MOTIVATING  Physiological Needs.

Those that are concerned with

biological needs like food, drink, rest, and sex fall under
Productivity has always been a serious concern of the the category of physiological needs. These needs take
management of firms. If it improves, it means greater chances priority over other needs.
for the company to grow and be more stable. One reason why  Security Needs. After satisfying the physiological needs,
the Philippine economy cannot move steadily forward is our people will seek to satisfy their safety needs. These needs
record of low productivity for so many years. include freedom from harm coming from the elements or
Higher productivity, however, is not a result of chance. It from other people, financial security which may be
happens because of harder, more efficient, and more intelligent affected by loss of job or the breadwinner in the family,
work made by the employees. To be willing partners, however, etc.
the requirement is for them to be properly motivated. An  Social Needs. After satisfying his physiological and
example is the management of a construction firm wanting its security needs, the employee will now strive to secure
employees to finish projects on time, with the quality required at love, affection, and the need to be accepted by peers.
the least cost. To achieve this, various methods of motivation  Esteem Needs. The fourth level of needs is called esteem
may be applied. needs and they refer to the need for a positive self-image
and self-respect and the need to be respected by others.
When the cost of the other factors of production is seriously  Self-Actualization Needs. The fifth and the topmost level
affecting the viability of the firm, the remaining factor (i.e., needs in the hierarchy are called self-actualization needs
labor) may save the company from financial difficulties. and involve realizing our full potential as human beings
However, this will depend on whether or not labor will be and becoming all that we are able to be.
motivated to perform their assigned task.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

• Motivating refers to the act of "giving employees reasons or

incentives .. to work to achieve organizational objectives." •
Motivation, on the other hand, refers to the “process of
activating behavior, sustaining it, and directing it toward a
particular goal.” This definition is useful because it specifies
three stages: activating, sustaining, and directing actions towards
the achievement of objectives.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO MOTIVATION?

There are certain factors influencing a person's desire to do his

job well. They are the following:

1. Willingness to do a job. People who like what they are

doing are highly motivated to produce the expected output.

2. Self-confidence in carrying out a task. When employees

feel that they have the required skill and training to perform
a task, the more motivated they become.

3. Needs satisfaction. People will do their jobs well if they 2. HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
feel that by doing so, their needs will be satisfied.
• The two-factor theory is one developed by Frederick Herzberg
indicating that a satisfied employee is motivated from within to
work harder and that a dissatisfied employee is not self-
motivated.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION • Herzberg identified two classes of factors associated with
employee satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
1. MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

• Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, theorized that human beings In his research, Herzberg found out that satisfied employees
mentioned the following factors (called satisfiers or motivation
have five basic needs which are as follows: physiological,
security, social, esteem, and self-actualization. These needs are factors) responsible for job satisfaction: achievement,
recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and
hierarchical, which means, one need will have to be satisfied
first before the other need. growth.
Dissatisfied employees mentioned the following factors (called There must be a time-limit set for goals to be
dissatisfiers or hygiene factors) as responsible for job accomplished.
dissatisfaction: company policy and administration, supervision,
relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary, The more relevant the goals are to the company's
relationship with peers, personal life, relationship with mission, the more support it can generate from various
subordinates, status, and security. levels of employment in the organization.

3. EXPECTANCY THEORY (2) (2) GOAL COMMITMENT. When individuals or

groups are committed to the goals they are supposed to
Expectancy theory is a motivation model based on the achieve, there is a chance that they will be able to
assumption that an individual will work depending on his achieve them.
perception of the probability of his expectations to happen. (3) WORK BEHAVIOR. Goals influence behavior in
terms of direction, effort, persistence, and planning.
The theory poses the idea that motivation is determined by When an individual is provided with direction,
expectancies and valences. performance is facilitated. In trying to attain goals that
An expectancy is a belief about the likelihood or probability that are already indicated, the individual is provided with a
a particular behavioral act (like attending training sessions) will direction to exert more effort. The identification of
lead to a particular outcome (like a promotion). Valence is the goals provide a reason for an individual to persist in
value an individual places on the expected outcomes or rewards. his efforts until the goal is attained.
(4) FEEDBACK ASPECTS. Feedback provide the
Expectancy theory is based on the following assumptions: individuals with a way of knowing how far they have
1. A combination of forces within the individual and in the gone in achieving objectives. Feedback also facilitate
environment determines behavior. the introduction of corrective measures whenever they
2. People make decisions about their own behavior and that are found to be necessary.
of organizations
3. People have different types of needs, goals, and desires. TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION
4. People make choices among alternative behaviors based on Individual or groups of individuals may be motivated to perform
the extent to which they think a certain behavior will lead through the use of various techniques.
to a desired outcome.
1. MOTIVATION THROUGH JOB DESIGN
4. GOAL SETTING THEORY
A person will be highly motivated to perform if he is assigned a
Goal setting refers to the process of "improving performance job he likes. The first requisite, however, is to design jobs that
with objectives, deadlines or quality standard." will meet the requirements of the organization and the persons
When individuals or groups are assigned specific goals, a clear who will occupy them. Job design may be defined as "specifying
direction is provided and which later motivates them to achieve the tasks that constitute a job for an individual or a group."
these goals. In motivating through the use of job design, two approaches may
The goal setting model drawn by Edwin A. Locke and his be used: fitting people to jobs or fitting jobs to people.
associates consists of the following components: (1) Goal • Fitting People to Jobs. Routine and repetitive tasks make
content, (2) Goal commitment, (3) Work behavior, and (4) workers suffer from prolonged dissatisfaction. To avoid this, the
Feedback aspects following remedies may be adapted:
(1) GOAL CONTENT. To be sufficient in content, goals 1. Realistic job previews - where management provides
must be challenging, attainable, specific and honest explanations of what a job actually entails.
measurable, time-limited, and relevant. 2. Job rotation - where people are moved periodically from
When goals are challenging, higher performance may one specialized job to
be expected. The sales quotas imposed by companies another.
to individual members of their sales force indicate 3. Limited exposure -
reliance of these companies to the use of challenging where a worker's
goals. exposure to a highly
fragmented and tedious
Goals must be attainable if they are to be set. If they job is limited.
are not, then workers will only be discouraged to
perform, if at all. Goals must be stated in quantitative • Fitting Jobs to People.
terms whenever possible. When exact figures to be Instead of changing the person,
met are set, understanding is facilitated and workers management may consider
are motivated to perform.
changing the job. This may be achieved with the use of the 4. MOTIVATION THROUGH EMPLOYEE
following: PARTICIPATION

1. Job enlargement - where two or more specialized asks in a When employees participate in deciding various aspects of their
work flow sequence is combined into a single job. jobs, the personal involvement, oftentimes, is carried up to the
2. Job enrichment - where efforts are made to make jobs point where the task is completed. The specific activities
more interesting, challenging, and rewarding identified where employees may participate are as follows: (1)
Setting goals, (2) Making decisions, (3) Solving problems, and
3. MOTIVATION THROUGH REWARDS (4) Designing and implementing organizational changes.
Rewards consist of material and psychological benefits to The more popular approaches to participation includes the
employees for performing tasks in the work-place. Properly following:
administered reward systems can improve job performance and
satisfaction. Rewards may be classified into two categories: • Quality Control Circles

1. Extrinsic - those which refer to payoffs granted to the A method of direct employee participation is the quality
individual by another party. Examples are money, control circle (QCC). The Objective of the QCC is to
employee benefits, promotions, recognition, status increase productivity and quality of output.
symbols, praise, etc.
The circle consists of "a group of three to ten employees
2. Intrinsic rewards - those which are internally usually doing related work, who meet at regular intervals
experienced payoffs which are self-granted. Examples (once a week for an hour, for example) to identify
are a sense of accomplishment, self-esteem and self- problems and discuss their solutions."
actualization.
The circle includes "a leader such as a foreman, but rely on
Management of Extrinsic Rewards. To motivate job democratic processes." The members are trained in various
performance effectively, extrinsic rewards must be properly analysis techniques by a coordinator. The circle forwards
managed in line with the following: its recommendations to management, which in turn, makes
decisions on its adaption.
a) It must satisfy individual needs;
b) The employees must believe effort will lead to • Self-managed Teams
reward;
c) Rewards must be equitable; When workers have reached a certain degree of discipline,
d) Rewards must be linked to performance. they may be ripe for forming self-managed teams. Also
known as autonomous work groups or high performance
No single type of reward is generally applicable to all teams, self-managed teams "take on traditional managerial
employees. This is so because individual persons have needs tasks as part of their normal work routine."
different from other persons. As much as possible the particular
needs of an individual must be matched with the corresponding The self-managed teams work on their own, turning out a
reward if motivation is the objective. The administrative complete
constraints inherent to such systems, however, will be a product or
hindrance to its adoption. Whenever feasible, however, it must service
be used. Employees must believe that efforts will lead to reward. and
Otherwise, they will not strive to turn in more efforts in their receiving
particular job assignments. Rewards that are not equitable will minimal
not produce the desired motivation. When employees know that
reward is tied up to individual performance, management may
expect extra efforts from them.
 supervision from managers who act more as facilitators
than supervisors.

When a product or service is produced by a group of

professionals or specialists, they might as well be formed
as a self-managed team to save on supervisory costs.

5. OTHER MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES

• The introduction of theories on individual differences and the

biological clock of human beings put pressure on the engineer
manager to adapt other motivation techniques whenever
applicable.

1. FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES

There is an arrangement, called flextime, which allows

employees to determine their own arrival and departure
times within specified limits. For example, an engineering
firm may allow one group of employees to take the 8:00
AM to 5:00 PM schedule, another group takes the 9:00
AM to 6:00

PM schedule, and another takes the 10:00 AM to 7:00 PM

schedule.

An alternative to this arrangement is the adaption of the

forty-hour work in four days allowing the employee to
choose a "day-off".

There are certain benefits that are offered by flexible

work schedules, although it is not appropriate for all
situations. Nevertheless, the engineer manager must
decide when it is applicable.

2. FAMILY SUPPORT SERVICES

Employees are oftentimes burdened by family obligations

like caring for children. Progressive companies provide
day care facilities for children of employees. A
multinational company in far flung Davao province has
even opened an elementary and a high school within the
plantation site.

3. SABBATICALS

A sabbatical leave is one given to an employee after a

certain number of years of service. The employee is
allowed to go on leave for two months to one year with
pay to give him time for family, recreations, and travel. It
is expected that when the employee returns for work, his
motivation is improved.
LEADING two forms: material and psychic. Material rewards refer to
money or other tangible benefits like cars, house and lot,
• What is Leading? etc. Psychic rewards consist of recognition, praises, etc.
• How Leaders Influence Others
Bases of Power 3. Coercive Power. When a person compels another to
• The Nature of Leadership comply with orders through threats or punishment, he is said
Traits of Effective Leaders
Leadership Skills to possess coercive power. Punishment may take the form of
• Behavioral Approaches to Leadership Skills demotion, dismissal, withholding of promotion, etc.
Ways Leaders Approach People
Ways Leaders Use Power 4. Referent Power. When a person can get compliance from
Leaders Orientation Toward Tasks and People another because the latter would want to be identified with
• Contingency Approached to Leadership Style the former, that person is said to have referent power.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model 5. Expert Power. Experts provide specialized information
Path-Goal Model of Leadership regarding their specific lines of expertise. This influence,
Vroom’s Decision-Making Model called expert power, is possessed by people with great skills
in technology.
INTRODUCTION
The expert power exercised by environmental scientists was
Employees in the production lines tend to be irritated by delays enough to force governments throughout the world to pass
in the arrival of necessary production materials and supplies. legislations favorable to environmental protection.
Workers complain when difficult jobs are assigned to their units.
When calamities strike, employees of public works agencies THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP.
need more than wages to complete assigned tasks as quickly as
possible. These and other difficulties found in the workplaces Leadership may be referred to as "the process of influencing
provide sufficient reasons for poor productivity. The situations and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward
cited require managers with effective leadership. achieving objectives." Leadership is expected of any manager
in charge of any unit or division. One cannot expect a unit or
Engineer managers, in whatever management level they happen division to achieve objectives in the absence of effective
to be, are not exempted from the problem of effective leadership. leadership. Even if a leader is present, but if he is not
If this is really so, then they must be concerned with the functioning properly, no unit or division objectives can be
management function of leading. expected to be achieved.

WHAT IS LEADING? TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERS. There are certain

leadership traits identified by researchers and which may be
 Leading is that management function which "involves useful in developing effective leaders. These traits are as
influencing others to engage in the work behaviors necessary follows: (1) A high level of personal drive, (2) The desire to
to reach organizational goals.” The definition indicates that a lead, (3) Personal integrity, (4) Self-confidence, (5) Analytical
person or group of persons tasked with managing a group ability or judgment, (6) Knowledge of the company, industry or
must assume the role performed by leaders. technology, (7) Charisma, (8) Creativity, and (9) Flexibility
Leading refers to the function,
1. Personal Drive. Persons with drive are those identified as
leadership refers to the process.
willing to accept responsibility, possess vigor, initiative,
HOW LEADERS INFLUENCE OTHERS persistence, and health. Drive is a very important leadership
trait because of the possibility of failure in every attempt to
Engineer managers are expected to maintain effective achieve certain goals. If a chosen way to reach a goal is not
work forces. To be able to do so, they are required to perform
successful, a leader finds another way to reach it, even if it
leadership roles. Leaders are said to be able to influence others precedes a succession of failed attempts. This will, of
because of the power they possess.
course, require a high level of personal drive from the
Power refers to the ability of a leader to exert force on another. leader.

BASES OF POWER. The power possessed by leaders may be 2. The Desire to Lead. There are some persons who have all
the qualifications for leadership, yet they could not become
classified according to various bases. They are as follows:
1. Legitimate Power. A person who occupies a higher leaders because they lack one special requirement: the
desire to lead.
position has legitimate power over persons in lower
positions within the organization. A supervisor, for instance, Even if they are forced to act as leaders, they will not be
can issue orders to the workers in his unit. Compliance can effective because their efforts will be half-hearted. Leaders
be expected. with a desire to lead will always have a reservoir of extra
efforts which can be used whenever needed.
2. Reward Power. When a person has the ability to give
rewards to anybody who follows orders or requests, he is
said to have reward power. Rewards may be classified into
3. Personal Integrity. A person who is well-regarded by subjectively regarded as new, valuable, and innovative, and
others as one who has integrity possesses one trait of a as a direct solution to an identified problem situation.
leader. One who does not have personal integrity will have a
As leaders are tasked to provide solutions to problems
hard time convincing his subordinates about the necessity of
besetting their particular units or divisions, creativity will be
completing various tasks. If this is the case, the leader will,
a very useful trait. Problems, are oftentimes, complex and
then, resort to "exercising his authority and getting things
challenging, and if they are, the leader will need all the
done entirely by the use or threat of use of the coercive
creative abilities he has.
powers vested in him by virtue of the rank and position he
occupies in the hierarchy." If this happens, the economic 9. Flexibility. People differ in the way they do their work. One
and emotional costs will be too high to be maintained for a will adapt a different method from another person's method.
desirable length of time. As it is, the better option is to have A leader who allows this situation as long as the required
personal integrity. outputs are produced, is said to be flexible.
According to V.K. Saraf, integrity means and includes There is wisdom in being flexible. It allows the other means
"honesty, honour, incorruptibility, rectitude, righteous-ness, of achieving goals when the prescribed manner is not
uprightness, and similar virtues." appropriate.
4. Self-Confidence. The activities of leaders require moves
that will produce the needed outputs. The steps of
conceptualizing, organizing, and implementing will be LEADERSHIP SKILLS. Leaders need to have various skills to
completed if sustained efforts are made. For the moves to be be effective.
continuous and precise, self-confidence is necessary.
5. Analytical Ability. Leaders are, oftentimes, faced with
difficulties that prevent the completion of assigned tasks. A
subordinate, for instance, may have a record of continually
failing to produce the needed output. A leader with
sufficient skill to determine the root cause of the problem
may be able to help the subordinate to improve his
production.
The ability to analyze is one desirable trait that a leader can
use to tide him over many challenging aspects of leadership.
6. Knowledge of the Company, Industry or Technology. A
leader who is wellinformed about his company, the industry
where the company belongs, and the technology utilized by
the industry, will be in a better position to provide directions
to his unit. 1. TECHNICAL SKILLS. These are skills a leader must
A company, for example, may be the industry leader possess to enable him to understand and make decisions
because it satisfies the need of its particular market, i.e., about work processes, activities, and technology.
providing quality products at affordable prices. When a Technical skill is the specialized knowledge needed to
competing firm is fast catching up with the leader, and the perform a job. When a leader has the technical skill
leader's managers know this, they will better serve the related to his area of responsibility, he will be more
interest of their company. confident in performing his functions.

7. Charisma. When a person has sufficient personal The engineer manager, for instance, must be able to
magnetism that leads people, to follow his directives, this perform engineering jobs, if he wants to maintain a
Person is said to have charisma. Great personalities in motivated work force.
history like Julius Caesar, Adolf Hitler, George Washington
The engineer manager of a construction firm must have
and others are said to possess charisma. This characteristic
sufficient technical skills to undertake construction works.
was greatly responsible for whatever accomplishments they
The manager of an electrical engineering firm must
achieved.
possess the skill to install and maintain electrical facilities
When used properly, charisma will help the leader in and equipment.
achieving his goals. With some adjustments, subordinates
may be expected to do their tasks willingly. 2. HUMAN SKILLS. These skills refer to the ability of a
leader to deal with people, both inside and outside the
8. Creativity. Ronnie Millevo defines creativity as "the ability organization. Good leaders must know how to get along
to combine existing data, experience, and preconditions with people, motivate them, and inspire them.
from various sources in such a way that the results will be
 Apart from motivating, human skills include coaching, Ways Leaders Uses Power. Leadership styles also vary
communicating, morale building, training and according to how power is used.
development, help and supportiveness, and delegating.
1. AUTOCRATIC LEADERS. Leaders who make decisions
3. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS. These skills refer to "the themselves, without consulting subordinates are called
ability to think in abstract terms, to see how parts fit autocratic leaders. Motivation takes the form of threats,
together to form the whole.” A very basic requirement for punishment, and intimidation of all kinds.
effective implementation is a clear and well-expressed
presentation of what must be done. A leader without The autocratic style is effective in emergencies and when
sufficient conceptual skills will fail to achieve this. absolute followership is needed. An example is a civil
engineer in charge of constructing a temporary bridge over
one that has been currently damaged.

BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP The disadvantages of autocratic leadership is that the leader
STYLES "receives little, if any, information and ideas from his
people as inputs into his decision-making.
Those in positions of leadership exhibit a pattern of behavior
that is unique and different from other patterns. This total pattern 2. PARTICIPATIVE LEADERS. When a leader openly
of behavior is called leadership style. There are several invites his subordinates to participate or share in decisions,
approaches used in classifying leadership styles. They are as policy-making and operation methods, he is said to be a
follows: participative leader.

1. According to the ways leaders approach people to The advantage of participative leadership is that it generates
motivate them. a lot of good ideas. Another advantage is the increased
2. According to the ways the leader uses power. support for decisions and the reduction of the chance that
3. According to the leader's orientation towards task and they will be unexpectedly undermined.
people. The disadvantage of participative leadership is that it is
timeconsuming and frustrating to people who prefer to see a
quick decision reached.

3. FREE-REIN LEADERS. Leaders who set objectives and

allow employees or subordinates relative freedom to do
whatever it takes to accomplish these objectives, are called
freerein leaders. They are also referred to as laissez-faire
leaders. This leadership style is most applicable to certain
organizations manned by professionals like doctors and
engineers. An example is the engineering department of a
university which is headed by the dean.

If free-rein leadership fits the situation, there is full

managerial delegation resulting to optimum utilization of
time and resources. This happens because many people are
motivated to full effort only if given this kind of freerein.

The weakness of free-rein leadership is that there is very

little managerial control and a high degree of risk. If the
leader does not know well the competence and integrity of
Ways Leaders Approach People. There are two ways, a leader
his people and their ability to handle this kind of freedom,
may approach people to motivate them.
the result could be disastrous.
(1) When the leader's approach emphasizes rewards, the style
used is positive leadership. The reward may be economic,
like an increase in monthly salary, or it may be
noneconomic like membership in an advisory committee.
(2) When punishment is emphasized by the leader, the style
is said to be negative leadership. The punishment may
take the form of reprimand, suspension, or dismissal.
Leaders, sometimes, alternately use positive and negative
leadership depending on the characteristics of the individual
subordinates.
Leaders Orientation Toward Tasks and People. Leaders may HERSEY & BLANCHARD SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP
be classified according to how they view tasks and people. MODEL

(1) Employee Orientation. A leader is said to be The situational leadership model developed by Hersey and
employeeoriented when he considers employees as Blanchard suggests that the most important factor affecting the
human beings of "intrinsic importance and with selection of a leader's style is the development (or maturity)
individual and personal need" to satisfy. level of subordinate. The leader should match his or her style to
this maturity level.
(2) Task Orientation. A leader is said to be task-oriented
if he places stress on production and the technical Maturity has two components:
aspects of the job and the employees are viewed as the
1. job skills and knowledge, and
means of getting the work done.
2. psychological maturity.
CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP
STYLE Blanchard and others elaborated on the leadership styles
appropriate for the various maturity level of subordinates.
The contingency approach is "an effort to determine through
research which managerial practices and techniques are  Style 1: Directing - is for people who lack competence
appropriate in specific situations." The various contingency but are enthusiastic and committed. They need direction
approaches are as follows: and supervision to get them started.

1. Fiedler's Contingency Model  Style 2: Coaching - is for people who have some
competence but lack commitment. They need direction
2. Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model and supervision because they're still relatively
3. Path-Goal Model of Leadership inexperienced. They also need support and praise to
build their self-esteem, and involvement in decision-
4. Vroom's Decision Making Model
making to restore their commitment.
FIEDLER'S CONTINGENCY MODEL
 Style 3: Supporting - is for people who have
According to Fred Fiedler, "leadership is effective when the competence but lack of confidence or motivation. They
leader's style is appropriate to the situation. The situational do not need much direction because of their skills, but
characteristics is determined by three principal factors: support is necessary to bolster their confidence and
motivation.
1. The relations between leaders and followers
 Style 4: Delegating - is for people who have both
2. The structure of the task, and competence and commitment. They are able and willing
3. The power inherent in the leader's position. to work on a project by themselves with little
supervision or support.
The situational characteristics vary from organization to
organization. To be effective, the situation must fit the leader. If Development Stage of Subordinates and Recommended
this is not so, the following may be tried: Leadership Style

1. Change the leader's trait or behaviors.

2. Select leaders who have traits or behaviors fitting
the situation.
3. Move leaders around in the organization until they
are in positions that fit them.
4. Change the situation.
PATH-GOAL MODEL OF LEADERSHIP 2. Supportive leadership - where subordinates are treated
as equals in a friendly manner while striving to improve
The path-goal model of leadership espoused by Robert J. House their well-being.
and Terence R. Mitchell, stipulates that leadership can be made
effective because leaders can influence subordinate's perceptions 3. Participative leadership - where the leader consults
of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to goal attainment. with subordinates to seek their suggestions and then
seriously considers those suggestions when making
By using the path-goal model, it is assumed that effective leaders decisions.
can enhance subordinate motivation by:
4. Achievement-oriented leadership - where the leader
1. clarifying the subordinate's perception of work set challenging goals, emphasize excellence, and seek
goals, continuous improvement while maintaining a high
2. linking meaningful rewards with goal attainment, degree of confidence that subordinates will meet
and difficult challenges in a responsible manner.

3. explaining how goals and desired rewards can be

achieved.
THE PATH-GOAL PROCESS

PATH-GOAL MODEL OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership Styles. The leadership styles which may be used by
path-goal proponents are as follows:

1. Directive leadership - where the leader focuses on

clear task assignments, standards of successful
performance, and work schedules.
VROOM'S DECISION-MAKING MODEL

Vroom's model of leadership is one that prescribes the proper

leadership style for various situations, focusing on the
appropriate degrees of delegation of decision-making authority.

Five distinct decision-making styles are identified under the

Vroom model. Two of them are autocratic, two others are
consultative, and one is group directed.

The Vroom model, shown in the Figure, may be useful as a

guide for the leader. It may also be helpful as a training guide.

Alternative Decision Making Styles in the Vroom Model