Acoustics 01 00011 v2

acoustics
Article
On the Frequency Up-Conversion Mechanism in
Metamaterials-Inspired Vibro-Impact Structures
Anuj Rekhy 1 , Robert Snyder 2 and James M. Manimala 1, *
1 Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering; Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA;
[email protected]
2 Concepts 2 Systems Inc, 500, Danville, VA 24540, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 18 November 2018; Accepted: 10 February 2019; Published: 12 February 2019
Abstract: Conventional acoustic absorbers like foams, fiberglass or liners are used commonly in
structures for industrial, infrastructural, automotive and aerospace applications to mitigate noise.
However, these have limited effectiveness for low-frequencies (LF, <~500 Hz) due to impractically
large mass or volume requirements. LF content being less evanescent is a major contributor to
environmental noise pollution and induces undesirable structural responses causing diminished
efficiency, comfort, payload integrity and mission capabilities. There is, therefore a need to develop
lightweight, compact, structurally-integrated solutions to mitigate LF noise in several applications.
Inspired by metamaterials, tuned mass-loaded membranes as vibro-impact attachments on a baseline
structure are considered to investigate their performance as an LF acoustic barrier. LF incident
waves are up-converted via impact to higher modes in the baseline structure which may then be
effectively mitigated using conventional means. Such Metamaterials-Inspired Vibro-Impact Structures
(MIVIS) could be tuned to match the dominant frequency content of LF acoustic sources. Prototype
MIVIS unit cells were designed and tested to study energy transfer mechanism via impact-induced
frequency up-conversion and sound transmission loss. Structural acoustic simulations were done to
predict responses using models based on normal incidence transmission loss tests. Simulations were
validated using experiments and utilized to optimize the energy up-conversion mechanism using
parametric studies. Up to 36 dB of sound transmission loss increase is observed at the anti-resonance
frequency (326 Hz) within a tunable LF bandwidth of about 300 Hz for the MIVS under white noise
excitation. Whereas, it is found that under monotonic excitations, the impact-induced up-conversion
redistributes the incident LF monotone to the back plate’s first mode in the transmitted spectrum.
This up-conversion could enable further broadband transmission loss via subsequent dissipation in
conventional absorbers. Moreover, this approach while minimizing parasitic mass addition retains or
could conceivably augment primary functionalities of the baseline structure. Successful transition
to applications could enable new mission capabilities for aerospace and military vehicles and help
create quieter built environments.
Keywords: acoustic metamaterials; vibro-impact; sound transmission loss
1. Introduction
Since the advent of the modern age and industrialization, airborne noise has gradually assumed
increasing significance due to its detrimental consequences to health and safety, the lifecycle of
engineered structures, mission capabilities, and the environment in general. Depending on the nature
of its source, airborne noise could have a variety of spectral characteristics including broadband,
narrowband or periodic dominant content. While several application-specific solutions have been
successfully employed to mitigate its effects in engineered structures, practical means to eliminate
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11; doi:10.3390/acoustics1010011 www.mdpi.com/journal/acoustics

Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 1 of 17
low-frequency (<~500 Hz) noise in applications where weight and volume constraints prevail have
remained unaddressed. Typically, lower-frequency content is less evanescent and carries over longer
aerial distances. Acoustic treatments such as mass loaded vinyl, foam [1] and fiberglass claddings
and cores, layered barriers and porous materials and liners are employed effectively to mitigate
high-frequency content. However, such conventional approaches tend to impose unacceptable weight
and volume penalties for low-frequency noise mitigation especially in aerospace applications [2].
With increasingly stringent noise regulations being put in place to curb environmental noise pollution
and mission specifications becoming more multifarious and demanding, alternate approaches to tackle
low-frequency noise are of economic and operational significance.
In recent years, with current additive and hybrid manufacturing attaining critical commercial
maturity, it is an opportune time to explore structural acoustic configurations that can benefit from the
new materials and processes that have become available. One research area which has had exceptional
progress over the past few decades and is poised to take advantage of this surge in new manufacturing
techniques is that of Acoustic Metamaterials (AM). AM are manmade structural materials that derive
their unique mechanical wave manipulation capabilities not just from their material constituents
but more so from their engineered local configurations [3,4]. AM can exhibit frequency-dependent
negative and complex effective mass density [5,6] and modulus [7–9] resulting in unusual wave
phenomena [10–13]. Depending on the scale of implementation, these configurations may be deployed
as microscopic inclusions in meta-composites [14] or even as macroscale endo-structures within
load-bearing exo-structures [15].
The application of metamaterials-concepts to realize unprecedented physical responses has met
with considerable success. Analytical, numerical and experimental investigations on negative effective
mass [16–18], double negativity [19], tunable absorption in and transmission through membrane-type
acoustic metamaterials [20–28], broadband noise mitigation using metamaterial panels with stacked
membranes [29], impedance mismatch-driven reduction in transmitted sound energy for structures
with attached gas layers [30], acoustic barriers utilizing cellular [31] and flexible [32,33] sub-structures,
coupled membranes displaying monopolar and dipolar resonances [34], absorption using degenerate
resonators [35], and targeted energy transfer from an acoustic medium to a nonlinear membrane [36]
as well as for seismic mitigation [37] have been reported. There have been several studies ranging
from tunable structural-scale AM [38,39] to active AM designs [40] that have clearly demonstrated
their unique advantages. Utilizing AM to develop practical solutions for low-frequency acoustic noise
mitigation is seen to be an area of emphasis. Based on these studies, it is found that there is a need for
alternative, preferably passive approaches that enable low-frequency acoustic noise mitigation with
little or no penalties from the perspective of practical effectiveness in applications.
In this study, a new concept of a Metamaterials-Inspired Vibro-Impact Structure (MIVIS) is
investigated as a lightweight and compact barrier to understand its low-frequency up-conversion
performance. MIVIS utilizes structurally integrated mass-loaded membrane attachments on a backing
structure to act as tuned resonators that pick up energy from incident low-frequency sound waves
and up-convert it via impacts to higher modes in the backing structure. The conceptual hypotheses
and the design of the proof-of-concept test article are discussed followed by an overview of the
experimental methods employed. The materials and processes involved in test article fabrication and
MIVIS and baseline test cases considered are also presented. A structural acoustic simulation model
was developed to predict the transmission loss spectra for the MIVIS and baseline cases. In addition to
the experimental and simulated transmission loss performance vis-à-vis the baseline, the transient
spectral characteristics and the low-frequency up-conversion mechanism are examined. The possibility
for integration with state-of-the-art conventional acoustic treatments to deliver broadband transmission
loss performance encompassing the hitherto unaddressed low-frequency regime is also demonstrated.
Such MIVIS exhibit the potential to be developed into tunable yet lightweight and compact structural
elements for reducing low-frequency airborne noise via up-conversion.
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 2 of 17
2. Concept and Design

Acoustics 2018, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18
Drawing inspiration from acoustic metamaterials that utilize the presence of periodic local
2. Concept and Design
engineered
2. Concept features within a host structure or material to manipulate the passage of mechanical
and Design
waves throughDrawing inspiration
them, the MIVIS from acoustic
conceptmetamaterials
employs mass-loaded that utilize membranes
the presence as of periodic local
the vibro-impact
Drawing inspiration from acoustic metamaterials that utilize the presence of periodic local
engineered
attachment features
on a back within
structure a host structure or material to manipulate the passage of mechanical
engineered features withinthrough which low-frequency
a host structure or material to sound transmission
manipulate the passage lossof is to be enhanced.
mechanical
waves through them, the MIVIS concept employs mass-loaded membranes as the vibro-impact
The central hypothesis of this concept is that by tuning the
waves through them, the MIVIS concept employs mass-loaded membranes as the vibro-impact resonance frequency of the vibro-impact
attachment on a back structure through which low-frequency sound transmission loss is to be
membrane
attachmentattachment
on a back to suit the dominant
structure through which low-frequency
low-frequency content soundof the incident spectrum,
transmission loss is to be sound
enhanced. The central hypothesis of this concept is that by tuning the resonance frequency of the
enhanced.
transmission lossTheincentral
this hypothesisrange
frequency of thiscouldconcept
be is that by tuning
enhanced by the resonancethe
up-converting frequency
energy of
to the
higher
vibro-impact membrane attachment to suit the dominant low-frequency content of the incident
modes vibro-impact
of the backing membrane
structure. attachment
Further, to suit the dominant
a subsidiary low-frequency content of theenergy incident
spectrum, sound transmission loss in this frequencyhypothesis
range couldisbethat the up-converted
enhanced by up-converting thecould
spectrum,
subsequently sound transmission loss in this frequency range could be enhanced by up-converting the
energy to be dissipated
higher modes usingof the conventional
backing structure. acoustic
Further,absorbers
a subsidiarysuchhypothesis
as foam inisconjunction
that the up- with
energy to higher modes of the backing structure. Further, a subsidiary hypothesis is that the up-
MIVIS. For realistic
converted energysources with multiple
could subsequently be dominant
dissipated usinglow-frequency
conventional tones,
acoustican array
absorbersof tuned
such as MIVIS
converted energy could subsequently be dissipated using conventional acoustic absorbers such as
foam in conjunction with MIVIS. For realistic
unit-cells could be utilized to target a wideband frequency range. sources with multiple dominant low-frequency tones,
foam in conjunction with MIVIS. For realistic sources with multiple dominant low-frequency tones,
an order
In array of totuned
test theMIVIS unit-cells could
hypotheses be utilized to
and investigate thetarget a wideband
parameters thatfrequency
influence range.
the vibro-impact
an array of tuned MIVIS unit-cells could be utilized to target a wideband frequency range.
In
induced energy order to test the
up-conversion hypotheses
mechanism,and investigate
a the parameters
proof-of-concept that
test influence
article was the vibro-impact
designed based on
In order to test the hypotheses and investigate the parameters that influence the vibro-impact
induced energy up-conversion mechanism, a proof-of-concept test article was designed based on
analytical
induced andenergy
numerical studies. CAD
up-conversion mechanism,drawings of the configuration
a proof-of-concept and was
test article components
designed of the on
based MIVIS
analytical and numerical studies. CAD drawings of the configuration and components of the MIVIS
test article are shown
analytical and numericalin Figure 1, while
studies. CADdimensions
drawings of the areconfiguration
shown in Figure 2. The primary
and components of the MIVIS
MIVIS test
test article are shown in Figure 1, while dimensions are shown in Figure 2. The primary MIVIS test
test article of
articlearticle
consists are shown insquare
Figure aluminum
1, while dimensions are structure
shown in Figure a2.0.508
The primary MIVIS test
consistsaof filleted
a filleted square aluminumplate back
plate back structure with with a 0.508 mmmm (0.02”)
(0.02”) thickthick
ABS ABS
plasticarticle
membraneconsists of
havinga filleted
a steelsquare
rivet aluminum plate back structure with a 0.508 mm (0.02”) thick ABS
plastic membrane having a steel rivetimpactor
impactor at at its centerthat
its center thatisisheld
held at at a prescribed
a prescribed gap gapfromfromthe the
plastic membrane
back back
structure having a steel rivetframes
impactor at its center that is held at a prescribed gap from the
structure via a set of steel spacer frames affixed to the back structure’s perimeter as shown in in
via a set of steel spacer affixed to the back structure’s perimeter as shown
back structure via a set of steel spacer frames affixed to the back structure’s perimeter as shown in
Figure 1. Material
Figure 1. Material properties
properties forforitsitscomponents
components are listedininTable
are listed Table1.1.These
These material
material andand geometric
geometric
Figure 1. Material properties for its components are listed in Table 1. These material and geometric
properties
properties result result
in ainsurface
a surface mass mass densityofof1.76
density 1.76kg/mkg/m222 for
forthe
theback
backplate
plate and 0.52
and kg/m
0.52 2 for 2the
kg/m for the
properties result in a surface mass density of 1.76 kg/m for the back plate and 0.52 kg/m2 for the
membrane.
membrane. The The membrane
membrane and and impactorselection
impactor selection was
was based
based on finite
on finiteelement
element modal
modal analysis which
analysis which
membrane. The membrane and impactor selection was based on finite element modal analysis which
predicted
predicted its
its first first symmetric
symmetric mode
mode to
to to be
bebe170 170 Hz. The proof-of-concept test article was sized to suit
to aasuit a
predicted its first symmetric mode 170Hz.
Hz.The
The proof-of-concept
proof-of-concept test test article
article waswas sizedsized
to suit
custom-built normal incidence transmission loss tube [41] having a 63.5 mm × 63.5 mm (2.5” × 2.5”)
custom-built
custom-built normal normalincidence
incidence transmission
transmissionloss losstube
tube[41][41] having
having aa 63.563.5mm mm× × 63.5
63.5 mm mm (2.5”(2.5”
× 2.5”)× 2.5”)
square internal cross-section as shown in Figure 3 that was used for experiments.
squaresquare
internal cross-section
internal cross-section as shown
as shown inin Figure
Figure33thatthat was usedfor
was used forexperiments.
experiments.
Figure
1. (a)1.1.Exploded
(a) Exploded and
and (b)(b) component views
component views of the CAD
CADmodel forfor
the MIVIS test test
article.
Figure
Figure (a) Exploded and (b) component views of
of the
the CAD model
model for thethe MIVIS
MIVIS article.
test article.
Figure 2. (a) Side and (b) isometric views of the CAD model for the MIVIS test article showing key
dimensions and the gap parameter, g.
3. Experimental Methods
3.1. Test Apparatus and Transmission Loss Measurement Procedure

The experiments in this study were conducted using a custom-built normal incidence
transmission
Acoustics loss tube [41] shown
2019, 1, 11 in Figure 3 according to ASTM E2611-09 standard [42]. As per 3 ofthis
17
standard, the transfer matrix method is used to reduce sound transmission loss from four microphone
measurements. The setup consists of 91.4 cm (36”) long incident (source) and transmitted (receiver)
Table 1. Material properties for MIVIS components.
side tube sections having 6.35 mm (0.25”) thick walls. The tube has a 63.5 mm × 63.5 mm (2.5” × 2.5”)
squareComponent
internal cross-section. The test article is placed within Property
an acoustically-sealed holder between
Material
the incident and transmission sides Young’s
of the tube. The(GPa)
Modulus acousticMasssource is(kg/m
Density provided
3) by a Kicker
Poisson’s Ratio® KSC4
speakerBack
driven
plate by a function
Aluminum generator and amplifier
70 unit. The source
2700 was set at a sound
0.32 pressure
Spacer frames Stainless steel 197 7900 0.28
level of 110 dB throughout the tests. The frequency range that is possible to be tested using this setup
Impactor Steel 210 8000 0.30
is 60–2600 Hz. An anechoic
Membrane
wedge termination2 is provided at the far
ABS plastic
end of the transmitted
1020 0.35
side tube
to minimize reflections. Four 6.35Source:mm (0.25”) GRAS microphones, a pair each on the incident and
Manufacturer’s specifications.
transmitted sides respectively are used to make sound pressure level measurements as shown in
Figure 3. These microphones are numbered 1 thru 4 sequentially from closest to the source to farthest.
Figure 3. Normal incidence transmission loss tube.

Figure 3. Normal incidence transmission loss tube.
3. Experimental Methods
3.1. Test Apparatus and Transmission Loss Measurement Procedure

The experiments in this study were conducted using a custom-built normal incidence transmission
loss tube [41] shown in Figure 3 according to ASTM E2611-09 standard [42]. As per this standard,
the transfer matrix method is used to reduce sound transmission loss from four microphone
measurements. The setup consists of 91.4 cm (36”) long incident (source) and transmitted (receiver)
side tube sections having 6.35 mm (0.25”) thick walls. The tube has a 63.5 mm × 63.5 mm (2.5” × 2.5”)
square internal cross-section. The test article is placed within an acoustically-sealed holder between
the incident and transmission sides of the tube. The acoustic source is provided by a Kicker® KSC4
speaker driven by a function generator and amplifier unit. The source was set at a sound pressure
level of 110 dB throughout the tests. The frequency range that is possible to be tested using this setup
is 60–2600 Hz. An anechoic wedge termination is provided at the far end of the transmitted side
tube to minimize reflections. Four 6.35 mm (0.25”) GRAS microphones, a pair each on the incident
and transmitted sides respectively are used to make sound pressure level measurements as shown in
Figure 3. These microphones are numbered 1 thru 4 sequentially from closest to the source to farthest.
From the pressure measurements made using the four microphones, amplitudes of the forward
and backward components of the standing wavefield on the incident and transmitted side can
be obtained.
j P1 e jkx2 − P2 e jkx1
A= (1)
2 sin(k ( x1 − x2 ))

j P2 e− jkx1 − P1 e− jkx2
B= (2)
2 sin(k( x1 − x2 ))
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 4 of 17

j P3 e jkx4 − P4 e jkx3
C= (3)
2 sin(k ( x3 − x4 ))

j P4 e− jkx3 − P3 e− jkx4
D= (4)
2 sin(k( x3 − x4 ))
where A and B are the amplitudes of the forward and backward components respectively of the
standing wave on the incident side and similarly C and D are those on the transmitting side. j is the
imaginary unit and k is the wave number. Pi are the pressures measured by the microphones and xi
are the distances to these microphones from the datum which is located on the upstream (source side)
face of the test article. Once the standing wave components are obtained, the acoustic pressures and
velocities on both faces of the test article are directly obtained.
Ps = A + B (5)
Pr = Ce− jkd + De jkd (6)

A−B
us = (7)
ρc
Ce− jkd − De jkd
ur = (8)
ρc
where Ps and Pr are the pressures at the source and receiver side faces of the test article respectively and
us and ur are the particle velocities at the source and receiver side faces of the test article respectively
which are separated by an axial distance of d, which is the thickness of the test article. The transfer
matrix relating the pressures and velocities on the source face with those on the receiver face for a
single load case is set up as follow.
Ps 2 − Pr 2
" # " #
Pr ur − Ps us
T11 T12 Ps ur − Pr us Ps ur − Pr us
[T ] = = u s 2 − ur 2 Pr ur − Ps us
(9)
T21 T22
Ps ur − Pr us Ps ur − Pr us
The normal incidence sound transmission loss in dB is then given by

T + T12 + ρcT + T
11 ρc 21 22
TLni = 20 log10 (10)
2e jkd

where ρ is the density of air and c is the speed of sound in air. The normal incidence sound transmission
loss is used as a primary metric to characterize the acoustic performance of MIVIS and baseline
conventional structures evaluated in this study.
3.2. Test Article Fabrication

Test articles were fabricated by assembling off-the-shelf and custom sub-components.
The sub-components for the MIVIS and the assembled test article are shown in Figure 4. The ABS
membrane which is fitted with the steel impactor is attached with a prescribed gap between it and
the aluminum back plate using a set of chemically etched steel spacer frames that can be stacked to a
precise thickness. Before being placed in the test fixture, the assembly’s lateral surface is coated with
an acoustic sealant to minimize the possibility of flanking paths during testing.
Test articles were fabricated by assembling off-the-shelf and custom sub-components. The sub-
components for the MIVIS and the assembled test article are shown in Figure 4. The ABS membrane
which is fitted with the steel impactor is attached with a prescribed gap between it and the aluminum
back plate using a set of chemically etched steel spacer frames that can be stacked to a precise
thickness. Before being placed in the test fixture, the assembly’s lateral surface is coated with an
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 5 of 17
acoustic sealant to minimize the possibility of flanking paths during testing.
Figure 4. Components of the MIVIS test article: (a) washers and rivet impactor, (b) aluminum back
Figure 4. Components of the MIVIS test article: (a) washers and rivet impactor, (b) aluminum back
plate, (c) steel spacer frames, (d) ABS membrane and (e) it’s assembled view.
plate, (c) steel spacer frames, (d) ABS membrane and (e) it’s assembled view.
The baseline and MIVIS test articles consisting of the back plate with foam as detailed in Table 2
have thebaseline
The and MIVIS test
same cross-sectional articles consisting
dimensions of thefor
as the MIVIS back plate with
evaluation in foam as detailed
the normal in Table
incidence tube.
2The
havefoam
the same cross-sectional dimensions as the MIVIS for evaluation in the normal incidence
treatments were cut to size and bonded using a thin layer of adhesive to the receiver side tube.of
The
thefoam treatments
back plate. were
Lateral cut toare
surfaces sizesealed
and bonded
for theseusing a thin layer
test articles ofwas
just as adhesive to the
done for thereceiver
MIVIS. side
of the back plate. Lateral surfaces are sealed for these test articles just as was done for the MIVIS.
Table 2. Experimental cases.
3.3. Experimental Cases
Membrane Back Plate Foam Impactor Gap Mass
Approx.,
Based
Case onDescription
preliminaryABS trials on several
Plastic, Aluminum,combinations
UL G+ of membrane and back plate materials,
g = 0.1 mm g = 1.0 mm g = 1.7 mm grams
the
t = 0.5 mm T = 0.65 mm
MIVIS test article consisting of an aluminum back t f = plate and ABS plastic membrane was selected.
25.4 mm (excl. spacers)
Table 212 summarizes

MIVIS: small gap
the
MIVIS: medium gap
various4
4
4
experimental
4
cases5
5
5
considered
5
4 5
in this study.
5 4
5
5
9.24
9.24
3 MIVIS: large gap 4 4 5 5 5 5 4 9.24
4 Back plate alone 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 7.08
5 Back plate with foam 5 Table
4 2. Experimental
4 5 cases. 5 5 5 9.64
6 Back plate with foam 5 4 5 4 5 5 5 9.64
7 MIVIS with foam 4 4 4 5 5 5 4 11.80
Case Description Membrane Back Plate Foam Impactor Gap Mass
3.3. Experimental Cases UL G+ Approx.,

ABS Aluminum,
g = 0.1 g = 1.0 g = 1.7 grams
Based on preliminary trials on severalT combinations
Plastic, = 0.65 of membrane and back plate materials, the
tf = 25.4
MIVIS test article consisting of an aluminum back plate and ABS mmplasticmm mm was (excl.
membrane selected.
t = 0.5 mm mm mm
Table 2 summarizes the various experimental cases considered in this study. spacers)
Three different gap settings✔were tested for the MIVIS.
✖ The
✖ gap✔between the impactor tip and the
1 MIVIS: small gap ✔ ✖ ✖ 9.24
back plate was set at 0.1, 1.0 and 1.7 mm for test cases 1, 2, and 3 respectively. All other parameters were
MIVIS: medium
retained
2 unaltered between these✔three cases.✔As baseline ✖ reference
✖ ✖
cases, the
✔ back plate
✖ alone9.24
(case 4)
gap
and the back plate with 25.4 mm (1-inch) thick state-of-the-art acoustic foams used in aerostructures
side were ✔ ®✖ ✖ was ✖ used in✖case 5 and
affixed
3 toMIVIS:
the receiver
large gap ✔
also tested. Basotect UL foam ✔ G+ foam9.24 was
used in case 6. The UL foam has a bulk density of 6 kg/m 3 and the G+ foam has a bulk density of
4 Back plate alone ✖ ✔ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ 7.08
9+/−1.5 kg/m3 as per manufacturer’s specifications. These foams have a porosity in the range of
Back plate with
130–200
5 ppi. In order to evaluate✖the acoustic✔performance✔ ✖ MIVIS
of ✖ in conjunction
✖ with
✖ foam, case 7
9.64
foam
combines the MIVIS with the UL foam. Approximate total masses for each test case is listed in Table 2.
It is worth noting that while the MIVIS test articles as listed in Table 2, weighs slightly less than the
back plate with foam which is the baseline case for conventional acoustic treatment, the spacer frame’s
weight has not been included in these estimates since these spacers are added to alter the impactor gap
in increments for experiments. In a potential version of the MIVIS for practical application, a stretched
membrane having distributed impactor masses could conceivably be applied over a lightweight, lattice
structure integral with the back structure. In such a version, this lightweight lattice structure would
foam, case 7 combines the MIVIS with the UL foam. Approximate total masses for each test case is
listed in Table 2. It is worth noting that while the MIVIS test articles as listed in Table 2, weighs
slightly less than the back plate with foam which is the baseline case for conventional acoustic
treatment, the spacer frame’s weight has not been included in these estimates since these spacers are
added to
Acoustics alter
2019, 1, 11the impactor gap in increments for experiments. In a potential version of the MIVIS
6 offor
17
practical application, a stretched membrane having distributed impactor masses could conceivably
be applied over a lightweight, lattice structure integral with the back structure. In such a version, this
not only provide the prescribed gap spacing for the membrane’s impactors but also contribute to the
lightweight lattice structure would not only provide the prescribed gap spacing for the membrane’s
stiffness and structural integrity of the back structure owing to being built into the overall design of
impactors but also contribute to the stiffness and structural integrity of the back structure owing to
the MIVIS composite. Both broadband white noise, as well as monotonic excitations, were used in
being built into the overall design of the MIVIS composite. Both broadband white noise, as well as
the experiments.
monotonic excitations, were used in the experiments.
4. Simulations
4. Simulations
Structural acoustic simulations were conducted using Abaqus FEM software using a model of the
normal Structural
incidence acoustic simulations
transmission weretest
loss tube conducted using Abaqus
setup discussed FEM
in Section software
3.1. Views ofusing a model of
the simulation
the normal incidence transmission loss tube test setup discussed in Section
model are shown in Figure 5. The incident and transmitted side air columns in the tubes are modeled 3.1. Views of the
simulation
using model
acoustic are shown
elements with in Figureimpedance
infinite 5. The incident
on theand transmitted
lateral surfacesside air columns
to enforce in the tubes
the confinement
are modeled using acoustic elements with infinite impedance on the lateral
offered by the tube walls. AC3D8R 8-noded acoustic brick elements are used for the air columns surfaces to enforce the in
confinement offered by the tube walls. AC3D8R 8-noded acoustic brick elements
the tubes, while ACIN3D8 acoustic infinite elements are used at the outboard cross-sectional face of are used for the air
columns
the in theside
transmitted tubes, while
tube ACIN3D8
to model acoustic
the anechoic infinite elements
termination. The MIVISare used at theisoutboard
test article modeled usingcross-
sectional face of the transmitted side tube to model the anechoic termination.
structural elements coupled to the acoustic surfaces on the incident and transmitted sides. M3D4R The MIVIS test article
is modeled
elements using
which arestructural
4-noded elements
membrane coupled
elements to the
withacoustic
reducedsurfaces on the
integration areincident
used forandthetransmitted
membrane
and C3D8R elements (8-noded, reduced integration) are used for the back plate. The spacerare
sides. M3D4R elements which are 4-noded membrane elements with reduced integration used
frames
for the membrane and C3D8R elements (8-noded, reduced integration) are
are modeled as a solid rigid body. The regions along the edges of the plate clamped between the two used for the back plate.
The spacer
sides of the frames
tube in are modeled as
experiments a solid
were rigid body.
prescribed The regions
as a fixed boundary along
in the edges of the
simulations. plate clamped
Element sizes for
between the two sides of the tube in experiments were prescribed as a
individual regions were selected based on convergence and computational time studies. The fixed boundary in simulations.
source is
Element sizes
modeled for individual
as a prescribed regions
acoustic were on
pressure selected based on
the outboard convergence face
cross-sectional and ofcomputational
the incident side time
studies.
tube withThe sourceintensities
pressure is modeled andas frequency
a prescribed acoustic
content pressure on
representing thethe outboard cross-sectional
experimental source. A contact face
of the incident side tube with pressure intensities and frequency content representing the
surface pair is defined for the impactor and back plate surfaces that come into contact. Frictionless,
experimental source. A contact surface pair is defined for the impactor and back plate surfaces that
hard contact interaction is assumed and the direct contact enforcement method with a fixed time
come into contact. Frictionless, hard contact interaction is assumed and the direct contact
incrementation scheme is employed.
enforcement method with a fixed time incrementation scheme is employed.
Figure 5. Views of the simulation model: (a) MIVIS with impactor, (b) transmission loss test
configuration and (c) MIVIS with lumped center mass.
Key features that dictate the complexity and accuracy of the simulation model are the modeling
approaches chosen for the entrapped air between the membrane and the back plate as well as
the impactor and its contact interaction with the back plate. Several reduced order approaches
were considered to evaluate their relative accuracy and efficiency to arrive at the final approach.
Firstly, the effect of entrapped air and structural damping were considered for the MIVIS in the
absence of contact. The impactor was modeled as a centrally-added lumped mass on the membrane.
A comparison of transmission loss for some early MIVIS design cases from these simulation trials with
that for the aluminum back plate which was calibrated using experiment is shown in Figure 6. As the
actual modal damping in the test articles is unknown, a structural damping factor of 0.1 was used
to match the transmission loss dip from the experiment for the aluminum back plate. Since the total
loss in the experimental setup due to factors such as material damping, structural damping due to
assembly and boundary effects, acoustic flanking paths, and dissipative mechanisms is difficult to
estimate individually, the simulation model was calibrated using a static value of structural damping
across the spectrum. This structural damping value, which approximates the losses in the experimental
that for the aluminum back plate which was calibrated using experiment is shown in Figure 6. As the
actual modal damping in the test articles is unknown, a structural damping factor of 0.1 was used to
match the transmission loss dip from the experiment for the aluminum back plate. Since the total loss
in the experimental setup due to factors such as material damping, structural damping due to
assembly and boundary effects, acoustic flanking paths, and dissipative mechanisms is difficult to
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 7 of 17
estimate individually, the simulation model was calibrated using a static value of structural damping
across the spectrum. This structural damping value, which approximates the losses in the
experimental
set up is assumed set uptoisbe
assumed
frequency to be frequency
invariant forinvariant
simplicity. for In
simplicity. In reality,
reality, the losses in the losses
the set upin the
are
set up are dependent
frequency frequency dependent
and hence the andsimulated
hence thetransmission
simulated transmission
loss could tend losstocould
vary tend
fromto vary from
experiments
experiments
especially near especially near higher
higher modes. modes.
It is noted thatItfor
is the
notedMIVISthatinfor the
the MIVISofinentrapped
absence the absence airof
in entrapped
the model,
air in the
a very model,
high a very high
transmission losstransmission
is predictedloss dueistopredicted due to lack
lack of acoustic of acoustic
coupling between coupling between
the membrane
the
andmembrane
the back plate,and the
whichback is plate, whichTherefore,
unrealistic. is unrealistic.it is Therefore,
essential toitinclude
is essential to include
acoustic elementsacoustic
with
elements with structural-acoustic coupling to the membrane and back
structural-acoustic coupling to the membrane and back plate in the simulation model to account forplate in the simulation model
to
theaccount for the
transmission transmission
through the entrappedthrough air.the
It isentrapped
also noticed air.that
It while
is alsothenoticed that while
transmission the
loss dips
transmission loss dips obtained for the MIVIS correlate well with the
obtained for the MIVIS correlate well with the symmetric modes, the use of a frequency invariant symmetric modes, the use of a
frequency invariant structural damping factor would not accurately represent
structural damping factor would not accurately represent the actual modal damping present in the test the actual modal
damping
articles and present in the
therefore thetest articles
relative and therefore
magnitudes of thethetransmission
relative magnitudes
loss dips ofat the transmission
resonance and peaksloss
dips at resonance and peaks at antiresonance. Overall, diminished magnitudes
at antiresonance. Overall, diminished magnitudes and shift to higher frequencies for extrema in the and shift to higher
frequencies
transmissionfor extrema
loss curve isinnoticed
the transmission loss curve
as the damping is noticed as the damping is increased.
is increased.
Figure 6. Simulated
Simulated transmission
transmission loss
loss curves
curves from
from varying
varying structural
structural damping
damping and
and presence of
entrapped air for MIVIS without contact and for the aluminum back plate. Insets show MIVIS mode
shapes corresponding to the TL dips.
For the contact simulations, the lumped center mass on the membrane for the MIVIS model was
replaced by a hemispherical rigid body representative of the actual steel rivet impactor in experiments.
In order to initiate and sustain contact interaction between the tip of the impactor and the back plate in
the model, a circular region of the entrapped air between the tip and the back plate having a diameter
half that of the impactor was retained unmeshed. The contribution of this region to transmission loss
was found to be negligible in comparison to the contact-dominated response. Incident and transmitted
spectra of pressure signals at the inboard microphone locations obtained from contact simulations for a
tonal excitation of 564 Hz which is just above the membrane’s first resonance mode (528 Hz) are shown
in Figure 7. Several interesting features are noticeable. A drastic reduction in the pressure intensity
between the incident and transmitted sides is seen as expected, however the generation of higher
frequency content in the vicinity of the back plate’s first mode at about 1100 Hz in the transmitted
spectra is clearly seen at this frequency when impact-induced up-conversion is present due to the
out-of-phase motion near antiresonance. This content is also seen in the incident spectra owing to the
presence of the reflected component. This provides an indication that the tunable frequency range of
resonance mode (528 Hz) are shown in Figure 7. Several interesting features are noticeable. A drastic
reduction in the pressure intensity between the incident and transmitted sides is seen as expected,
however the generation of higher frequency content in the vicinity of the back plate’s first mode at
about 1100 Hz in the transmitted spectra is clearly seen at this frequency when impact-induced up-
Acoustics 2019, 1,
conversion is11present due to the out-of-phase motion near antiresonance. This content is also seen 8 of 17
in
the incident spectra owing to the
Acoustics 2018, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW presence of the reflected component. This provides an indication 9 of 18
that the tunable frequency range of transmission loss increase predicted for MIVIS is accompanied
transmission loss increase predicted for MIVIS is accompanied by up-conversion to higher frequencies
by up-conversion
For the to higher frequencies due to impact on theonbacking structurefor under monotonic
due to impact on contact simulations,
the backing structurethe lumped
under center mass
monotonic the membrane
excitation. the MIVIS model was
excitation.
replaced by a hemispherical rigid body representative of the actual steel rivet impactor in
experiments. In order to initiate and sustain contact interaction between the tip of the impactor and
the back plate in the model, a circular region of the entrapped air between the tip and the back plate
having a diameter half that of the impactor was retained unmeshed. The contribution of this region
to transmission loss was found to be negligible in comparison to the contact-dominated response.
Incident and transmitted spectra of pressure signals at the inboard microphone locations obtained
from contact simulations for a tonal excitation of 564 Hz which is just above the membrane’s first
resonance mode (528 Hz) are shown in Figure 7. Several interesting features are noticeable. A drastic
reduction in the pressure intensity between the incident and transmitted sides is seen as expected,
however the generation of higher frequency content in the vicinity of the back plate’s first mode at
about 1100 Hz in the transmitted spectra is clearly seen at this frequency when impact-induced up-
Figure 7. Simulated (a) incident (source-side) and (b) transmitted (receiver-side) pressure spectra for
conversion
Figurewith is present
7. Simulated due to the
(a) incident out-of-phase
(source-side) and motion
(b) near antiresonance.
transmitted This content
(receiver-side) pressure is for
spectra also seen in
MIVIS contact indicating impact-induced frequency up-conversion.
the incident spectra owing to the presence of the reflected
MIVIS with contact indicating impact-induced frequency up-conversion. component. This provides an indication
that the tunable frequency range of transmission loss increase predicted for
A variant of the actual MIVIS design with a membrane having a first mode below 100 Hz was also MIVIS is accompanied
by up-conversion
simulated to higher
to appreciate the change frequencies due to
in up-conversion impact ifon
efficiency thethe backingtostructure
frequency which theunder monotonic
mechanism
excitation.
is tuned is very low. To better capture the scales involved, power spectral density comparisons for
the incident and transmitted side microphone pressure signals are shown in Figure 8. It is found
that the up-conversion efficiency is significantly improved to the point that the back plate’s mode
(1200 Hz in this case) dominates in the transmitted spectra, while the power amplitude of the excitation
component is about six orders of magnitude smaller. When the separation between the membrane’s
tuned frequency, which is based on the excitation frequency desired to be mitigated and the back
plate’s first mode is large, more number of cycles of the back plate’s motion is achieved between
impact-induced interruptions so that a higher modal velocity is attained by the back plate leading to
greater energy propagation at frequency components close to the back plate’s first mode. The MIVIS
and baseline experimental cases were simulated using this coupled structural-acoustic model in
order to correlate the predicted mechanisms with the actual acoustic performance. Both steady state
perturbation simulations
Figure under
7. Simulated white noise
(a) incident excitation
(source-side) andand
(b) transient dynamic
transmitted simulations
(receiver-side) under
pressure tonal
spectra for
excitationsMIVIS
werewith
considered.
contact indicating impact-induced frequency up-conversion.
Figure 8. Simulated incident and transmitted side power spectra of pressure for MIVIS. Impact-
induced up-conversion of the excitation frequency (100 Hz) to the first mode of the back plate (1200
Hz) in the transmitted spectrum is discernable.
A variant of the actual MIVIS design with a membrane having a first mode below 100 Hz was
also simulated to appreciate the change in up-conversion efficiency if the frequency to which the
mechanism is tuned is very low. To better capture the scales involved, power spectral density
comparisons for the incident and transmitted side microphone pressure signals are shown in Figure
8. It is found that the up-conversion efficiency is significantly improved to the point that the back
Figure 8. Simulated incident and transmitted side power spectra of pressure for MIVIS. Impact-induced
Figure 8. of
up-conversion Simulated incident
the excitation and transmitted
frequency (100 Hz) to side power
the first spectra
mode of the of pressure
back for MIVIS.
plate (1200 Impact-
Hz) in the
induced
transmitted up-conversion
spectrum of the excitation frequency (100 Hz) to the first mode of the back plate (1200
is discernable.
Hz) in the transmitted spectrum is discernable.
5. Discussion of Results
ThreeAaspects
variant of
of the
the actual
MIVISMIVIS designare
test results with a membrane
emphasised having
in the a first mode
following below 100
discussion. Hz was
Firstly,
the transmission loss performance vis-à-vis baseline and the mechanisms involved are addressed. the
also simulated to appreciate the change in up-conversion efficiency if the frequency to which
mechanism is tuned is very low. To better capture the scales involved, power spectral density
comparisons for the incident and transmitted side microphone pressure signals are shown in Figure
8. It is found that the up-conversion efficiency is significantly improved to the point that the back
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 9 of 17
Next, the transient spectral characteristics from the experiments are presented followed by the results
from tests on MIVIS with foam.
5.1. Transmission Loss Performance

Comparisons of experimental and simulated transmission loss for MIVIS with those for the back
plate for cases 1, 2 and 3 are shown in Figures 9–11 respectively. These cases differ in the gap setting
between the impactor tip and the back plate for MIVIS. Both white noise and monotonic excitation
were used in experiments. For the white noise excitation tests, case 1, which has the minimum gap
(g = 0.1 mm) displays the lowest overall increase in transmission loss performance over the back plate.
The bandwidth of appreciable transmission loss increase (>5 dB) is over 400 Hz in the 300 to 700 Hz
region, which is the highest among the three cases with variation in the gap. A peak transmission
loss increase of about 23 dB above the baseline case is obtained at 324 Hz. Case 2 with an impactor
gap, g = 1.0 mm, has a bandwidth of about 300 Hz and the highest peak transmission loss increase of
about 36 dB at 326 Hz. Case 3, which has the maximum impactor gap (g = 1.7 mm), has a bandwidth
close to 370 Hz and a peak transmission loss increase of 31 dB at 326 Hz. The experimental and
simulated transmission loss curves for the white noise case depict very close agreement, although
extrema induced due to modal responses tend to have some mismatch as the exact modal damping in
experiments is unknown, whereas the simulations have a frequency invariant structural damping factor
of 0.1 calibrated from the baseline case. Nevertheless, the critical modal features seen in experiments in
the frequency range of interest have been captured to a large extent in the simulations. The transmission
loss dip locations agree very well with the first four symmetric modes predicted for the MIVIS as
shown in Figure 12. Therefore, the bandwidth of transmission loss increase can be engineered to the
desired frequency range by tuning these modes for the MIVIS. It is also evident from these three MIVIS
cases that the up-conversion efficiency is closely linked to the gap between the impactor tip and the
back plate, although bandwidth of appreciable transmission loss increase is much less affected by
this. On the one hand, if the gap is inadequate (as in case 1), the membrane is unable to pick up as
much energy as it could from the source due to the inability to acquire sufficient motion. On the other
hand, if the gap is excessive, contact between impactor and the back plate may become impossible.
It is difficult to quantitatively determine the optimal gap without more accurate knowledge of the
damping in the structure and the variation in stiffness offered by the entrapped air with increase in
membrane amplitude, however, case 2 with a gap, g = 1 mm, that is between the other two cases, gives
the best peak transmission loss increase. This provides a qualitative indication that the optimal gap
may be in the vicinity of this value for the MIVIS configuration that was tested. The transmission loss
trends for the MIVIS and its equivalent double walled structure would share similarities because key
structural resonances in both would be about the same. However, MIVIS incorporates the additional
vibro-impact mechanism that up-converts part of the low-frequency excitation tonal energy to a higher
frequency bandwidth in the vicinity of the back plate’s first mode.
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 10 of 17
Figure 9. Comparison of simulated and experimental transmission loss for MIVIS (Case 1: g = 0.1 mm).
Figure 10. Comparison of simulated and experimental transmission loss for MIVIS (Case 2: g = 1 mm).
Acoustics 2018, 1,
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11
x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of
12 of 17
18
Figure 11. Comparison

Comparisonof of
simulated andand
simulated experimental transmission
experimental loss for
transmission lossMIVIS (Case 3:(Case
for MIVIS g = 1.7
3:
Figure
gmm). 11.
= 1.7 mm).Comparison of simulated and experimental transmission loss for MIVIS (Case 3: g = 1.7
mm).
12. Simulated
Figure 12. Simulated symmetric mode shapes for MIVIS
MIVIS (Case 3: g == 1.7 mm) corresponding
(Case 3: corresponding to the
the
Figure
dips 12.transmission
in its Simulated symmetric
transmission loss mode shapes for MIVIS (Case 3: g = 1.7 mm) corresponding to the
loss curve.
curve.
dips in its transmission loss curve.
Transmission
Transmission loss loss in
in the
the very
very low-frequency
low-frequency region region from
from 6060 Hz
Hz to to ~400
~400 Hz Hz was
was also
also determined
determined
using Transmission loss in the very low-frequency region from 60 Hz to ~400
using monotonic excitation. Although very close agreement with white noise results is obtained from
monotonic excitation. Although very close agreement with white noise Hz was
results also
is determined
obtained from
using
the monotonic
the monotonic
monotonic excitation.
tests
testsin general, Although
in general, the very
the phase close
reversal
phase agreement
accompanying
reversal withtransition
accompanyingwhite transition
noise
afterresults is obtained
the after
onset from
of resonance
the onset of
the
is monotonic
observed
resonance isto betests
observed in
delayed, general,
to be while thewhile
peak
delayed, phase reversal
transmission
peak lossaccompanying
increase
transmission transition
lossisincrease
seen to is
beseen after
reduced. the
It is onset
to be reduced. It of
possible is
resonance
that the is observed
nonlinear to be
stiffening delayed,
originating while
frompeakthe transmission
transient loss
build up increase
to
possible that the nonlinear stiffening originating from the transient build up to large amplitudelarge is seen
amplitudeto be reduced.
motion of It
theis
possible
motion ofthat
membrane the the nonlinear
is manifested
membrane stiffening
inisthe monotonic
manifested originating
in excitation from
the monotonic test,the
but transient
not in the
excitation buildbutup
broadband
test, nottoinlarge
white amplitude
noise test.
the broadband
motion
This of the
observation membrane
could is
provide manifested
a design in the
guideline monotonic
for tuning excitation
the test,
membrane’s
white noise test. This observation could provide a design guideline for tuning the membrane’s but not in
resonance the broadband
frequency to
white
be noise
suitable fortest. This
specific observation
bandwidths could
and provide
dominant a design
contents guideline
associated
resonance frequency to be suitable for specific bandwidths and dominant contents associated with for
with tuning
the the
low-frequencymembrane’s
source
resonance
that is to befrequency
targeted.
the low-frequency to bethat
source suitable fortargeted.
is to be specific bandwidths and dominant contents associated with
the low-frequency source that is to be targeted.
5.2.
5.2. Transient
Transient Spectral
Spectral Characteristics
Characteristics
5.2. Transient
In Spectral Characteristics
In order
order to to query
query for
for the transient spectral
the transient spectral characteristics,
characteristics, low,
low, asas well
well asas high,
high, input
input SPLSPL settings
settings
were
were used to explore the incident and transmitted spectral evolution for the no impact, low
used
In to
order explore
to query the
for incident
the and
transient transmitted
spectral spectral
characteristics, evolution
low, as for
well the
as no
high,impact,
input SPL impact
lowsettings
impact
and
were high impact
usedimpact
and high to explorebehavior for
the incident
behavior various cases.
and transmitted
for various These SPLs
cases. Thesespectral were
SPLs were set
evolution repeatably
for the no
set repeatably by changing
byimpact,
changing the
lowthe gain
impact
gain
level
and for
high the
impactamplifier
behaviorto specific
for settings.
various cases.For SPL
These below
SPLs impact-initiation
were set repeatably
level for the amplifier to specific settings. For SPL below impact-initiation levels, the membrane levels,
by the
changing membrane
the gain
deflections
level for the
deflections involved
amplifier
involved pointto to
point operation
specific in the
settings.
to operation linear
in For
the SPL regime,
linearbelow whereas for the impact
impact-initiation
regime, whereas thecases,
for levels, themembrane
the
impact transition
cases, the
to nonlinear
deflections up-conversion
transition toinvolved
nonlinear point should be expected.
to operationshould
up-conversion Spectrograms
in the be linear were generated
regime,Spectrograms
expected. whereas for were from various
the impact test cases
cases,
generated the
from
transition to nonlinear up-conversion should be expected. Spectrograms were generated from
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 12 of 17
various test cases

to investigate the to investigate
transient the transient
characteristics characteristics
further. A comparison further. A comparison
of the transmitted of thespectrograms
side transmitted
side spectrograms
for the MIVIS (case for2)theandMIVIS
that (case
for the 2) and that for back
aluminum the aluminum
plate alone back plate
(case 4) alone
is shown(casein4)Figure
is shown13.
in Figure 13. The evolution of the transmitted spectra in each case is shown
The evolution of the transmitted spectra in each case is shown as the source is operated at low power as the source is operated
at
andlow power
then and
at high then setting.
power at highThe power lowsetting.
and highThe low settings
power and high forpower settings
this case for thissuch
were chosen casethat
were
no
chosen
impact such
occurs that no impact
at low power and occurs
fullatimpact
low poweroccursand full power
at high impactfor occurs at highFor
the MIVIS. power
bothforthetheMIVISMIVIS.
and
For
backboth the
plate MIVIS
cases, theand back plate
monotonic cases,side
incident the excitation
monotonicfrequency
incident sidewas excitation
close to 326 frequency was close
Hz. The amplitude
to
of 326 Hz. The amplitude
the excitation component ofinthe
theexcitation component
incident spectra in the was
for MIVIS incident
notedspectra for MIVIS
to be nearly 600 Pa was
fornoted to
the high
be nearly 600 Pa for the high power setting. Initially, when the source
power setting. Initially, when the source is operated at low power setting, the excitation component is operated at low power
setting, the diminished
is entirely excitation component is entirely
in the transmitted diminished
spectra for theinMIVIS,
the transmitted
but a small spectra for the MIVIS,
component but
of its third
aharmonic
small component
is seen. For ofthe
its same
third lowharmonic
power is seen. aFor
setting, muchthe more
same significant
low powerexcitation
setting, acomponent
much more is
significant excitation component is present in the case of the back
present in the case of the back plate, while any harmonics are comparatively negligible. When theplate, while any harmonics are
comparatively
source is operated negligible.
at high When
power the source
setting is operated
for the MIVIS, the at transmitted
high powercomponent
setting for of thetheMIVIS, the
excitation
transmitted
has an amplitudecomponent
close toof 20
thePa excitation has an amplitude
but is accompanied by a 10close to 20 Pa but
Pa component atisaround
accompanied
1070 Hzby a 10
due to
Pa component at around 1070 Hz due to impact-induced up-conversion
impact-induced up-conversion to the back plate’s first mode. Some higher harmonic generation is to the back plate’s first mode.
Some higher harmonic
also evident. Therefore,generation
a portion of is also evident. Therefore,
the transmitted energy isa distributed
portion of the transmitted
to higher energyfor
frequencies is
distributed to higher frequencies for MIVIS, which could be subsequently
MIVIS, which could be subsequently mitigated more efficiently by conventional means. In the case of mitigated more efficiently
by
theconventional
back plate, this means. In the is
mechanism case of the
absent and back
the plate, this component
excitation mechanism dominates
is absent and thetransmitted
in the excitation
component
spectrogramdominates in the transmitted spectrogram at high power.
at high power.
Figure
Figure 13.
13. Transmitted
Transmitted side
side spectrograms
spectrograms for (a) MIVIS (Case 2: gg ==1.0
1.0mm)
mm)and
and (b)
(b) Aluminum
Aluminum back
back
plate
plate showing
showing evolution
evolution through off, low power and high power settings for the source.
The comparison
The comparison of of the
the incident
incident andand transmitted
transmitted side side spectrograms
spectrograms for for MIVIS
MIVIS (case
(case 3)3) showing
showing
evolution between low and high power settings is shown in Figure 14.
evolution between low and high power settings is shown in Figure 14. Here, low-intensity impact Here, low-intensity impactis
is induced
induced at the
at the lowlowpowerpower setting,
setting, whereas
whereas full-fledged
full-fledged impactimpact
occursoccurs
at theathigh
the high
power power setting.
setting. The
The incident
incident spectrogram
spectrogram is clearly
is clearly dominated
dominated by bythethe excitation
excitation component
component atat326
326Hz Hzfor
forboth
bothlowlow and
and
high power settings
high power settings as is as is to be expected. It is interesting to
It is interesting to note note the transmitted spectral evolution
transmitted spectral evolution
when the transition
when transitionoccurs
occursfrom fromlow lowpower
power impact
impact to to
high power
high powerimpact. For For
impact. lowlowpower impact,
power only
impact,
about
only 10%10%
about of the transmitted
of the transmitted spectral
spectralcontent
content resides
residesininthe
thevicinity
vicinityofofthe
the back
back plate’s first
firstmode.
mode.
The dominant
The dominantcontentcontent is clearly still around
is clearly the excitation
still around component.
the excitation This distribution
component. is significantly
This distribution is
altered under
significantly high power
altered under high impact.
powerAlong withAlong
impact. an overall
withdecrease
an overall indecrease
the amplitude levels across
in the amplitude the
levels
spectrum,
across now aboutnow
the spectrum, 40%aboutof the 40%
spectral content
of the spectralis available
content isaround the around
available back plate’s first plate’s
the back mode. first
This
is comparable
mode. to the excitation
This is comparable to thecomponent in the transmitted
excitation component spectrum, indicating
in the transmitted spectrum, that significant
indicating that
up-conversion
significant is accomplished.
up-conversion is accomplished.
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 13 of 17
Figure 14. (a)

(a) Incident
Incident and (b) transmitted side spectrograms for MIVIS (Case 3: g = 1.7 mm) showing
evolution between low and high power settings for the source.
In order to inspect the effect of the impactor gap on transient evolution of up-conversion, the
transmitted spectrograms for MIVIS (case 2: g = 1.0 mm) and MIVIS (case 3: g = 0.1 mm) are compared
in Figure 15. The power setting was stepped up from an initial “no contact” regime having no impact
to a “contact” regime with full-fledged impact. Comparison of the relative amplitudes of the excitation
and up-converted components in the transmitted spectra for both cases reveals that for the low gap
(case 1), the up-converted component is restricted about 20% of the excitation component when contact
Figure 14. (a)
is established. Incident
Case and (b)
2, which hastransmitted
a gap thatside spectrograms
is 10 fordisplays
times larger, MIVIS (Case 3: g = 1.7 mm) showing
an up-converted component
evolution between low and high power settings for the source.
about 40% of the excitation component, clearly illustrating the role played by the impactor gap in the
efficiency of the up-conversion mechanism.
Figure 15. Transmitted side spectrogram for (a) MIVIS (Case 2: g = 1.0 mm) and (b) MIVIS (Case 1: g
= 0.1 mm) showing evolution between low and high power settings for the source.
in Figure 15. The power setting was stepped up from an initial “no contact” regime having no impact
to a “contact” regime with full-fledged impact. Comparison of the relative amplitudes of the
excitation and up-converted components in the transmitted spectra for both cases reveals that for the
low gap (case 1), the up-converted component is restricted about 20% of the excitation component
Figure 15. Transmitted side
15. Transmitted sidespectrogram
spectrogramfor (Case2:2:g g= =1.01.0
for (a) MIVIS(Case mm) and(b)(b) MIVIS (Case1: 1:
whenFigure
contact is established. Case 2, which has(a)a MIVIS
gap that is 10 mm)
times larger, and
displaysMIVIS
an (Case g
up-converted
g = 0.1 mm) showing evolution between low and high power settings
= 0.1 mm) showing evolution between low and high power settings for the source. for the source.
component about 40% of the excitation component, clearly illustrating the role played by the
impactor gap in
It is also the efficiency
interesting of the
to note theup-conversion mechanism.effects between the harmonics of the
possibility of interactive
It is also interesting to note the possibility of interactive
excitation and the back plate’s first mode in the context of up-conversions effects between the harmonics
in MIVIS. of the
Since the MIVIS
excitation
designs and the back plate’s firstwere
mode in the context of up-conversions in (<~500
MIVIS. Hz) Since the MIVIS
in Figureinvestigated
15. The power in this study
setting tuned
was stepped uptofrom
up-convert a low-frequency
an initial “no contact” regime havingexcitation
no impact to
designs
a investigated
sufficiently high in thisHz)
(~>1000 study were
value fortuned
the to up-convert
back plate’s first amode
low-frequency
in order to(<~500
be in aHz) excitation
frequency to
range
to a “contact” regime with full-fledged impact. Comparison of the relative amplitudes of the
a sufficiently
where high (~>1000
conventional absorbersHz) start
valuetofor the back
become plate’s this
first aspect
mode in order to be in a frequency range
excitation and up-converted components in theeffective,
transmitted spectraof forthe excitation’s
both harmonic
cases reveals that forbeing
the
where conventional
approximately close absorbers
to back start mode
plate’s to become
was effective, this
incidental aspect
rather than ofpurposeful.
the excitation’s harmonic
However, due being
to the
low gap (case 1), the up-converted component is restricted about 20% of the excitation component
approximately
inherently close
nonlinear to back plate’s
responseCase mode
in MIVIS, was
harmonicincidental rather
generation than purposeful. However, due to the
when contact is established. 2, which has a gap that is 10andtimesinteraction with thean
larger, displays back structure’s
up-converted
inherently
mode are a nonlinear worth
possibility response in MIVIS,
exploring and harmonic
perhaps generation
exploiting for MIVISand design.
interaction
While with
the the back
interactive
component about 40% of the excitation component, clearly illustrating the role played by the
structure’s
effects of bothmode are aup-conversion
of the
these possibility worth exploring
mechanisms areand
notperhaps
quantified,exploiting for MIVIS
the excitation’s design.and
harmonic While
the
impactor gap in efficiency of the up-conversion mechanism.
the interactive effects of both of these up-conversion mechanisms are not quantified, the excitation’s
It is also interesting to note the possibility of interactive effects between the harmonics of the
harmonic and the back plate’s first mode are distinctly seen in the transmitted spectrogram when
excitation and the back plate’s first mode in the context of up-conversions in MIVIS. Since the MIVIS
designs investigated in this study were tuned to up-convert a low-frequency (<~500 Hz) excitation to
a sufficiently high (~>1000 Hz) value for the back plate’s first mode in order to be in a frequency range
where conventional absorbers start to become effective, this aspect of the excitation’s harmonic being
Acoustics 2018, 1,
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11
x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of
15 of 18
17
evolving from the low power setting to high power setting (in Figure 13 for instance). In general, it
back plate’s first mode are distinctly seen in the transmitted spectrogram when evolving from the low
has been observed that the up-conversion efficiency is better when the separation is large between
power setting to high power setting (in Figure 13 for instance). In general, it has been observed that
the excitation and the back plate’s first mode. In such cases, it is more probable that a harmonic is
the up-conversion efficiency is better when the separation is large between the excitation and the back
closer to the back plate’s mode.
plate’s first mode. In such cases, it is more probable that a harmonic is closer to the back plate’s mode.
5.3. MIVIS with Foam
5.3. MIVIS with Foam
Comparison of experimental transmission loss for MIVIS (Case 2: g = 1.0 mm) with those for
Comparison of experimental transmission loss for MIVIS (Case 2: g = 1.0 mm) with those for
aluminum back plate alone (Case 4) and for a back plate with 25.4 mm thick foam treatment (Cases 5
aluminum back plate alone (Case 4) and for a back plate with 25.4 mm thick foam treatment (Cases 5
and 6) in the low-frequency range of interest is shown in Figure 16. While, both foams (Basotect® UL
and 6) in the low-frequency range of interest is shown in Figure 16. While, both foams (Basotect® UL
and G+ type) display a more or else uniform trend of STL increase over the back plate alone, the UL
and G+ type) display a more or else uniform trend of STL increase over the back plate alone, the UL
foam which has about 5–10 dB STL increase clearly outperforms the G+ foam which has only about
foam which has about 5–10 dB STL increase clearly outperforms the G+ foam which has only about
2–5 dB STL increase. This is expected as foams are typically better performing at higher frequencies
2–5 dB STL increase. This is expected as foams are typically better performing at higher frequencies
(~1000 Hz and above.) Whereas, for the MIVIS, the presence of transmission loss peaks in the 300 to
(~1000 Hz and above.) Whereas, for the MIVIS, the presence of transmission loss peaks in the 300
400 Hz range resulting from the anti-resonance behavior is seen. The bandwidth of appreciable STL
to 400 Hz range resulting from the anti-resonance behavior is seen. The bandwidth of appreciable
increase could conceivably be extended to encompass a wider low-frequency range of interest by
STL increase could conceivably be extended to encompass a wider low-frequency range of interest by
incorporating MIVIS unit-cells with multiple tuned anti-resonances. Thus, the contrast in
incorporating MIVIS unit-cells with multiple tuned anti-resonances. Thus, the contrast in transmission
transmission loss performance between MIVIS and foam cases indicates the potential to combine
loss performance between MIVIS and foam cases indicates the potential to combine MIVIS and foam
MIVIS and foam designs to obtain interactive enhancement.
designs to obtain interactive enhancement.
Figure
Figure 16. Comparison of
16. Comparison of experimental
experimental low-frequency
low-frequency transmission
transmission loss
loss of
of MIVIS
MIVIS with
with those
those for
for the
the
back plate with state-of-the-art foam treatments under white noise excitation.
back plate with state-of-the-art foam treatments under white noise excitation.
The possibility of utilizing interactive mechanisms between MIVIS and foam barriers to augment
The possibility of utilizing interactive mechanisms between MIVIS and foam barriers to augment
STL performance is evidenced in the comparison of the incident and transmitted spectral characteristics
STL performance is evidenced in the comparison of the incident and transmitted spectral
for MIVIS alone (Case 3: g = 1.7 mm) with those for MIVIS with foam (Case 7) as shown in Figure 17.
characteristics for MIVIS alone (Case 3: g = 1.7 mm) with those for MIVIS with foam (Case 7) as shown
For about the same incident low-frequency spectral content centered on a tone at 326 Hz, it is observed
in Figure 17. For about the same incident low-frequency spectral content centered on a tone at 326
that while low-frequency transmitted spectra is similar in magnitude and spread for both cases,
Hz, it is observed that while low-frequency transmitted spectra is similar in magnitude and spread
the up-converted high-frequency transmitted spectral content in the vicinity of the back plate’s first
for both cases, the up-converted high-frequency transmitted spectral content in the vicinity of the
mode is noticeably diminished for the MIVIS with foam compared to the MIVIS alone. More than
back plate’s first mode is noticeably diminished for the MIVIS with foam compared to the MIVIS
5 dB of the decrease in the up-converted content is seen for the MIVIS with foam. It is observed
alone. More than 5 dB of the decrease in the up-converted content is seen for the MIVIS with foam. It
that the vibro-impact induced up-conversion mechanism picks up the incident low-frequency energy
is observed that the vibro-impact induced up-conversion mechanism picks up the incident low-
of the source and makes available more of the transmitted energy at higher frequencies thereby
frequency energy of the source and makes available more of the transmitted energy at higher
enabling its effective mitigation using conventional lightweight absorbers such as foam. This reinforces
frequencies thereby enabling its effective mitigation using conventional lightweight absorbers such
as foam. This reinforces the subsidiary hypothesis for MIVIS that the up-conversion mechanism is
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 15 of 17
amenable for coactive

the subsidiary integration
hypothesis with
for MIVIS conventional
that acousticmechanism
the up-conversion absorbers such as foam for
is amenable to engineer
coactive
relatively
integrationlightweight structuralacoustic
with conventional acousticabsorbers
barriers that
suchsustain appreciable
as foam STLrelatively
to engineer improvement within
lightweight
astructural
broadband frequency
acoustic range
barriers thatencompassing the hitherto
sustain appreciable unaddressed
STL improvement low-frequency
within a broadbandrange below
frequency
~500
rangeHz.
encompassing the hitherto unaddressed low-frequency range below ~500 Hz.
Figure 17. Comparison of the incident and transmitted side spectra for MIVIS with and without foam
depicting the reduction in high-frequency content when foam is present. Panels (a), (b) and (c) show
the incident spectrum, low-frequency and high-frequency transmitted spectra respectively for Case 3
(MIVIS: g = 1.7 mm, no foam) and panels (d), (e) and (f) show the incident spectrum, low-frequency
and high-frequency transmitted
transmitted spectra
spectra respectively
respectively for
for Case (MIVIS: g=
Case 77 (MIVIS: g= 1.7 mm with 25.4 mm thick
Basotect UL foam).
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
A Metamaterials-Inspired Vibro-Impact Structure (MIVIS) concept was investigated as a
A Metamaterials-Inspired Vibro-Impact Structure (MIVIS) concept was investigated as a
lightweight and compact acoustic barrier with improved low-frequency (<~500 Hz) sound transmission
lightweight and compact acoustic barrier with improved low-frequency (<~500 Hz) sound
loss performance. In contrast to conventional methods such as foam, fiberglass or massive treatments
transmission loss performance. In contrast to conventional methods such as foam, fiberglass or
that are used to enhance sound transmission loss, MIVIS is compact, relatively lightweight and tunable
massive treatments that are used to enhance sound transmission loss, MIVIS is compact, relatively
to suit specific source characteristics. Moreover, the mechanism of frequency up-conversion via impacts
lightweight and tunable to suit specific source characteristics. Moreover, the mechanism of frequency
to higher modes in the backing structure could be utilized to transition the incident energy to spectral
up-conversion via impacts to higher modes in the backing structure could be utilized to transition
bandwidths that can be effectively dissipated by conventional foams. A coupled structural-acoustic
the incident energy to spectral bandwidths that can be effectively dissipated by conventional foams.
simulation model of the normal incidence transmission loss tube was used to predict and optimize the
A coupled structural-acoustic simulation model of the normal incidence transmission loss tube was
transmission loss performance of MIVIS designs. Experiments using prototype MIVIS test articles were
used to predict and optimize the transmission loss performance of MIVIS designs. Experiments using
performed to gauge their performance vis-à-vis baseline structures. Under white noise excitation, up to
prototype MIVIS test articles were performed to gauge their performance vis-à-vis baseline
36 dB of sound transmission loss increase is observed at the anti-resonance frequency (326 Hz) within
structures. Under white noise excitation, up to 36 dB of sound transmission loss increase is observed
a tunable LF bandwidth of about 300 Hz. The experimental and simulated transmission loss curves
at the anti-resonance frequency (326 Hz) within a tunable LF bandwidth of about 300 Hz. The
depict close agreement. Under monotonic excitation, an estimation of the optimal separation between
experimental and simulated transmission loss curves depict close agreement. Under monotonic
the impactor tip and the back structure for efficient up-conversion was obtained. The possibility of
excitation, an estimation of the optimal separation between the impactor tip and the back structure
utilizing interactive mechanisms between MIVIS and foam barriers to augment transmission loss is
for efficient up-conversion was obtained. The possibility of utilizing interactive mechanisms between
demonstrated. More than 5 dB of decrease in the up-converted content is seen for the MIVIS with
MIVIS and foam barriers to augment transmission loss is demonstrated. More than 5 dB of decrease
foam. It is envisioned that the coupled structural-acoustic design approach inherent to MIVIS could be
in the up-converted content is seen for the MIVIS with foam. It is envisioned that the coupled
applied in specialized cases where the mitigation of particular low-frequency tones across a structural
structural-acoustic design approach inherent to MIVIS could be applied in specialized cases where
barrier become a priority. In such a design approach, the stretched membrane attachments would
the mitigation of particular low-frequency tones across a structural barrier become a priority. In such
be affixed at separation to the base structure via a lightweight yet stiff lattice network attached to
a design approach, the stretched membrane attachments would be affixed at separation to the base
it that would create higher “local” modes in the base structure. With current additive and hybrid
structure via a lightweight yet stiff lattice network attached to it that would create higher “local”
manufacturing attaining critical commercial maturity, successful transition to technologies that enable
modes in the base structure. With current additive and hybrid manufacturing attaining critical
Acoustics 2019, 1, 11 16 of 17
new mission capabilities for aerospace and military vehicles and help create quieter built environments
could become possible.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.M.M.; Methodology, J.M.M.; Software, A.R. and R.S.; Validation,
A.R., R.S. and J.M.M.; Formal Analysis, A.R., R.S. and J.M.M.; Investigation, A.R., R.S. and J.M.M.; Resources, R.S.
and J.M.M.; Data Curation, A.R.; Writing-Original Draft Preparation, A.R. and J.M.M.; Writing-Review & Editing,
J.M.M.; Visualization, A.R. and R.S.; Supervision, J.M.M.; Project Administration, R.S. and J.M.M.; Funding
Acquisition, R.S. and J.M.M.
Funding: This research was supported through funding from Concepts 2 Systems Inc. for NASA SBIR Phase-I
Contract No. NNX15CC41P.
Acknowledgments: Thanks are due to program monitors, Shiv Joshi (Concepts 2 Systems Inc.) and James B. Min
(NASA Glenn) for their valuable inputs.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. No official endorsement of the contents of this
paper from NASA should be inferred.
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acoustics

Keywords: acoustic metamaterials; vibro-impact; sound transmission loss

Acoustics 2019, 1, 11; doi:10.3390/acoustics1010011 www.mdpi.com/journal/acoustics

2. Concept and Design

3.1. Test Apparatus and Transmission Loss Measurement Procedure

Figure 3. Normal incidence transmission loss tube.

3.1. Test Apparatus and Transmission Loss Measurement Procedure

Pr = Ce− jkd + De jkd (6)

The normal incidence sound transmission loss in dB is then given by

3.2. Test Article Fabrication

Table 212 summarizes

3.3. Experimental Cases UL G+ Approx.,

5.1. Transmission Loss Performance

Figure 11. Comparison

various test cases

Acoustics 2018, 1, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Figure 14. (a)

amenable for coactive

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