Indirect Speech

[9.1] How to study this unit?

[9.2] Introduction to indirect speech

[9.3] Indirect statements

[9.4] Indirect questions

[9.5] Indirect commands, requests, and service

[9.6] Pronouns, adjectives, and expressions of time

and place

9
[9.7] Bibliographical references

UNIT
 Scheme

UNIT 9 – Pay attention to…

Indirect speech

2
Indirect Pronouns, adjectives,
Introduction Indirect questions Indirect commands,
statements and expressions of
request and advice
time and place
English Grammar

© Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

 English Grammar

Pay attention to…

9.1. How to study this unit?

In order to study this unit you should read:

Hewings, M. (2005). Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. (p.66, p.70, p.72).
Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.

Murphy, R. (1998). Grammar in Use. Reference and Practice for Intermediate

Students of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (p.90, p.92, p.96).
Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.

In this unit we will look at direct and indirect speech and some of the most important
aspects that mark the difference between them.

» Firstly, we will offer some general definitions of direct and indirect speech from
different perspectives.
» Secondly, we will discuss the properties of indirect statements, questions,
and requests.
» And finally we will describe the backshift, as well as the changes of pronouns
and time and space expressions.

9.2. Introduction to indirect speech

In Understanding English Grammar: A Linguistic Introduction, Thomas Payne offers

the following definition of direct and indirect speech: “Direct speech (or direct
quotation) is when a speaker reports the exact words of another person. Indirect speech
(or indirect quotation) is when a speaker reports the content of what someone said, but
not necessarily the exact words.” (2011, p. 344)

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For Florian Coulmas, direct speech (direct quotation) “evokes the original speech
situation and conveys, and claims to convey, the exact words of the original speaker in
direct discourse”, while indirect speech (indirect quotation) “adapts the reported
utterance to the speech situation of the report in indirect discourse” and adds that “the
fundamental difference between the two lies in the speaker perspective or point of view
of the reporter” (1986, p. 2).

The author also mentions the “potential ambiguities in indirect discourse” due to the
fact that “it is not always unequivocally clear whether a descriptive term testifies to the
appraisal of the original speaker or that of the reporter” (1986, p. 3). Thus, indirect
speech is a rather complex transformation of the utterance of the original speaker,
ranging from a faithful reflection of the original message to an utterance that includes
the way in which the reporter processes the original message. Reported speech can also
reflect different rankings of faithfulness to the content and form of the original
message. Here are some grammatical features of the indirect speech according to
Coulmas (1986):

» The sequence of tenses (or what is also known in this case as backshift).
» Temporal deixis (the adjustment of the subordinate clause to the deictic pivot of the
reporter.
» Grammatical integration: the extent to which reporting and reported parts of
indirect discourse are harmonized and integrated with one another varies within and
across languages.

According to Angela Downing and Philip Locke, “Direct (‘quoted’) speech reporting
supposedly repeats the exact words that someone said or wrote, while indirect
speech reporting gives the meaning, or the gist of the content. Depending on the verb
used, a good deal of further information can also be provided” (2006, p. 300, bold in
original). The authors add that in quoting “tenses, pronouns and other deictic elements
are oriented towards the speech situation, while in reported speech they shift away
from it” (2006, p. 300). It is important to remember that “the reporting clause contains
a verb of saying, while the reported clause contains what is said” (2006, p. 300).

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Here is one example:

Mary said, “I will study for the exam.” (direct speech)

Mary said she would study for the exam. (indirect speech)
Reporting Reported clause
clause

According to Downing & Locke (2006), the reporting clause can be placed:

» At the beginning.
She said, “I’m a telly addict and I always have been.”

» In the middle.
“I’m a telly addict,” she said, “and I always have been.”

» At the end.
“I’m a telly addict and I always have been,” she said.

Say and tell are the two most common reporting verbs. These two verbs have similar
meanings, but are used differently in reported speech. Both take a direct object, which
is usually the reported clause. The difference is that tell takes also an indirect object,
which is placed in English before the direct object. Tell is used when the addressee
(indirect object) is mentioned, as shown in the table below.

Peter said, “I am going to Paris tomorrow.”

Reporting clause Indirect object Reported clause (direct object)
Peter said that he was going to Paris the day after.
Peter told Mary that he was going to Paris the day after.
Table 1.
Sometimes this simplified formula is used to describe the above mentioned rule:

» Say something:
She said that she was living in London.

» Tell someone something:

She told me that she was living in London.

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 English Grammar

» Tell something to somebody is also possible.

She told the news to all her classmates.

accept confess invite

accuse confirm mention
acknowledge consider murmur
add contemplate object
admit counter observe
advise decide offer
affirm declare order
agree demand persuade
allege deny promise
announce doubt propose
answer encourage recognize
anticipate enquire record
argue expect refuse
ask explain remark
assert feel remind
assure forbid repeat
beg grumble reply
believe guess report
boast hope request
claim imagine respond
command imply reveal
comment inform suggest
complain insist tell
conclude instruct understand
Table 2. Reporting verbs list.

Syntactic structures determined by the reporting verb

» Reporting verb + object + to infinitive

He asked me to send him a picture of the house.
He ordered me to bring him a glass of water.

» Reporting verb + object + preposition + gerund

They accused him of stealing.

» Reporting verb + preposition + gerund

They insisted on going to the theatre together.

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» Reporting verb + that clause

They believed that a strong government would top inflation.
They claimed that he could eat McDonald’s food for a month.
They complained that dinner took too long to prepare.

» Reporting verb + that clause / reporting verb + gerund

He denied that he had broken the window.
He denied breaking the window.

Verbs quoting statements announce, explain, observe, point out, remark, report
Verbs quoting questions ask, demand, query, enquire
Verbs quoting
exclaim
exclamations
Verbs indicating speech affirm, answer, argue, beg, complain, object, protest, urge,
act force warn
Verbs which refer to the
circumstances of the interrupt, reply, respond
speech act
bark, bleat, chirp, cry, drawl, grumble, hiss, holler, moan,
Verbs indicating manner
mumble, murmur, mutter, scream, shout, shriek, snap,
of locution
snarl, stutter, whisper, whine, yell
chuckle, laugh, smile, grin, giggle,
laughter
twinkle
weeping sob, moan, wail
Non-utterance emotive
excitement,
verbs accompanying breathe, pant
concern
speech
incredulity gasp
pain, anger bellow, choke, flash
Table 3. Classification of reporting verbs in terms of meaning. Adapted from Downing & Locke, (2006).

9.3. Indirect statements

The most important grammar rule that determines the structure of reported speech is
backshift, i.e. the verb tense in the original utterance is changed into a corresponding
tense, shifting away from the reported situation or event. The most common tense
changes are represented in table 4.

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Backshift
Direct speech Indirect speech
Present simple tense Past simple tense
Present progressive tense Past progressive tense
Present perfect simple tense Past perfect simple tense
Present perfect progressive tense Past perfect progressive tense
Past simple tense Past perfect tense
Past progressive tense Past perfect progressive tense
Past perfect simple tense Past perfect simple tense
Past perfect progressive tense Past perfect progressive tense
Future simple tense (will +infinitive) Would + infinitive
Future simple tense (to be going to +
Was going to + infinitive
infinitive)
Future progressive tense Would + progressive infinitive
Would + infinitive in conditional II Would + perfect infinitive
Table 4. Backshift in reported speech.

The past form of the modal verbs change depending on their use (see Unit 7).

Peter said, “You must study.” (obligation)

Peter told me that I had to study.

Shall is not very common in statements, but when it appears, it is reported as follows:

Peter said, “I shall be home by 5 o’clock.”

Peter said that he would be home by 5 o clock.

When shall is used to ask for advice, then it shifts into should.

Peter said, “Shall I bring you a coffee?”

Peter asked me if he should bring me a coffee.

May changes into might or could:

Peter said, “I may go to New York.”

Peter said that he might go to New York.

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 English Grammar

Might changes when used in request, but remains unchanged when used to express
probability.

Peter said, “My bother might come late to the party.”

Peter said that his brother might come late to the party.

In table 4 we can see that several tense forms become past perfect simple or past
perfect progressive tense in indirect speech. This means that it is sometimes difficult to
guess the verb tense of the original message.

Past simple
(direct speech)

Past perfect simple

Present perfect simple
(direct speech)
(Indirect speech)

Past perfect simple

(direct speech)

Figure 1. Verb tenses in indirect and direct speech

Reporting verbs are not always used in the past simple tense. Indirect speech
can also be introduced by reporting verbs in present simple, present perfect or future
simple tense. In these cases we will not change the tense of the original statement when
we report it.

No backshift when the reporting verb is in…

Present simple tense She says…
Present perfect tense She has said...
She will say...
Future simple tense
She is going to say...
Table 5. No backshift in reported speech.

She said, “I love singing.”

She said that she loved singing. (reporting verb –say- in past tense –said)

She says, “I love singing.”

She says (that) she loves singing. (no backshift in this case either)

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Backshift is ignored when the content of the original message is still valid at the
moment of reporting.

Peter said, “I’m trying to get a ticket a football ticket for the Premier League, but
there is a very long queue. Please don’t wait for me for dinner.”

If I report the original message to Peter’s wife while he is still queuing:

Peter said that he is trying to get a football ticket for the Premier League, but
there is a very long queue. We shouldn’t wait for him for dinner.

Two versions are possible if the content of the original message expresses a general
truth or a permanent state: with and without backshift, although the latter is
preferred.

Peter said, “Paris is the capital of France.”

Peter said that Paris is the capital of France.

Peter said, “The sun sets in the west.”

Peter said that the sun sets in the west.

In written English, past simple and past progressive usually change to past perfect
simple tense and past perfect progressive tense, respectively. However in spoken
English when the sequence of actions/events is clear, as when we use time expressions,
we ignore the backshift rule.

Peter said, “When I arrived home from work, my son had already finished his
homework.”
Peter said that when he arrived home from work, his son had already finished
his homework.

Backshift is ignored when we use unreal past tenses (see Unit 5), like in expressions
after I wish.

Peter said, “I wish I didn’t have to work in August.”

Peter said he wished he didn’t have to work in August.

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9.4. Indirect questions

When we change questions into reported speech, we make the following changes:

» Backshift of tenses.
» Pronouns and possessive adjectives.
» Time and place expressions.
» The interrogative form changes into affirmative form.

A S V

Peter said, “Where do you live now?” A: auxiliary.

S: subject.
Peter asked me where I lived then. V: main verb
S V

Pronouns and
Backshift in tenses
possessive adjectives

Peter asked me where I lived then.

Interrogative form Time and place

changes into affirmative expressions

» The reporting verb might have to be changed to report question. In the example
above, the reporting verb say in direct speech changes into the verb ask in indirect
speech to indicate inquiry.

» If the direct question is a yes/no question, i.e. it begins with an auxiliary verb, in
reported speech we use if or whether.
Peter said, “Did you buy tickets for the concert?”
Peter asked me if I had bought tickets for the concert.

If the direct questions is a wh- question, in reported speech we keep the wh-word
and change the interrogative form into affirmative form.
Peter said, “Where did you find your keys?”
Peter asked me where I had found your keys.

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 English Grammar

» We do not use question mark when we report questions.

Peter said, “Do you like your new school?”
Peter asked me whether I liked my new school.

8.5. Indirect commands, requests, and advice

Reported commands (imperatives) consist of a reporting clause and a reported clause

with infinitive verb form. The infinitive in the reported clause can be positive (to do) or
negative (not to do).

Peter said, “Close the door.”

Peter told me to close the door.

Peter said, “Don’t look back.”

Peter told me not to look back.

Examples of indirect commands, requests, and advice (Thomson, A.J. & Martinet, A.V.,
1985):

1a. “Could you show me your passport, please?” he said.

1b. He asked me to show him my passport.

2a. “Why don’t you take off your coat?” he said.

2b. He advised me to take off my coat.

3a. “Don’t forget to order the wine,” said Mrs Pitt.

3b. Mrs Pitt reminded her husband to order the wine.

4a. “Forget all about this young man,” said her parents; “don’t see him again or
answer his letters.”
4b. Her parents ordered her to forget all about the young man and told her not to
see him again or answer his letters.
4c. She was ordered to forget all about the young man and forbidden to see him
again or answer his letters. (passive construction)

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The last example proposed by Thomson and Martinet (1985) is also interesting for
being a passive structure. Other examples of passive voice with reporting words include
sentences in which the subject is a generalised agent such as people, they, everyone,
etc.

1(a). We suppose that the Prime Minister is taking measures to reduce poverty.
1(b). The Prime Minister is supposed to be taking measures to reduce poverty.
1(c). It is supposed that the Prime Minister is taking measures to reduce poverty.

1(a). Indirect speech active voice.

1(b). Indirect speech: passive voice structure: subject + passive reporting verb + that
clause.
1(c). Indirect speech: passive voice structure: it + passive reporting verb + that clause

Linguists do not agree on a single definition of subjunctive mood and several theories
co-exist. Igor Dreer, for instance, assumes that “the Subjunctive is used to express
occurrences, whose outcome is considered uncertain because an alternative outcome is
also feasible” and he argues that the verb suggest means “to submit/propose an idea”
(2007, p. 92). Many others consider that the verb suggest, together with some other
verb, is followed by the Subjunctive, although we should bear in mind that the
Subjunctive is not limited to the structure following the verbs mentioned below.

I demand that she be here on time.

I insist that you leave the room immediately.

advise
ask
command
demand that + subject + bare infinitive
insist
propose
recommend
request

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Let’s in reported speech

We use let’s to express suggestion, which is why in indirect speech the reporting verb
suggest is often used.

Peter said, “Let’s go to the cinema.”

Peter suggested going to the cinema.

The reporting verb suggest is followed by gerund in the above example, which might be
interpreted as meaning that the reporting agent will go to the cinema with the
addressee(s).

9.6. Pronouns, adjectives, and expressions of time and place

As mentioned above, the most important change we have to make when we turn direct
speech into indirect speech is backshift, but whenever necessary, we have to change the
expressions of time and place as well.

Direct Indirect
Today That day
Yesterday The day before
Tomorrow The next day/the following day
The day after tomorrow In two days time
Next week/month/year/etc. The following week/month/year/etc.
Last week/month/year/etc. The previous week/month/year/etc.
A month/year before
A month/year ago
The previous month/year
Now Then
Tonight That night
Here There
This That
This evening/morning That evening/morning
Table 5. Expressions of time and place in indirect speech.

The Prime Minister said, “Negotiations started yesterday.”

The Prime Minister said that negotiations had started the day before.

The Prime Minister said, “This led me to Harvard.”

The Prime Minister said that that had led him to Harvard.

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The journalist said, “I will interview the Prime Minister tonight.”

The journalist said that he would interview the Prime Minister that night.

The change of pronouns depends on the reporting situation, the reporting agent, and
sometimes the addressee.

Peter said to Ana, “I will love you forever.”

Peter told Ana that he would love her forever.

9.7. Bibliographical references

Coulmas, F. (1986). Reported Speech: Some General Issues. In F. Coulmas (Ed.) Direct
and Indirect Speech (pp.1-28). Berlin, New York & Amsterdam: Mouton de Gruyter.

Downing, A. & Locke, Ph. (2006). English Grammar: A University Course. London &
New York: Routledge.

Dreer, I. (2007). Expressing the Same by the Different. Amsterdam & Philadelphia:
John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Payne, T. (2011). Understanding English Grammar: A Linguistic Introduction.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Thomson, A.J. & Martinet, A.V. (1985). A Practical English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

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Specially recommended

Master class

Indirect speech

The master class discusses some general features of direct and indirect speech. It starts
with general introduction to indirect speech, also called reported speech. The central
concern of the master class is the set of grammar rules that govern the usage of direct
and indirect speech and above all the backshift. One important point is the question of
changing pronouns and expressions of time and space in indirect speech. Indirect
speech structure differs to reflect the distinction between reporting statements,
questions, and requests.

This class is available in the virtual classroom

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 English Grammar

Watch out!

How to change time markers in reported speech

Sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech, we have to change the
time markers too. This video focuses on the rule of changing time markers. The rule is
explained and illustrated by a number of examples which show how and when to
change the time expressions.

Access to the video through the virtual campus or the following website address:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s2yVAuahwUI

UNIT 9 – Specially recommended 17 © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

 English Grammar

Be sure you read…

Reported speech: corpus-based findings vs. EFL textbook presentations

Šegedin, D. (2008). Reported speech: corpus-based findings vs. EFL textbook

presentations. English Language and Literature Teaching 5 (1-2), 199-213.

In this article, Danijela Šegedin argues that English textbooks do not always reflect the
real language usage. She compares the presentation of Reported speech in some
textbooks to corpus-based cross-register research of reported speech. The results of her
study show that EFL textbooks fail to present reported speech as used by native
speakers in spoken and written discourse.

Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.

Discovering English tense-backshift parameters through discourse

Kos, S.O. (2014). Discovering English Tense-Backshift Parameters through Discourse.

Linguistica 54 (1), 339-352.

Silvana Orel Kos argues that EFL textbooks often present the grammatical rules which
govern tense-backshift, but fail to explain the specific discourse and communicative
functions. The author adopts a discourse-oriented approach to indirect speech wish
special emphasis on parameters such as: the original communicator or the message, the
communication mediator’s attitude or involvement, semantic, stylistic and syntactic
restrictions. Kos’s study proves the need for a more discourse-oriented presentation of
grammar rules in the EFL textbooks.

Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.

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+ Information

In depth

Request behaviour and communicative styles in Peninsular Spanish and

American English: A comparison

Sánchez, A. L. & College, H. (2010). Request Behaviour and Communicative Styles in

Peninsular Spanish and American English: A Comparison. Revista Eletrónica de
Lingüística Aplicada 9, 21-42.

In this article, Ana López Sánchez and Haverford College compare the request
behaviour of Peninsular Spanish and American English speakers and show that both
populations privilege conventional indirectness. However the two groups show
different communicative styles when it comes to requesting action from equal status
members of the family. They affirm that the claim that Spanish society favours
egalitarianism is too removed from any linguistic evidence.

Available at the virtual campus under the art. 32.4 of the Spanish Intellectual Property
Law.

UNIT 9 – + Information 19 © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)

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Webgraphy

BBC English Class: Reported Speech

The material on this website focuses on the main grammar rule that you should know
in order to be able to use reported speech correctly — backshift, i.e. “moving the tense
back”. The material consists of a video with explanations, multiple examples of
backshift and an activity you can do after having studied the rule to check your
knowledge on reported speech.

Access to the website through the virtual campus or the following link:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/course/upper-intermediate/unit-
2/session-1

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Exercises

Task: Relative clauses and indirect speech

Part 1

Underline the relative clause and identify it as defining or non-defining.

Add commas where necessary.

Example: All the people who were arrested at the demonstration have now been
released.
All the people who were arrested at the demonstration have now been released.
Defining relative clause

1. Travelers are encouraged to document transgressions they have seen on the tube.
2. There are certain things that you should know when you visit London.
3. The Moscow metro which is believed to have the most beautiful stations in the world
opened in 1935.
4. Enjoy free entry to Kew gardens which has the most diverse botanical collection in
the world..
5. Copenhagen which is the capital of Denmark is often ranked the happiest city in the
world.

Part 2

Turn the following sentences into reported speech.

Example: Peter said, “The prisoner has been released”.

Peter said that the prisoner had been released.

6. Elizabeth said to her friends, “Call me when you can.”

________________________________________________________
7. Elizabeth said, “I am going to explain to the passengers that the party is over.”
________________________________________________________
8. Elizabeth said, “Presently the window is blocked by furniture.”
________________________________________________________

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9. Elizabeth asked, “Is there a post office near here?”

________________________________________________________
10. Elizabeth asked, “Where did you find your car keys?”
________________________________________________________

Objective: learn the structure and usage of relative clauses and reported speech.

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Test

1. Choose the correct answer. Report the following statement: Ana said “I am not
strong enough”.
A. Ana said she was not strong enough.
B. Ana says she is not strong enough.
C. Both A and B are correct.

2. Choose the correct answer. Report the following question: When are you coming to
Spain?
A. Ana asked her brother when was he coming to Spain.
B. Ana asked her brother if he was coming to Spain.
C. Ana asked her brother when he was going to Spain.

3. Choose the correct answer. Report the following statement: We have bought the
perfume at the airport.
A. They declared that they had bought the perfume at the airport.
B. They declared that they bought the perfume at the airport.
C. They declared that we have bought the perfume at the airport.

4. Choose the correct answer. Report the following imperative: Please remain seated.
A. The police officer insisted that we remain seated.
B. The police officer insisted that we remained seated.
C. Both A and B are correct.

5. Choose the correct answer. Report the following imperative: Don’t stay out after
midnight.
A. My mother told me to stay out after midnight.
B. My mother asked me to don’t stay out after midnight.
C. My mother asked me not to stay out after midnight.

6. Choose the correct direct speech correspondence to She told me she was going to
start studying the following day.
A. I am starting studying the following day.
B. I am going to start studying tomorrow.
C. I am starting studying tomorrow.

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7. Choose the correct direct speech correspondence to I thought she was more
intelligent.
A. I think she is more intelligent.
B. It is thought that she is more intelligent.
C. I thought, “She is more intelligent”.

8. Report the following question: Which is the most dangerous city in Denmark?
A. She asked me which was the most dangerous city in Denmark.
B. She asked me which the most dangerous city in Denmark was.
C. She asked me which is the most dangerous city in Denmark.

9. Report the following statement: I got up at 8 o’clock, had breakfast, and went to
work.
A. She told me that she had got up at 8 o’clock, had breakfast, and had gone to
work.
B. She told me that she got up at 8 o’clock, had breakfast, and went to work.
C. Both A and B are correct.

10. Choose the correct answer. Report the following statement: I didn’t break the
window.
A. He denied that he had broken the window.
B. He denied having broken the window.
C. Both A and B are correct.

UNIT 9 – Test 24 © Universidad Internacional de La Rioja (UNIR)