? l= length w=width h=height

47
 Rational Expressions/Rational Functions

• Rational Expression is a fraction that includes both numbers and variables

• The degree of the exponent tells you the type of polynomial or rational function
• To simplify you extract the Greatest Common Factor, like when simplifying normal fractions
Example 1:
70𝑥 A
= 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑥 A − 𝑥 O = 𝑥 ! 𝐺𝐶𝐹 𝑜𝑓 70 𝑎𝑛𝑑 10 𝑖𝑠 10 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 10
10𝑥
70𝑥 A
= 7𝑥 !
10𝑥

Example 2:
𝑚 + 7 𝐼𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑚+7
?
= = =
𝑚 + 2𝑚 − 35 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙: 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑚+7 𝑚−5
𝑚+7 1
= 𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 =
𝑚+7 𝑚−5 𝑚−5
𝑚+7 1
=
𝑚+7 𝑚−5 𝑚−5
𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑, 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜
Example 3:
4𝑎 ? + 12𝑎 𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐺𝐶𝐹
= 4𝑎 𝑎 + 3
?
𝑎 − 10𝑎 − 39 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
= 𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
𝑎 + 3 𝑎 − 13
4𝑎
=
𝑎 − 13

Adding & Subtracting Rational Expressions

•Adding/Subtracting Fractions- Must have the same denominator, which remains the same and add/subtract numerator
•If they do not have the same original denominator you find the Least Common Denominator (LCD)
•Then multiply the numerators of each fraction by the term that was missing in the original denominators but included in the
LCD
Example 1:
𝑚 + 7 𝑚
+ 𝑀𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝐶𝐷 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝐶𝐷 𝑖𝑠 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4
5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4
𝑚 + 7 𝑚 𝑚 + 7
+ = 3𝑚 + 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑚 + 7 𝑏𝑦 3𝑚 + 4
5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6 5𝑚 + 6
𝑚 + 7 3𝑚 + 4 𝑚 5𝑚 + 6
+ =
5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6
𝑚
5𝑚 + 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑚 𝑏𝑦 5𝑚 + 6
3𝑚 + 4
𝑚 + 7 3𝑚 + 4 𝑚 5𝑚 + 6 𝑚 + 7 3𝑚 + 4 + 𝑚 5𝑚 + 6
+ = 𝐹𝑂𝐼𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6
𝑚 + 7 3𝑚 + 4 + 𝑚 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 ? + 4𝑚 + 21𝑚 + 28 + 5𝑚 ? + 6𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
= =
3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6
8𝑚 ? + 31𝑚 + 28
=
3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6
8𝑚 ? + 31𝑚 + 28 8𝑚 ? + 31𝑚 + 28
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, 𝐹𝑂𝐼𝐿 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6 3𝑚 + 4 5𝑚 + 6
8𝑚 ? + 31𝑚 + 28
=
15𝑚 ? + 38𝑚 + 24
48
Domain and Range of a Function
Domain of a Function: The list of all of the x values of the coordinates on the function
• If X values repeat in the Domain the figure is not a function
o Example: Vertical Lines are not a function because every point on the vertical line has the same x value.
• For this reason, the slope of a vertical line is undefined.

Range of a Function: The list of all of the y values of the coordinates on the function
• If the y values repeat in the Range the figure is still a function
o Example: Horizontal Lines are a function because even though every coordinate on the horizontal line has the
same y value, each point does not have the same x value.

Not a Function- X values repeat Function- X values do not repeat

Boundaries of Rational Functions Vertical, Horizontal, and Slant Asymptotes

Function Description of Leading Exponent Horizontal Asymptote Vertical Asymptote

4𝑥 ? + 2 Leading exponent in numerator 𝑥 ? is larger DNE Set denominator =0
𝒇 𝒙 = than the leading exponent in the denominator 2x= 0
2𝑥
x=0= Vertical Asymptote
2𝑥 Leading exponent in numerator 2x is smaller y=0 Set denominator = 0
𝒇 𝒙 =
4𝑥 ? + 2 than the leading exponent in the denominator 4𝑥 ? + 2 = 0
𝑥 ? the horizontal asymptote 4𝑥 ? = −2
Leading degree in numerator= 1=(2x) −2
𝑥 ? = − 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
Leading degree in denominator=2= 4𝑥 ? + 2 4
−2
𝑥 = ± 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒
4
?K ’ Leading exponent of x^2 in the numerator is 2 1 Set denominator =0
𝒇 𝒙 = 𝑦= =
AK ’ the same as the leading exponent of x^2 in the 4 2 4𝑥 ? = 0
denominator so you divide the coefficients in 𝑥 = 0 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒
front of the x^2

Multiplying & Dividing Rational Expressions

When multiplying or dividing, the goal is to get one fraction.
When dividing a fraction by a fraction remember to multiply by the reciprocal.
’û ªû«– ’û
O‚ ‚
ªû«– ªû«–
Example 1: ªû«–
ª = ûü– ª Find a common denominator for the numerator and denominator.
K‚ K‚
ûü– ûü– ûü–
!K‚A K‘A
In the numerator, 1 can be converted into . Multiply x in the denominator by since the coefficient in front of the x is 1.
!K‚A K‘A
ªû«–«’û û«–
ªû«–
û ûü– «ª = ’
ªû«–
û ü–û«ª
Simplify the numerator and denominator by combining like terms.
ûü– ûü–
K‚A K‘A
∗ Recall when dividing a fraction by a fraction, multiply by the reciprocal.
!K‚A K ’ ‘AK‚!
𝑥+4 𝑥−4
3𝑥 − 4 𝑥 ? + 4𝑥 − 3

49
 Matrices

How to Read a Matrix

When you read a matrix, it is rows by columns (r x c)
𝑎 𝑏
Ex.
𝑐 𝑑
This is a 2 x 2 matrix. It has 2 rows and 2 columns
a
Ex. 2a
3a
This is a 3 x 1 matrix. It has 3 rows and 1 column.
Ex. 1 0 −1
This is a 1 x 3 matrix. It has 1 row and 3 columns.

Adding and Subtracting Matrices

When adding or subtracting matrices, you must ask yourself if they are the same size.
If yes, then perform the indicated operation.
If no, then you cannot add or subtract them and the answer would be no solution.
When adding or subtracting matrices you add or subtract corresponding places.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎±𝑒 𝑏±𝑓
𝐸𝑥. ± =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐±𝑔 𝑑±ℎ
1 0
Ex. + 1 1 3 = no solution because they are not the same size
3 −5

7 13 14 4 0 3 3 13 11
𝐸𝑥. 4 10 6 − 1 10 22 = 3 0 −16
−3 −7 5 2 −5 15 −5 −2 −10

Scalar Multiplication
If there is a number on the outside of the matrix that means to multiply each term in the matrix by the term on the outside.

𝑎 𝑏 2𝑎 2𝑏
Ex. 2 = Distribute the 2 to each term.
𝑐 𝑑 2𝑐 2𝑑

Ex. 3 2 0 −3 = 6 0 −9 Distribute the 3 to each term.

Example 1:
2 −4 −2 4
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 − 𝐵 =?
6 0 −6 0

2 −4 −2 4
If 𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = , then A+B=?
6 0 −6 0

2𝐴 + 𝐵

2 −4 −2 4
2þ ÿ+þ ÿ
6 0 −6 0
4 −8 −2 4
þ ÿ+þ ÿ
12 0 −6 0
2 −4
þ ÿ
6 0

50
Determinant of a Matrix
The determinant of a matrix A can be denoted by det(A) or |A|
𝑎 𝑏
To find the determinant use the following formula Let A = then the det(A) = ad – bc
𝑐 𝑑
2 3
Ex. Find the determinant of A = .
1 −1

Det 𝐴 = 2 −1 − 3 1 = −2 − 3 = −5
6 −1
Ex. Find the determinant of A =
1 1
Det 𝐴 = 6 1 − −1 1 = 6 + 1 = 7

Multiplying Matrices
You can only multiply two matrices together if the number columns in the first matrix is the same as the number of rows in the
second column, so if they are not the same then you cannot multiply them. The size of the new matrix will be the number of
rows from the first matrix by the number columns from the second matrix.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
Ex. ∙
𝑐 𝑑
Notice that the first matrix is a 2 x 2 and the second matrix is a 1 x 2. Therefore, we cannot multiply them since the first matrix
has 2 columns and the second matrix has 1 row.

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ
Ex. ∙ =
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ
Since they are the same size then the resulting size of the new matrix will be a 2 x 2.

1 −1 4 2 1 4 + −1 −3 1 2 + −1 1 7 1
Ex. ∙ = =
2 3 −3 1 2 4 + 3 −3 2 2 +3 1 −1 7

−1 3 2 −1 2 + 3 −2 −8
Ex. ∙ = =
−5 12 −2 −5 2 + 12 −2 −34

1 6 0
1 23
Ex. · −1 0 −2
−2 −3
4
0 5 −4
1 1 + 3 −1 + 2 0 1 6 +3 0 +2 5 1 0 + 3 −2 + 2 −4
−2 1 + −3 −1 + 4 0 −2 6 + −3 0 + 4 5 −2 0 + −3 −2 + 4 −4

Follow the dot product. That is take the first row of matric one and multiply it to the first column of matrix two. Multiply the
corresponding parts and add them together. Repeat that for the other two columns of matric two. Then take the second row of
matrix one and do the same thing again. Multiply it to the corresponding parts and add the values together.

1−3+0 6 + 0 + 10 0−6−8 −2 16 −14

=
−2 + 3 + 0 −12 + 0 + 20 0 + 6 − 16 1 8 −10

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