CHAPTER V – MOTIVATION 2.

ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

- Alderfer, like Maslow also believed that
Determinants of Job Performance individuals progress up the hierarchy of needs as a
1.Capacity to perform- the degree to which the result of the satisfaction of lower order needs. But he
employee possesses skills, abilities, knowledge, and maintained, however, that if a higher need cannot be
experiences relevant to his job. satisfied, a lower order need becomes dominant as a
2.Opportunity to perform- depend on the work motivating factor.
environment provided to the employee. It is also  Existence (E)- needs satisfied by food, air,
diminished by lack of equipment, lack of funds, and water, pay, and working conditions
insufficient authority.  Relatedness (R)- needs satisfied by meaningful
3.Willingness to perform- the degree in which an social and interpersonal relationships
employee desires and is willing to exert effort to  Growth (G)- needs satisfied by an individual
achieve the goals assigned to him. It is also making creative or productive contributions.
alternately called motivation.
3. Acquired Needs Theory (David L. McClelland)
What is Motivation? -McClelland and his associates believed that
The process of activating behavior sustaining it, the foregoing needs are acquired over time as a result
and directing it toward a particular goal. It moves of life experiences:
people to act and accomplish.  Need for achievement-(fulfillness) refers to the
desire to do something better or more efficiently,
Key Elements of Motivation to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
1.Intensity- the level of effort provided by the  Need for affiliation-(family,friends) refers to
employee in the attempt to achieve the goal assigned the desire to establish and maintain friendly and
to him warm relations with others
2.Direction- relates to what an individual chooses to  Need for power- (Authority) refers to the desire
do when he is confronted with a number of possible to control others, to influence their behavior, or
choices. to be responsible for others
3.Persistence- measures how long a person can
maintain effort to achieve the organization's goals. 4. Two-factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)
- Identifies job context as a source of job
Theories of Motivation dissatisfaction and job content as the source of job
 Content theories- those that focus on analyzing satisfaction.
the wants and needs of an individual.  The factors associated with job context are
called hygiene factors which include the
4 Content Theories: following: organizational policies, quality of
supervision, working conditions, base wage or
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Abraham Maslow) salary, relationship with peers, relationship with
-Abraham Maslow forwarded the idea that subordinates, status, security
human beings possess a hierarchy of five needs  Job content relates more to what people actually
(physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self- do in their work. Factors associated with job
actualization) such that as each need is substantially content are called motivator factors which
satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. E.g.: include the following: achievement, recognition,
 Physiological needs - which include food, water, work itself, Responsibility, advancement,
shelter, clothing growth
 Safety needs- security and protection from
physical and emotional harm
 Social needs- affection, belongingness,
acceptance, and friendship
 Esteem needs- self-respect, autonomy,
achievement, status, recognition, attention
 Self-actualization- achieving one's full potential
 Process theories- explain how people act in 3. Goal Setting Theory (Edwin A. Locke)
response to the wants and needs that they have. - The theory that specific and difficult goals,
with feedback lead to higher performance. Edwin A.
3 Process theories: Locke and his associates' findings about goals include
the following:
1. Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)  Specific goals lead to a higher performance than
- This theory sees people as choosing a generalized goals.
course of action according to what they anticipate  Performance generally increases in direct
will give them the greatest rewards. Vroom proportion to goal difficulty.
elaborated by explaining that motivation is a product  For goals to improve performance, they must be
of the following factors: accepted by the workers.
 Valence -(reward theory) how much one wants a  Goals are more effective when they are used to
reward evaluate performance.
 Expectancy-(effort result in successful  Goals should be linked to feedback.
performance) one's estimate of the probability S- specific goal
that effort will result in successful performance D - Difficult but achievable
 Instrumentality-(Performance result in A - Acceptance by the employee
receiving reward) one's estimate that F - feedback
performance will result in receiving the reward E - evaluation

2. Equity Theory (J. Stacey Adams)

- A theory that individuals compare job CHAPTER VI-COMMUNICATION
inputs(efforts) and outcomes(rewards) with those of “Communication is an essential element of
others and then respond to eliminate inequities. It organizations. Without communication,
assumes that employees are motivated by a desire to organizations cannot exist.”
be equitably treated at work.
2 types of inequity: Communication is a requirement for survival and
1. Over rewarded growth not only of people but also of organizations.
- Employees who feel over rewarded will think there Modern organizations consider communication as an
is an imbalance in their relationship with their important factor in motivating their employees to
employer. They will seek to restore the balance improve productivity and to meet competition.
through any of the following: they could bargain for
more rewards; and they might quit. they might WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
lower the quality or quantity of their productivity, Communication is defined as the transfer of
they could inflate the perceived value of the rewards information including feelings, and ideas from one
received, they could find someone else to compare person to another. The goal of communication is to
themselves; they could bargain for more rewards; have the receiver understand the message as it was
and they might quit. intended.

2. Under rewarded. THE IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION

- When employees feel under rewarded, they will Individual members of the organization will know
seek to reduce their feelings of inequity through any important concerns such as:
of the following: they might work harder; they might 1.what their organization is
discount the value of the rewards; they could try to 2.what objectives their organization wants to achieve
convince other employees to ask for more rewards; 3.what their roles are in achieving the organization’s
and they might choose someone else for comparison objectives
purposes. 4.how they will achieve those objectives
5.who the individual members of the organization are
It is also through communication that the
organization can relate with its external environment
which include customers, suppliers, competitors and
the government. An effective communication system
provides management with answers to questions 4.The Receiver
related to what motivates its workers to perform - the person receiving a message. He must be able to
effectively, what products or services the customers interpret and understand the message.
want, what products or services the suppliers are
providing, and many others. 5.The Feedback
- refers to the process of communicating how one
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS feels about something another person has done or
Communication is a two-way process in said. A feedback provides a clue to the sender of
which a sender reaches a receiver with a message. information whether the message he sent was
To make communication effective, there is a need for received as intended.
people in organizations to have knowledge of the
communication process. 6.The Environment
- refers to the circumstances in which messages are
Components of an Effective Communication: transmitted and received.

1.The Communication Source or Sender 7. The Noise

- is a person who makes the attempt to send a - refers to anything that disrupts communication,
message which could be spoken, written, in sign including the attitude and emotions of the receiver.
language, or nonverbal to another person or a group This includes loud music, the feeling about a sick
of persons. The degree of attention the message will relative, children playing in the background, and
receive will depend on the perceived authority and many others.
experience of a sender. Semantic Noise/Noise by academics - type of noise
cause by grammatical errors. Vocabulary
2. The Message
- is a purpose or an idea to be conveyed in a BASIC METHODS OF INTERPERSONAL
communication event. The message is the actual COMMUICATION
physical product as a result of encoding.
Encoding - writing process 1.Verbal Communication
Decoding - reading process  Is a major means of sending messages.
How the message is received is influenced by the  The delivery of verbal communication is quick
following factors: and it provides the opportunity for quick
1.clarity of the message feedback.
2.alertness of the receiver  A major disadvantage of verbal is the distortion
3.complexity and length of the message of the message when it passes to several people.
4.how the information is organized 2.Written Communication
The message has two components:  Include memos, notice-boards, and letters to
1.The thought or conceptual component of the staff, emails, faxes, internal newspapers, and
message instant messaging.
2.The feeling or emotional component of the 3.Nonverbal Communication - gestures
message Communication that takes place through facial
expressions, body movements, eye contact, and
3.The Channel other physical gesture is referred to as nonverbal
- is the medium through which the message travels. communication. This type of communication reveals
It consists of various types which are as follows: what the sender really mean or thinking.
a. face-to-face
b. telephone and cellphones FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
c. e-mail Four major functions within a group or organization:
d. written memos and letters 1.Information function – communication provides
e. posted notices information needed in decision making.
f. bulletins 2.Motivation function – communication is a means
There are two types of channels: formal and informal. used to encourage commitment to organizational
objectives.
3.Control function – communication clarifies 9.Lack of Credibility of the Sender – if the sender
duties, authority, and responsibilities, thereby has low credibility, the message, even if it gets
permitting control. through, will likely be ignored.
4.Emotive function – communication permits the
expression of feelings and the satisfaction of social KINDS OF COMMUNICATION FLOW
needs.
A.Downward Communication – message flows
BASIC GOALS OF EFFECTIVE from higher levels to lower levels. Their purposes
COMMUNICATION are:
Effective communication is a way to achieve certain 1.To give instructions
goals consists of the following: 2.To provide information about policies and
1.To gain goodwill procedures
2.To inquire 3.To give feedback about performances
3.To inform 4.To indoctrinate or motivate
4.To persuade Various techniques used in downward
communication are:
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION 1.Letters, meetings, and telephone or cellphone
Barriers that may impede communication efforts 2.Manuals
consist of the following: FILL SPACE 3.Handbooks
1.Filtering – refers to the manipulation of 4.Newsletter
information so that it will be seen more favorably by
the receiver. B.Upward Communication – messages from
2.Selective perception – receivers selectively see persons in lower-level positions to persons in higher
and hear messages based on their needs, positions. Its purposes are:
motivations, experience, background, and other 1.To provide feedback to higher-ups
personal characteristics. 2.To inform higher-ups of progress towards goals
3.Information Overload – condition in which 3.To relay current problems
information inflow exceeds an individual’s Techniques used:
processing capacity. 1.Performance reports
4.Emotions – receiver’s feelings affect his ability to 2.Suggestion system
understand any message sent to him. 3.Informal gripe sessions
5.Language – words do not always mean the same 4.Open-door policy
thing to different people, which pose a barrier to 5.Exit interviews
communication.
6.Communication Apprehension – refers to undue C.Horizontal Communication – messages sent to
tension and anxiety about oral communication, individuals or groups from another or the same
written communication, or both. organizational level or position. Its purposes are:
7.Absence of feedback – without feedback, the 1.To coordinate activities between departments
sender will not know if the message was received at 2.To persuade others at the same level of
all and it does not provide the sender the opportunity organization
to correct misimpressions about the message sent. 3.To pass on information about activities or
8.Physical Separation – refers to interferences to feelings
effective communication occurring in the Techniques used:
environment where the communication is 1.Memos
undertaken. Physical barriers include the following: 2.Telephones or cell phones
a.Distance between people 3.Picnics
b.Walls 4.Dinners and other social affairs
c.An office that is not conducive to communication
d.An intimidating person posted near the door Ineffective communication can affect people
e.Wrong timing involved in it negatively. To avoid such unwanted
effects, the following tips could be useful:
1.message should be improved
2.skills in receiving messages must also be improved -A group is formed when a number of people are
CHAPTER7- required to achieve a goal.
WORKTEAMSANDGROUPS 5.Economics
-Individual person joins groups so they can obtain
A.What are groups economic benefits not otherwise made available if
Group–a two or more person,interacting and they are not members of a group. Financial gain
independent,who have come together to achieve
certain objectives. C.STAGES OF GROUP DEVELOPMENT
1.The Forming Stage (stage 1) (observing)
CLASSIFICATIONS OF A GROUP: - uncertainty about the group's purpose structure, and
1.FormalGroup–it is defined by the organization leadership.
structure,with designed work assignments and - members "test the waters" to see what types of
established tasks. behavior are acceptable.
Types of FormalGroups: -The initial entry of members to a group is a primary
a.Command Group – a group composed of concern. These concerns consist of the following:
individuals who report directly to a certain manager a.They are eager to learn what tasks they will be
( under supervisor) performing
b.Task Group–a group consisting of persons b.How they can benefit from group membership
working together to complete a job task. (Complete c.What constitutes acceptable behavior
task) d.What rules must be followed

2.Informal Group – this group type is neither 2.The Storming Stage (stage 2) (conflict on who will
formally structured nor organizationally determined. lead)
It is formed by individuals and developed around - members accept the existence of a group but resist
common interests and friendship rather than around a constraints it imposes on individuality.
deliberate design. - conflict ober who will control the group.
Types of Informal Groups: -As individuals compete to impose their preferences
a.Interest Groups – it is formed because of some on the group and to achieve their desired status
special topic interest.The group disbands when the position,conflict may develop over leadership and
interest declines or a goal has been achieved. authority.
(Interest task)
b.Friendship Groups – a group where members are 3.The Norming Stage (stage 3) ( coordinate)
brought together because they share one or more - group demonstrate cohesiveness
common characteristics such as age, political beliefs, - created sense of group identify and common set of
or ethnic background. expectations.
interest and friendship groups - Interest in Common -Also known as the initial integration stage.This is
when the group really begins to come together as a
B.WHY PEOPLE FORM GROUPS coordinated unit. Cooperation and collaboration are
5 Reasons Why People Form Groups PEGAN its main characteristics.
1.Need satisfaction
-People join groups in order to satisfy their needs 4.The Performing Stage ( stage 4)
such as their social needs. - structure is now fully functional and accepted.
2.Proximity -group energy has moved from getting to know each
-When people work near each other, it is not hard for other to performing the task.
them to form a group. Distance -The group emerges as a mature, organized, and a
3.Attraction well-functioning group, and it is ready to focus on
-People are attracted to each other because of accomplishing its key tasks. This stage is also
similarities in perception,attitude, performance, or referred to as the total integration stage.
motivation.
4.Goals
5.The Adjourning Stage (stage 5) (termination)
- preparation for disbanding
-wrapping up activities -is a by- product of group-decision making. It has the
-low task performance. potential to affect group's ability to arrive at high-
-This stage involves the termination of activities. quality solutions.
-The termination of the group may be triggered by
any of the following: - it describes students in which group pressures for
a.When the group’s purpose has been fulfilled conformity deter the group from critically appraising
b.When the group has failed to revitalize itself unusual/ minority views.
during the performing stage.
SYMPTOMS OF GROUPTHINKING :
ROLES WITHIN GROUPS 1. No matter how strongly the evidence contradict
Group efforts can be more effective if relevant roles member's basic assumption, members behave so as
are played within the group Specific roles that are to reinforce them.
deemed important in the group process: 2. Members apply direct pressures on these who
1. Knowledge contributor momentarily express doubts about any of the
- contribute / provides the group with useful group's shared views.
and valid information 3. There is illusion of unanimity, if someone doesn't
2. Process observer speak, it is assumed he/she in full accord.
- a person occupying this role forces the
group to look at how it is functioning. HOW TO MINIMIZE GROUPTHINK
3. Peoples upporter 1.Monitoring group size, so it will not grow large
-a person occupying this role assumes some enough to intimidate some members to perform well;
leadership responsibility for providing emotional (limit the size)
support to teammates and resolving conflict
4. Challenger (devil's advocate) 2.Encouraging group leaders to play an impartial
-A challenger will criticize any decision or role (leader) by actively seeking input from all
preliminary thinking that is deficient in anyway, members and avoid expressing their own opinions,
including being ethically unsound especially in the early stages of deliberation; ( put
5. Listener impartial role)
-Listening contributes so substantially to team
success that it comprises a separate role even though 3.Appointing a member to play the role of
other roles involve listening devil’sadvocate;and
6. Mediator
- Because disputes among members may 4.Using exercises that stimulate active discussion
become so prolonged and intense,a team leader or of diverse alternatives without threatening the group
member may have to mediate and intensifying identity protection.
7. Gatekeeper (pry to open closed opp gate)
- When the opportunity gate for contributing TECHNIQUES IN GROUP DECISION
is closed to several members, the gate keeper pries it MAKING
open.He or she requests that a specific team member Interacting Groups - are typical groups in which
be allowed to contribute,or that the member's past members interact with each other face-to-face
contribution be recognized
8. Take-charge leader ( second leader) Brainstorming - is a group problem-solving
- When leadership is lacking ,a team member technique which promotes creativity by encouraging
can assume the role of the take-charge leader. members to come up with any idea, no matter how
strange, without fear of criticism.
GROUPTHINK
- deterioration of mental efficiency, reality Nominal Group Technique - is a group decision-
testing,moral judgment in the interest of group making method in which individual members meet
cohesiveness. (Disadvantage). face-to-face to pool their judgments in a systematic
but independent fashion
Electronic Meeting -is a decision-making technique -planning, scheduling work, taking action
where in members interact through - bad conflict management - disadvantage
computers,allowing anonymity of comments and - higher absenteeism - disadvantage
aggregation of votes. (MS Teams)

WHAT ARE WORKTEAMS Cross-Functional Teams

-Important elements of organizations - A cross functional team is one composed of
-Groups expected to deliver high performance when employees from about the same hierarchical levels,
the organization requires it. but from different work areas, who come together to
-Formal group comprised of people interacting very accomplish a task.
closely together with a shared commitment to - employees from several departments
accomplish agreed-upon objectives -employees from same hierarchical level but
different work areas
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WORKGROUPS - exchange information, develop new ideas
AND TEAMS - solve complex problem
-A workgroup is one that interacts primarily to Cross functional team allows people from different
share information and to make decisions to help units to:
each member perform within his or her area of 1.Exchange information
responsibility. 2.Developnewideas
3.Solveproblems
-Groups emphasize individual leadership,individual 4.Coordinatecomplexprojects
accountability, and individual work products.
The main disadvantage is that is consumes much
-Teams emphasize shared leadership, mutual time as the members learn to work with diversity
accountability, and collective work products. and complexity.

TYPES OF TEAMS Virtual teams

There are various types of teams. The most common Virtual teams are those that use computer
are: technology to tie together physically dispersed
Problem Solving Teams members in order to achieve common goal. They also
Problem-solving teams are groups of 5 to 12 share information, make decisions, and complete
employees from the same department who meet for a tasks. The difference is they do it with the aid of
few hours each week to discuss ways of improving computers.
quality, efficiency, and work environment. A major disadvantage of virtual teams is the
-meet few hours each week high cost of the required supporting technology and
- no leader training.
- discuss ways of improving quality/efficiency - use technology to unite physically dispersed
-members share ideas members
-suggest work process for improvement - wide-area network, viner conferencing, email.
-No authority for implantation of solution - suffer because less social rapport and less direct
interaction among members.
Self-Managed work Teams
A self-managed work team is one that is TURNING INDIVIDUALS INTO TEAM
empowered to make decisions about work schedules, PLAYERS
task allocations, job skills training, performance Team players are indispensable human assets
evaluation, selection of new team members, and of many organizations, and these organizations would
controlling quality of work. Team members are want to make sure that they are available when their
collectively held accountable for the team’s overall services are needed. An important concern, however
performance results. is to turn individuals into team players.
- take responsibilities of their forces supervisor The available options consist of the following:
-not only solve problems but ALSO implement 1.Selection
solutions 2.Training
3.RewardsSelection 2.the members prefer to see others carry the
workload.
Selection To minimize or eliminate social loafing, some means
In searching for team players, it must be of identifying individual efforts must be provided. If
remembered that not all people are alike. Some were this is not possible, it may be proper to consider first
born natural team players, while others could become whether the team approach is appropriate for the task
team players if they are properly trained.There is a at hand.
third category of persons who cannot become team
players, even with training. They should not be
considered for selection.

Training
Training is a way of turning individuals into team
players. They should be made to attend training
courses in problem solving, communication,
negotiation, conflict management, and coaching.
Fully trained members of the team must be well-
versed in the company's philosophy regarding teams,
the team mission, and new roles and responsibilities
individuals will have as a consequence of being part
of the team.

Rewards
Rewards are powerful motivators. This is also true if
it is directed towards effective teamwork. With
adequate rewards, team members would be motivated
to be effective team players. (Encourage team
works)

POTENTIAL TEAM PROBLEMS

Two not able team problems involve the following:
1.Changing membership
2.Social Loafing Changing membership

Changing membership
Newly formed teams need time to turn into
mature groups. Members may drop out due to-
reasons like:
1.transferring to a higher priority project;
2.the occurrence of personal problem requiring
extended leaves of absence;or
3.accepting a job in another company.
The higher the membership turnover is,the bigger
is the team's problem.

Social Loafing
This refers to the tendency for individuals to
expendless effort when working collectively that
when working individually. The reasons for social
loafing are:
1.the members think their contribution is less
noticeable;and