Applied Mechanics Lab Manual - MECH 2251 - 17-2-20

Heritage Institute of Technology
Chowbaga Road, Anandapur, P.O.-East Kolkata Township

Kolkata 700107
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Report on
Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)
Experiment No. : MECH 2251/____

Date of Experiment : ____________________
Date of Submission : ____________________
Name : ______________________________________________________
Department: ______________________________________________________
Year : ___________, Group : ____________, Roll No. : ____________
Title of the Experiment : ____________________________________________
Objective of the Experiment: _________________________________________

_________________________________________
Signature of Faculty/Examiner _______________________________________

Applied Mechanics Laboratory (MECH 2251)
APPLIED MECHANICS LABORATORY
SUBJECT CODE: MECH 2251
Contacts: 2P Credits: 1
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Serial Name of Experiment Page No

Number
1 Tensile test of mild steel. 6-8

2 Impact Test – Charpy and Izod. 48-53
3 Drawability test of sheet metal by Cupping 33-35
4 Fatigue test of a typical sample. 54-57
5 Torsion test of mild steel. 9-11
6 Deflection of cantilever beam using a strain gauge. 28-29
7 Hardness Test (Brinell hardness, Rockwell hardness and Vickers's 15-27
hardness).
8 Determination of coefficient of friction. 30-32
9 Determination of stiffness of leaf spring. 12-14
10 Determination of stiffness of close coiled helical spring. 36-37
11 Identification of surface cracks by Dye Penetration Test of given sample. 41-42
12 Identification of surface and sub-surface cracks by Magnetic particle 38-40
inspection (MPI) Test.
13 Sample preparation and metallographic observation of ferrous, non-ferrous 43-47
metals and alloys.
---------------------------------------------
(Teacher-in-Charge)
2
LIST OF EXPERIMENTAL SET UP WITH SPECIFICATIONS
Sl. Name of Specifications Sl. No. & Make Qty

No. Experimental set
up
01 Universal Testing Model UTE 40 4/2012-4930, 1
Machine (UTM) Maximum Capacity: 40 kN FIE
Closed type Extensometer: Range- Gauge
length 25 mm, extension 2 mm and output
from computer
02 Torsion testing Model TT6 4/2012-4931, 1
Machine Maximum Capacity: 60 Nm FIE
03 Laminated Spring Model ST-10 5/2012-4958, 1
Testing Machine Maximum Capacity: 40 kN FIE
04 Rockwell Model RAB 250 12/04/005 1
Hardness Tester Maximum Test Height-295 mm Saroj
cum Brinell Machine dimensions (Base210×470 mm, Engineering
Hardness tester Height 850 mm), 125 kg Udyog Pvt. Ltd.
both)
05 Vickers Hardness Model VM-50 04/2012-1306,
Testing Machine Maximum Load 50 kgf, Maximum test FIE
height 230 mm
Machine dimensions (L460×W225×H860),
70 kg
06 Coefficient of Three different materials (Wooden surface, PSP 1
static friction tester Aluminum surface & SS surface)
07 Pulley Testing set Three Stepped pulley by V belt and three PSP 1
up for force, changed gears
torque and energy
08 Cantilever Beam Model: 222 Industrial 1
Test apparatus No. of Channels: 1 Engineering
Sensor Type: Strain Gauge Instruments
Sensor resistance: 350 ohms
Excitation Voltage: 5V DC
Range (Calibrated to) : 1999 micro-strains
Resolution: 1 micro-strain
Operating Temperature Range: 0 to 50°C
Operating Voltage: 230 V AC
FIE- Fuel Instruments & Engineers Pvt. Ltd.
3
Syllabus
MECH 2251: APPLIED MECHANICS LABORATORY
Contacts: 2P Credits: 1
List of Experiments:
1. Tensile test of mild steel.

2. Impact Test – Charpy and Izod.
3. Drawability test of sheet metal by Cupping
4. Fatigue test of a typical sample.
5. Torsion test of mild steel.
6. Deflection of cantilever beam using a strain gauge.
7. Hardness Test (Brinell hardness, Rockwell hardness and Vickers's hardness).
8. Determination of coefficient of friction.
9. Determination of stiffness of leaf spring.
10. Determination of stiffness of close coiled helical spring.
11. Identification of surface cracks by Dye Penetration Test of given sample.
12. Identification of surface and sub-surface cracks by Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) Test.
13. Sample preparation and metallographic observation of ferrous, non-ferrous metals and alloys.
4
HERITAGE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Applied Mechanics Lab (Paper Code: MECH 2251)
Sl. SCHEME- 1 SCHEME- 2

No.
1 Determination of coefficient of friction & Identification of surface cracks by Dye
Determination of stiffness of a leaf spring. Penetration Test of given sample &
Identification of surface and sub-surface cracks
by Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) Test.
2 Identification of surface cracks by Dye Determination of coefficient of friction &
Penetration Test of given sample & Determination of stiffness of a leaf spring.
Identification of surface and sub-surface
cracks by Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
Test.
3 Impact Test – Charpy and Izod. Hardness Test (Brinell hardness & Rockwell
hardness).
4 Hardness Test (Brinell hardness & Rockwell Impact Test – Charpy and Izod.
hardness).
5 Deflection of cantilever beam using a strain Hardness Test (Vickers's hardness).
gauge & Determination of stiffness of a
close coiled helical spring.
6 Hardness Test (Vickers's hardness). Deflection of cantilever beam using a strain

gauge & Determination of stiffness of a close
coiled helical spring.
7 Tensile test of a mild steel specimen. Drawability test of sheet metal by Cupping.
8 Drawability test of sheet metal by Cupping. Tensile test of a mild steel specimen.
9 Fatigue test of a typical sample. Torsion test of a mild steel specimen.
10 Torsion test of a mild steel specimen. Fatigue test of a typical sample.
11 Sample preparation and metallographic Viva & Recap, if required.

observation of ferrous, non-ferrous metals
and alloys.
12 Viva & Recap, if required. Sample preparation and metallographic

observation of ferrous, non-ferrous metals and
alloys.
5
Experiment: Tensile Test of Mild Steel Expt. No. Date:________
Objective: To determine the yield strength, ultimate strength and Young’s modulus and plot the
nature of stress-strain curve of mild steel under tension.
Description:
1. Universal Testing Machine: The Universal testing machine usually consists of main three units:
(i) Control and Recording Unit, (ii) Straining Unit and (iii) Hydraulic / Electric Unit.
2. Extensometer
There are two types of extension measuring instruments: (a) Open type; (b) Closed type. In both the
types there are two pairs of knife edges to grip the test piece at a definite distance, so that the distance
may be considered as the gauge length. One pair of knife edges is fixed and another pair is movable.
In open type the two parts are separated when the test piece breaks. The closed type, in which the
linear movement of the knife edge is converted into the rotational movement of the dial indicator, is
generally used.
Apparatus required:
(a) Universal Testing Machine: Capacity : 400 kN maximum.
(b) Closed Type Extensometer: Range : Gauge length 25 mm, extension 2 mm
and output from computer.
(c) Micrometer /Vernier Caliper range
& least count : _________________________________
Test Piece Specification: Mild Steel bar,

Test section diameter (d): ____________ mm,

Gauge length Lo  5.65 S o  _____________ mm, where S o  cross  sec tional area  d2)
4
Procedure:
1. Measure the dimension of the test piece.

2. Initial Adjustment: Before testing adjust the measuring range according to the capacity of the
test piece. Although a test piece of 7 tonne capacity can be tested with 20 tonne capacity, but more
accurate data is obtained on 10 tonne capacity range. Set it at 20 tonne capacity.
3. Select the proper jaw inserts and complete the upper and lower chuck assemblies.
4. Apply some graphite grease to the tapered surface of the grip for the smooth motion.
5. Then operate the upper cross-head grip operation handle and grip fully the upper end of the test
piece.
6. The left valve is kept in fully closed position and the right valve in normal open position.
6
7. Open the right valve and close it after the lower table is slightly lifted.
8. Now adjust the load to zero by TARE push button. (This is necessary to remove the dead weight of
the lower table, upper cross head and other connecting parts from the load.)
9. Operate the lower grip operation handle and lift the lower cross head up and grip fully the lower
part of the specimen. Then lock the jaws in this position by operating the jaw locking handle.
10. Then turn the right control valve slowly to open the position, (i.e. anticlockwise) until you get a
desired loading rate.
11. After this you will find that the specimen is under load and then unclamp the locking handle.
Now the jaws will not slide down due to their own weight.
12. Then go on increasing the load.
13. Note readings of elongations ( L ) corresponding to loads at an interval of 4 kN up to 20 kN
from display unit.
14. When the test piece is broken, close the right control valve.
15. Take out the broken test pieces.
16. Then open the left control valve to take the piston down.
17. Take the output results from computer for entire tension test till breaking of sample.
Observations: Gauge length: ______________ mm.
Sl. Load F Extensometer Reading Stress Strain Modulus of Avg.

No. (kgf) (no. of division) (kgf/cm2) L Elasticity Modulus of
F  (kgf/cm2) Elasticity, E
 Lo
(kgf/cm2)
 d2 E
Stress
4 Strain
Gauge Gauge Avg.
1 2
Yield Point Load (kgf) Yield Point Strength (kgf/cm2)

Maximum Load (kgf) Ultimate Strength (kgf/cm2)
Breaking Load (kgf) % elongation for ____mm
elongation over gauge length
____mm.
Answer the following questions in the report:

Q1. Define (i) Yield point, (ii) Proof stress, (iii) Maximum stress, (iv) Working stress, (v) Percentage
elongation, (vi) Percentage reduction in area.
Q2. Describe about the precautions to be taken in this experiment.
[Each report must contain attached Sketch, Sample Calculation and Remarks]
7
8
Experiment: Torsion Test of Mild Steel Expt. No.: Date:________
Objective: To determine the modulus of rigidity and breaking torque in shear of MS specimen.
Description:
Torsion Testing Machine: The Torsion testing machine is usually consists of main three units:
(i) Straining Unit, (ii) Weighting Unit and (iii) Indicating Unit.
The straining unit is fixed to the bed and consists of a hand-wheel which is rotated and the power
transmitted through the warm and warm wheel mechanism to a sliding shaft which can be adjusted for
a different length of specimen. The shaft has a base plate which has two dog holders fitted on it. The
face plate has a circular main scale ranging from 0 to 360° at the interval of 10. The scale graduated
in both clockwise and anti-clockwise direction, thus measuring the twist of the specimen in either
direction.
Weighting unit is fixed to the bed and as a shaft with identical face plate and two dog holders for
holding the specimen as in staining unit. A torque arm is rigidly connected to shaft and through
compound lever system. This is connected to the indicating gauge.
The indicating unit has an indicating dial having two capacity ranges
(a) from 0 to 30 Nm : here 1 small division = 0.05 Nm
(b) from 0 to 60 Nm : here 1 small division = 0.1 Nm
The capacity range is changed by proper positioning of lever in the indicating panel.
Theory: From the elementary theory of torsion, within elastic range
TL L
(i ) G    slope of T   graph for linear part
J J
where, G  Modulus of rigidity , kg / cm 2 L  Effective length, cm
  Angle of twist in radians correspond ing to the torque T ,
d 4
J  Polar sec ond moment of inertia of cross  sec tion, cm 4 
32

(ii ) T  d 3  s
16
Apparatus required: 1. A reversible Torsion Testing Machine, Capacity: 60 Nm
2. Vernier Caliper, Range: ________________________________
Test Piece Specification: Torsion test specimen made of Mild Steel

Test section diameter (d): ____________ mm, Gauge length (L): _____________ mm
9
Procedure:
1. The angle of twist measuring dials are brought to zero by rotating the motor and hand wheel ,
as required.
2. The total length and the diameter of the test piece are first measured. Then the specimen is
held between the faceplates with the dog holders (jaws) by rotating the hand wheel till the
torque indicating dial is just on the point of showing deflection on the pointer. Bring out the
specimen and measure the effective length of the test piece. Re-fix test piece by repeating
operation.
3. The circular main scale is adjusted at the zero position.
4. The specimen is twisted by rotating one face plate through motor and gear box.
5. Assuming a stress of 200 MPa (≈2000 kg/cm2) for steel at proportional limit, the
corresponding torque for the specimen to be tested is estimated.
6. The increment of the loading equal to one tenth of the estimated torque, the corresponding
angle of the twist is noted without stopping the machine. For this selected increment of the
load, the angle of twist is noted up to the yield torque.
7. Beyond the yield torque, twist of fracture and the corresponding torque is noted.
8. A toque-twist diagram is noted and the shear stress vs. shear strain diagram is drawn from data
recorded.
Observations:
d 4
Gauge length: ______________ cm. J  _________ cm 4
32
Sl. Torque (T) Angle of twist (  ) Shear Stress Between Modulus of
No. (kg.cm) Degree radian ( ) readings Shear, G
(kgf/cm2) (kgf/cm2)
Avg. Modulus of Rigidity, G (kgf/cm2)

Modulus of Rigidity from graph,
G (kgf/cm2)
Torque at yield point from graph, T (kg.cm)
Angle of twist at Yield point graph,  (rad)

Q1. Define shear stress and shear strain expression for a circular bar under pure torsion.
Q3. Graphs: (i) T vs.  graph.
(ii) Shear strain vs. Shear stress graph. Slope of this graph for linear part gives the value of modulus
of rigidity for the material of the test piece.
[Each report must contain attached Sketch of the experimental setup, Sample Calculation and
Remarks]
10
1-Base frame, 2-Measuring panel, 3- Measuring disc, 4-Driving chuck, 5-Pivot lever,
6-Pendulum, 7-Calibrated weight, 8-Damper, 9-Recording drum, 10-Indicating Dial,
11- Zero adjusting knob, 12-driven chuck.
(Back of the machine with cover removed)

Fig. Photographs of Torsion Machine (P1 & P2)
11
Experiment: Determination of stiffness of leaf spring Expt. No.: Date______
Objective: To determine the stiffness of given leaf spring & from given formula to determine value of
modulus of the elasticity “E” of the spring material.
Apparatus Used:
1. Spring testing machine.

(Manufactured by Fuel Instruments & Engineers Pvt. Ltd., Model: ST-10)
Technical Specification:
Maximum capacity – 100 KN, Maximum deflection range – 300 mm
1st Measuring range – 0 to 100 KN, Minimum graduations – 0.20 KN
2nd Measuring range – 0 to 50 KN, Minimum graduations – 0.10 KN
3rd Measuring range – 0 to 25 KN, Minimum graduations – 0.05 KN
Test Piece Specification:

Spring dimension: - Width X Thick X Span…………………………………..
Material specification ……… …………………………………………………
Theory: The stiffness of a spring is defined as the force required to elongate or compress the spring by unit
length. Springs are elastic member which elastically distort under load and regain their original shape when
load is removed. They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters, motorcycles, rickshaws and other
machines to absorb shock or impact loading.
12
Procedure:
1. Depending upon the space requirement of test specimen, the testing table is taken up or down by
motor.
2. If leaf spring of a vehicle is to be tested for deflection it is to be held in two rods at the ends and
is to be supported on movable roller brackets.
3. The scale with the testing table will help to read the span of the spring.
4. Now keep the left side valve (Return valve) in open position and the right side valve
(Pressure compensated flow control valve) is opened in a little open position.
5. Now start the pump. The oil then starts circulating through the hydraulic system.
6. The left side valve is then closed and the right side valve is opened slowly.
7. With the help of zero adjusting knob, the load-pointer is brought to zero position.
8. The deflection measuring counter should be adjusted to zero on the deflection recording box with
the help of set switch, when the ram is at the lowermost position.
9. The right control valve is then opened more, to cause the ram to slide up and the test spring will
come in contact with the upper compression plate.
10. At this stage, the initial deflection reading is recorded.
11. Then the right control valve is slightly opened so that the spring starts taking load.
12. Stop the right control valve & take reading of deflection of spring & the force applied.
13. Repeat operation 11 to 12 to take total five sets of force versus deflection before the spring is
deflected by about 25 mm.
14. The left control valve is opened to take the piston down & release load on the spring.
Observations:
Force applied Nature of Deflection Stiffness Mean

Spring type Observation
in KN Force in mm in KN-mm Stiffness
Stiffness of a leaf spring is given by the following formula:-
13
E = Young's Modulus
n = Number of Leaves
b = Width of Leaves
t = Thickness of Leaves
L = Span
k = Stiffness
8Ebt 3 32 Ebt 3
For a single leaf, n = 1, hence k 
3L3 12 L3
.
3
KL 1 3
E  ; Where, I  bt
32I 12
Using this expression of ‘E’ and putting the experimentally determined value of ‘K’, calculate the
modulus of elasticity ‘E’ of the spring material.

1. Draw block diagram of the experimental set up.
2. Draw a force-displacement graph taking force in Y-axis and displacement in X-axis in a graph paper.
Draw the line of the best fit through the points & calculate average stiffness of the spring. Compare
this average stiffness with mean stiffness & comment if they are not equal.
3. Describe about the precautions to be taken in this experiment.
14
Experiment: Brinell Hardness Test Expt. No.: Date:_______
Objective: To be acquainted with the method of measurement of Brinell hardness of a given material
specimen; and to obtain its Brinell hardness Number.
Theory: Hardness is defined generally as the property of a material specimen by which it can be
resist permanent deformation when put to static pressure. The Brinell hardness test is performed by
pressing a hardened steel ball into the material under a definite load, the hardness number being
obtained by dividing the applied load (in kg) by the spherical area of indentation (in mm2).
Load (kg) P P
BHN   
Spherical area of indentation in mm 2
Dh 
D
2
D  D2  d 2 
Where, BHN  Brinell hardness number
D  Diameter of penetrating ball (______ mm steel ball )
h  Depth of indentation, d  Diameter of indentation
The tensile strength can be found approximately from BHN as follows:

For steel, tensile strength = 0.22×BHN Tons/sq. inch. = 34.65 ×BHN kg/cm2
BHN
For non ferrous alloys, Tensile strength =  1 Tons/sq .inch.
4
Apparatus required:
(a) Brinell Hardness Tester,
Technical Data:
Total Test Load 187.5 kgf 250 kgf
Indenter: Ball of 2.5 mm dia. Ball of 5.0 mm dia.
Scale: Brinell (30 D²) Brinell (10 D²)
Reading taken Brinell Microscope Brinell Microscope
Typical Application Steel and Cast Iron. Copper & Aluminum alloys.
(b) Brinell Microscope: Range:______________________, Least count = __________

Material : _____________________________
Diameter:__________________________ mm
Height :__________________________ mm
Procedure:
15
1. Adjust the weights on plunger of dash-pot according to the diameter of the ball indenter
required by weight selector disc.
2. Keep the lever or loading handle at idle position.
3. Fix the indenter (ball of 2.5 mm dia. or ball of 5.0 mm dia.) to the indenter holder as specified for Brinell
hardness test.
3. Place smoothly polished surface of the specimen securely on testing table.
4. Turn the hand wheel clockwise, so that specimen will push the indenter and show a reading on dial
gauge as small pointer at 3 (red spot) and long pointer close to 0 of outer scale.
5. Turn the lever from idle position to loading position slowly so that the total load is brought into action
without any jerks and hold for 15 seconds.
6. Then take the lever back to idle position slowly. The Weights are thereby lifted off, only
the initial load remaining active.
8. Take two measurement of the diameter of the impression at right angle to each other with
ball with a microscope.
9. Use the mean of these two values to find the hardness number from the chart and by calculation.
10. The first hardness value so obtained may not be correct. All standard recommend neglecting first two
readings to ensure that specimen, the indenter and the anvil all setting correctly.
11. Take 3 readings per sample and compare results.
Observations:
Sl. Material Indenter & Diameter of BHN from BHN Tensile

No. Load indentation chart calculated strength
(d) mm (Tons/sq.inch)
Q1. State the load and indenter diameter used for different possible application.
Q3. Compare Brinell hardness test with Rockwell hardness test.
Q4. State advantages and disadvantages of this method.
16
Brinell hardness charts: Diameter of ball = 2.5 mm. Load = 187.5 kgf, F/D2=30
17
DIAMETER OF BALL = 5 MM. LOAD = 250Kgf, F / D2 = 30
18
Brinell Hardness Test
19
Advantages
(i) For certain materials, the hardness varies from point to point due to local heterogeneity.
The relatively large size Brinell indentation covers more area of the material and gives the
average hardness.
(ii) Surface scratches and roughness have less influence on the Brinell test.
Advantages / Limitations
(i) Because of the size impression, the test is not suited for small objects or parts subjected to
fatigue. Due to the stress concentration at these marks, there could be a potential site of
failure.
(ii) The ball indenter particularly steel ball is likely to deform when testing hard materials. As
a result, hardness measurement may not be as accurate.
(iii) Localized deformation of metal at the indentation affects the indentation diameter in either
of the two ways, namely ridging and sinking. Due to ridging, the measured diameter is
larger than the actual and due to sinking it is less than the actual. This affects the accuracy
of measurement.
20
Experiment: Rockwell Hardness Test Expt. No.: 0__ Date:________
Objective: To be acquainted with the method of measurement of Rockwell hardness of a given

material specimen and to obtain is obtained Rockwell Hardness in proper scale.
Theory: Hardness is defined generally as the property of a material specimen by which it can resist
permanent deformation when put to static pressure The Rockwell hardness testing machine measures
the depth of the impression on the test piece in terms of Rockwell number. The penetrator is first
loaded with a minor load to take out any slackness in the machine and the indicator for measuring the
depth of the impression is set to zero. The major load is then applied after its removal the dial gauge
records depth of the impression due to the major load in terms of Rockwell Number. Therefore,
Rockwell hardness numbers are based on the difference between the depth of penetration at major and
minor load.
Apparatus required:
1. Rockwell hardness testing machine.
Technical Data:
Total Test Load 60 kgf 100 kgf 150 kgf
Ball 1.588 mm dia.

Indenter: Diamond cone 120˚ Diamond cone 120˚
(1/16" dia.)
Scale: A B C
Dial to be read Black Red Black
Unhardened steel, Steel, hard cast steel,
Thin steel & shallow
Typical Application Copper & Aluminum deep case hardened
case hardened steel.
alloy. steel.

Material : _____________________________
Geometrical shape :__________________________ mm
Height /Depth :__________________________ mm
Procedure:
For carrying out tests, the following procedure should be adopted very carefully, any negligence may
lead to damage to the indenter, and wrong reading.
1. Adjust the weights on plunger of dash-pot according to the Rockwell scale required by
weight selector disc. No minor load adjustment is necessary for model no. RAS.
2. Keep the lever or loading handle at ideal position.
3. Fix the indenter (Diamond 120˚ or ball of 1/16") to the indenter holder as specified for Rockwell hardness
test.
3. Place specimen securely on testing Table.
21
4. Turn the hand wheel clockwise, so that specimen will push the indenter and show a reading on dial gauge
as small pointer at 3 (red spot) and long pointer close to 0 of outer scale.
5. Turn the lever from ideal position to loading position slowly so that the total load is brought into action
without any jerks.
6. The long pointer of Dial Gauge reaches a steady position when indentation is complete.
7. Then take the lever back to ideal position slowly. The Weights are thereby lifted off, only
8. Read the figure against the log pointer. That is the direct reading of the Rockwell
Hardness of specimen.
9. Use Black or Red scale as per selection of Rockwell scale.
10. Turn back the hand wheel and remove the specimen piece. Carry on the same procedure for further tests.
11. The first hardness value so obtained may not be correct. All standard recommend neglect first two
12. Take at least 3 readings on the given sample and compare result.
Observations:
Sl. Material Indenter & Rockwell Average Rockwell BHN from
No. Load Hardness No. Hardness No. relations
01
02
03
01
02
03
01
02
03

Q1. State the load used, indenter, range and possible application of different Rockwell scale.
Q3. What are the factors on which hardness of a material depends?
Q4. Common Causes of errors in Hardness Testing.
Q5.What are the advantages and disadvantages of this method?
Relation between BHN & RHN
7300
BHN  for RB from 35 to100
130  RB
25000
BHN  for RC  40
100  RC
1420000
BHN  for RC from 20 to 40
(100  RC ) 2
22
23
Common Causes of errors in Hardness Testing
Sl. Cause Symptoms Remarks

No.
01 Improper choice of anvil or Erratic Select proper scale and anvil
according to test requirement
scale
02 Dirt or nicks on anvil surface Erratic Clean it
or on indenter shoulder
03 Chipped diamond (On striking High or low Replace indenter
penetrator with work)
04 Scale, oxide film, pits, Erratic. Low Test Specimen to be free from
scratches or foreign material foreign material. Test surface
on top or bottom of test of special man just be
surface. perpendicular to indenter axis.
Work not held properly.
05 Test piece or case hardening High or low. Refer minimum thickness chart
too thin for scale used.
06 Improper calibration of testing Consistently Ascertain accuracy with new
machine using wrong side of test block.
test block. High or low
07 Improper calibration of testing Consistently Ensure indentation distance of

machine using correct side of three times diameter of
High
test block. indentation.
08 Bringing work against Erratic, Bring dial gauge pointer to
penetrator too rapidly or High "Set" position steadily
jerkily.
Bringing loading handle
forward to soon.
09 Sudden or jerky operation of Erratic, Low When pointer comes to stop
loading handle, bringing position, bring forward the
handle forward too late. handle soon.
10 Failure to sit and centre Low Adjust indenter and anvil axis;
round work securely in anvil, use round work
or failure to use round round correction chart.
work correction chart.
24
Experiment: Vickers Hardness Test Expt. No.: Date:_______
Objective: To be acquainted with the method of measurement of Vickers hardness of a given

material specimen.
Theory:
Hardness is a characteristic of a material, not a fundamental physical property. It is defined as the
resistance to indentation, and it is determined by measuring the permanent depth of the indentation.
More simply put, when using a fixed force (load) and a given indenter, the smaller the indentation, the
harder the material. Indentation hardness value is obtained by measuring the depth or the area of the
indentation.
The Vickers hardness test method, also referred to as a micro-hardness test method, is mostly used
for small parts, thin sections, or case depth work. The Vickers method is based on an optical
measurement system. The Micro-hardness test procedure, ASTM E-384, specifies a range of light
loads using a diamond indenter to make an indentation which is measured and converted to a hardness
value. It is very useful for testing on a wide type of materials as long as test samples are carefully
prepared. A square base pyramid shaped diamond is used for testing in the Vickers scale. Typically
loads are very light, ranging from a few grams to one or several kilograms, although "Macro" Vickers
loads can range up to 30 kg or more. The Micro-hardness methods are used to test on metals,
ceramics, and composites - almost any type of material.
Since the test indentation is very small in a Vickers test, it is useful for a variety of applications:
testing very thin materials like foils or measuring the surface of a part, small parts or small areas,
measuring individual microstructures, or measuring the depth of case hardening by sectioning a part
and making a series of indentations to describe a profile of the change in hardness. The Vickers
method is more commonly used.
Sample preparation is usually necessary with a micro-hardness test in order to provide a small enough
specimen that can fit into the tester. Additionally, the sample preparation will need to make the
specimen’s surface smooth to permit a regular indentation shape and good measurement, and to
ensure the sample can be held perpendicular to the indenter. Usually the prepared samples are
mounted in a plastic medium to facilitate the preparation and testing. The indentations should be as
large as possible to maximize the measurement resolution. (Error is magnified as indentation sizes
decrease) The test procedure is subject to problems of operator influence on the test results.
For more information, see our guide Selecting a Newage Micro-hardness Tester. Opposing indenter
faces are set at a 136 degree angle from one another.
Hardness is defined generally as the property of a material specimen by which it can be resist
permanent deformation when put to static pressure. The Brinell hardness test is performed by pressing
a hardened steel ball into the material under a definite load, the hardness number being obtained by
dividing the applied load (in kg) by the spherical area of indentation (in mm2).
25
Machine Capacity: 30 kgf
Apparatus required:

Material : _____________________________
Diameter:__________________________ mm
Height :__________________________ mm
Indenter: Square base pyramid Material: diamond
Procedure:
1. Adjust the weights on plunger of dash-pot according to the diameter of the ball indenter
required by weight selector disc.
2. Keep the lever or loading handle at ideal position.
3. Fix the indenter (ball of 2.5 mm dia. or ball of 5.0 mm dia.) to the indenter holder as specified for Brinell
hardness test.
3. Place smoothly polished surface of the specimen securely on testing table.
4. Turn the hand wheel clockwise, so that specimen will push the indenter and show a reading on dial
gauge as small pointer at 3 (red spot) and long pointer close to 0 of outer scale.
5. Turn the lever from ideal position to loading position slowly so that the total load is brought into action
without any jerks and hold for 15 seconds.
6. Then take the lever back to ideal position slowly. The Weights are thereby lifted off, only
8. Take two measurement of the diameter of the impression at right angle to each other with
ball with a microscope.
9. Use the mean of these two values to find the hardness number from the chart and by calculation.
10. The first hardness value so obtained may not be correct. All standard recommend neglecting first two
26
Observations:
Sl. Material Indenter & Length of Length of Avg. Calculation V.H from
No Load indentation indentation Length of chart
. (L1) mm (L2) mm indentation 1.854 P
(L) mm VH 
L2
L=L1+L2
Q1. State the load used, indenter for different possible application.
Q3. Compare with Brinell hardness test and Rockwell hardness test.
27
Experiment: Deflection of a Cantilever Beam Expt. No.: Date_______
Objective: To estimate the Young modulus of a cantilever beam material by subjecting it to bending
moment and measuring the surface strain by strain gauge.
Theory:
Point where strain gauges are fixed
P
X a
B
b
A
X Section X - X
Fig (i)
Pl -
P
Fig (ii) B.M. Diagram
Let a Cantilever beam of rectangular cross section of width ‘a’ and thickness (depth) ‘b’ be acted
upon by a force P at its outer end at a distance ‘l’ from the strain gauge.
Then maximum bending moment ‘M’ at strain gauge position will be P×l.
Now for rectangular beam,

I 1
M  x  ( max ab 2 ), where, max  maximum stress at the surface of the beam.
b/2 6
1 6 Pl
 Pl  ( max ab 2 ) or , max  2    (i )
6 ab
The surface strain can be measured directly by a strain gauge arrangement.
Strain gauge (SG) is a small length flat resistance wire sandwiched between two thin cover sheets
which can be pasted on a surface. When such a SG is pasted on surface of the beam, as the beam is
bent and its outer surface is elongated due to bending, this SG also gets elongated changing the
resistance of the SG, as per following relationship.
l
Resistance of a wire, R   , where ρ = resistivity, l= length of wire and A = cross sectional area
A
of wire.
Due to elongation of the SG along with the elongation of the surface of the beam, the R is changed to
R  R depending whether the SG is fixed on the tension or compression side of the beam. Thus,
28
l  l
R  R  
A  A
This change in resistance value of SG is a direct measurement of elongation of the surface fiber of the
beam i.e., strain. This strain is generally measured by help of a Wheatstone bridge type instrument.
This strain '  max ' is directly
read from the digital strain indicator of the experimental set-up.
 max
The modulus of elasticity, E  .
 max
Procedure:
Measure l, a and b dimensions of the beam 3 times and note average value.
1. Fix the weighing pan to the cantilever set-up.

2. Connect the digital strain indicator to the strain gauges of the cantilever. Connect the indicator
to 230V, 50 Hz power and switch the power switch to on position.
3. With no-load on the weighing pan, set the indicator to zero by pushing O push button.
4. The weighing pan is loaded with weights in steps of 100 gm up to 1000 gm.
5. With each load, the strain indicated by the indicator is noted.
6. Draw strain vs. load graph. From this graph determine the strain for a particular load (say 500
gm).
7. At this particular load (500 gm) calculate value of stress  max is also calculated as per
equation (i).
8. Calculate E for each of the loads and determine average value of E of the material of the beam
(Aluminum alloy).
Observations:
Sl. No. Actual load applied in gm IEICOS Digital strain indicator

reading in micro strains.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Q1. State the assumptions used in basic theory of beam deflection.
[Each report must contain Sketch of the setup, Calculations and Remarks]
29
Experiment: Determination of coefficient of friction Expt. No.: Date______
Objective: To determine coefficient of friction between pair of materials having dry contact surfaces.
Theory:
The force of friction may be looked upon as a distributed force on the surface of contact between two
mating bodies when there is a tendency of relative motion between the bodies. The resultant of the
distributed force acts along the surface of contact and depends upon the normal reaction between the
bodies at the surface of contact. Direction of friction force is opposite to the direction of the force
trying to create the relative motion. The force of friction thus generated may be classified as:
(1) Sliding friction and (2) Rolling friction
Sliding friction is encountered commonly in the case of two surfaces having a tendency of relative
motion, e.g., when a block is pulled along a road, a resistive force is experienced, which has to be
overcome in order to pull the block. When one body rolls over the other, similar resistance between
two surfaces is experienced which is called rolling friction.
W
m P P
F
(a) N (b)
Impending
motion
Static Kinetic
friction friction
F (no motiom) (motiom)
Limiting friction
Fmax=SN
P
F= Fk=kN
P
(c)
When the body is pulled in the direction of x axis with a little force P, the surface of contact will
develop a force of friction F which will resist the force P and equilibrium will be maintained. If there
were no friction, the body would have immediately started to move with acceleration. If the force P is
increased, it is found that the friction force also increases by the same amount and the equilibrium of
the body is not disturbed until and unless the force P reaches a certain value at which the friction
30
force reaches its maximum value or limiting value, and a further increase of P will impend the body
to move in the direction of P. The variation of F and P is shown in Fig. 5.1(c). After F has reached its
limiting value, if P is still increased, it is generally found that the force of friction slightly decreases
and from then onwards practically remains constant; at moving condition the friction is called Kinetic
friction whereas up to the limiting value it is known as Static friction.
Laws of Friction:
The results of experiments conducted by Coulomb are known as Laws of dry friction or Laws of
Coulomb’s friction. They are as follows:
(1) The direction of friction force always acts in a direction opposite to which the body tends to
move.
(2) The frictional force developed is independent of the area of contact.
(3) The total frictional force depends on the roughness of contact surfaces.
(4) The frictional force is equal to the force applied to the body, so long as the body is at rest.
(5) The coefficient of Kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of Static friction.
(6) The total frictional force is proportional to the normal Reaction force (F  N).
Apparatus Used:
2. Inclined plane coefficient of friction apparatus.
F
W
N
  
W
Fig (d) Fig (e)
Let Fig. (e) shows the position of the plane at θ angle of slope, when the load is about to slip.
Fmax  N ; where N  W cos  and component of force along the slope  W sin  .
At impending slippage W cos   W sin  .    tan 
Procedure:
1. Select the desired pair of sliding surface and sliding test piece. Clean both with dry cloth.
2. Put sliding specimen on surface and slowly increase the angle of tilt of the surface.
3. Stop the movement just when the specimen is about to slide down the slope. Measure the inclination
angle θ by inclinometer and note it.
4. Repeat the step 4 five times and take the average value of  av .
5. Calculate coefficient of friction μ between the two surfaces, where   tan  av
31
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for different combination of materials for the sliding surface and specimen.
Observations:
Specimen Sliding Surface 1 Sliding Surface 2
(Copper) (Wood)
Values of  av  av Values of  av  av
‘θ’ ‘θ’
measured measured
Stainless
Steel
(Area1)
Stainless
Steel
(Area2)
Aluminum
Wood

5. How will you prove that the frictional force developed is independent of the area of contact or
weight of the specimen?
32
Experiment: Drawability test of sheet metal by Cupping Expt. No. Date:________
Objective: To study the drawability of a test specimen and determine the Erichsen number.
Apparatus: Erichsen cupping tester set-up, for the testing of drawability of the sample material
sheet/plate, has been designed to conform to IS 1756-1974.
Dimension of square sample: 90mm each side

Thickness of sample: 0.5mm to 1mm
Least count of the dial gauge: 0.01mm
One turn of the hand wheel: 1.2mm advance of penetrator
Raw material: Galvanized iron sheet metal specimen of 90mm X 90mm, thickness 0.5-1 mm (to be
measured).
Theory: The Erichsen cupping test is a drawability/ductility test which is employed to evaluate the
ability of metallic sheets and strips to undergo plastic deformation under stretch form. The test
consists of forming an indentation by pressing a punch with a spherical end against a test piece
clamped between a blank holder and a die, until a trough crack appears.
The purpose of Erichsen Cupping Test is to build some sort of quantitative idea about the strength of
a malleable material on deep-drawing.
This test is used for ferrous and non-ferrous sheet and strip having thickness from 0.1mm to 2mm
inclusive. The material is gripped between two faces under a load of 10±1 kN and a 20mm dia. ball or
spherical penetrator is pressed on to it, causing its surface to be drawn down into a dome, At a certain
point, depending on the material, the top of the dome will yield a through crack, and at this point the
test is complete. The depth d mm to which the dome has been pressed when the crack just appears is
the Erichsen number (IE), and this gives an approximate measure of the relative capacity of
different materials for being worked and drawn into cup-shaped objects. The surface appearance of
the dome also gives an indication of the original grain size of the material and probable appearance of
the surface after it has been through the press tools.
33
Erichsen cupping tester Erichsen cupping test diagram
Experimental Procedure: Test Piece should be prepared at the beginning of the experiment. It is a
90mm X 90mm flat sheet metal(normally made of GI sheet) of thickness 0.6mm(to be confirmed at
the time of experiment). The specimen should be free from any foreign matter such as dirt or soil
before placing under observation. Also the preparation of the test piece should not produce any burrs
or distortions on the edges. The test piece should not be subjected to any hot or cold working such as
hammering beforehand.
Steps:
a) Measure the thickness of the test piece to the nearest 0.01mm
b) Lubricate the surface which will be in contact with the punch with proper lubricant (grease in this
case).
c) Clamp the test piece between the blank holders and die with appropriate force (about 10kN)
d) bring the punch in contact with the test piece slowly, without shock. Set the dial gauge to zero.
Measure the depth of penetration from this point.
e) Switch on the light bulb and adjust the position of the looking glass so that a clear rectification of
the rear side of the test piece is obtained.
f) From the indentation smoothly, at a rate between 5mm/min to 10mm/min (i.e.; 4 to 16 rpm of the
hand wheel). keep a constant watch on the test piece. After the bulge started forming, start taking
reading from the dial gauge at specific intervals.
g) Towards the end of the operations, reduce the speed towards the lower limit to accurately
determine the moment a through crack appears.
h) Terminate the movement of the punch as soon as rupture of the specimen is seen; when light start
passing through all or part of the length of the crack. The rupture is accompanied by a perceptible
sound and a drop in force so that the dial-gauge reading will drop to zero.
i) Measure the depth of penetration (d) to the nearest 0.1mm. Conduct the test for at least three
samples and calculate the arithmetic mean of the three values. This value, expressed in mm is the
Erichsen cupping index (IE).
j) For completion of set of test, remove the test piece and observe the nature of the cup and the crack
generated on the surface of the cup.
k) After the completion of the test, switch off the light bulb, take back the penetrator until the dial-
gauge reads zero.
l) Conduct the whole experiment on sheets of different materials. Compare the Erichsen number for
the different cases to understand the relative drawability of the materials.
Observations and results:
a) The point just when lights start passing through the test piece signifies the initiation of the through
crack.
The depth of penetration (d) on the three different test specimen is recorded:
Sl. No. Material d in mm Avg. d in mm
General Discussion:
i) When the depth of the product is greater than its half of its diameter (or the smallest dimension of
its opening), it is known as deep drawing, whereas depth of the cup is less than half of its inner
diameter, the process is known as shallow drawing.
34
ii) A through crack is one which goes through the full thickness of the crack and is just sufficiently
wide enough to allow light to pass through part of its length.
iii) prior heat treatment of the specimen such as annealing will increase the ductility of the material.
this will increase the drawability and thus the Erichsen number of the specimen.
iv) The speed of drawing is very important factor for the drawability test as higher speed may have
detrimental effects on the test piece.
Case-wise Conclusions and Precautions:

1. Define Erichsen index with a neat sketch.
2. Differentiate between deep drawing and shallow drawing.
3. Write the precautions of drawability test.
4. Why lubrication is necessary before the test?
5. What is the function of dial gauge in this experiment?
6. How crack is being observed?
7. What are factors on which drawability of sheet metal depend?
35
Experiment: Determination of stiffness of closed coil helical spring

Expt. No.: Date______
Objective: To determine the stiffness of given leaf spring & from given formula to determine value of
modulus of the elasticity “E” of the spring material.
Apparatus Used:
1. Spring testing machine.
(Manufactured by Fuel Instruments & Engineers Pvt. Ltd., Model: ST-10)
Maximum capacity – 100 KN, Maximum deflection range – 300 mm
1st Measuring range – 0 to 100 KN, Minimum graduations – 0.20 KN
2nd Measuring range – 0 to 50 KN, Minimum graduations – 0.10 KN
3 Measuring range – 0 to 25 KN,
rd
Minimum graduations – 0.05 KN

Spring dimension: …………………………………..
Material specification ……… …………………………………………………
Theory: The stiffness of a spring is defined as the force required to elongate or compress the spring by unit
length. Springs are elastic member which elastically distort under load and regain their original shape when
load is removed. They are used in railway carriages, motor cars, scooters, motorcycles, rickshaws and other
machines to absorb shock or impact loading.
Procedure:
1. Depending upon the space requirement of test specimen, the testing table is taken up or down by motor.
2. If a spring is to be tested for deflection it is to be held in proper place on the platform and is to be
supported to resist slip.
3. Now keep the left side valve (Return valve) in open position and the right side valve (Pressure
compensated flow control valve) is opened in a little open position.
4. Now start the pump. The oil then starts circulating through the hydraulic system.
5. The left side valve is then closed and the right side valve is opened slowly.
6. With the help of zero adjusting knob, the load-pointer is brought to zero position.
36
7. The deflection measuring counter should be adjusted to zero on the deflection recording box with the help
of set switch, when the ram is at the lowermost position.
8. The right control valve is then opened more, to cause the ram to slide up and the test spring will come in
contact with the upper compression plate.
9. At this stage, the initial deflection reading is recorded.
10. Then the right control valve is slightly opened so that the spring starts taking load.
11. Stop the right control valve & take reading of deflection of spring & the force applied.
12. Repeat operation 11 to 12 to take total five sets of force versus deflection before the spring is deflected by
about 25 mm.
13. The left control valve is opened to take the piston down & release load on the spring.
Observations:
Force applied Nature of Deflection Stiffness Mean

Spring type Observation
in KN Force in mm in KN-mm Stiffness

2. Draw a force-displacement graph taking force in Y-axis and displacement in X-axis in a graph paper.
Draw the line of the best fit through the points & calculate average stiffness of the spring. Compare
this average stiffness with mean stiffness & comment if they are not equal.
37
Experiment: Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) Expt. No.: Date:________
Objective Identification of surface and sub-surface cracks by Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
Test.
Apparatus 1. Electromagnet Yoke

2. Ferro magnetic particles
3. Surface cleaner
Description of apparatus
The electromagnetic probe or Magnaflux Yoke-Y(7), Magnaflux make, has been designed to conform
to specification of ASTM E 1444-05
Technical Specifications
Input supply 220V, 50 HZ, 1 Ph

Input Current 2 Amps
Distance across poles 0-300 mm
Flux Density 10,500 lines of force/cm2 at 100 pole spacing
Pulling Capacity 27 Kg in DC mode at 100 mm spacing
5 Kg in AC mode at 100 mm spacing
Yoke Weight 3.5 Kg Approx.
Theory
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI), also called Magnaflux Testing, is a very sensitive test method
used to identify defects on the surface of ferromagnetic materials. This nondestructive MPI test is
commonly used on forgings, castings, weldments, fasteners and machined or stamped parts.
Every magnet is made up of a north and south pole. If two north pole are set near each other they will
repel each other and the same goes for two south poles. If you place a north pole near a south pole
they will attract each other. If you cut a magnet in half it will become two magnets both with a north
and south pole. This is the key feature to magnetic particle testing.
38
Fig 1: Magnetic field lines and heap of magnetic particles generated in MPI
A permanent magnet is a piece of metal that has been magnetized and retains is magnetic properties.
The dipoles creates a magnetic field which exert forces on moving charged particles such as tiny
pieces of iron. Electric current through a loop generates the same magnetic field as a permanent bar
magnet. This is what is actually used to do magnetic particle testing. If there is a break in the magnet
it creates a flux leakage and creates a new set of dipoles that attract each other and magnetic particles.
The magnetic particles create a heap on the crack location. Surface and sub surface cracks could be
identified by this method.
Experimental procedure
1. Cleaning the sample specimen

2. Adjust the legs of the yoke to a spacing of 180 mm and place the yoke firmly upon the work piece
by securing best possible contact, with the suspected defects in between the legs of the yoke.
3. With the selector switch in either the AC or the DC position; press the test switch to energize the
yoke.
4. Lightly dust the magnetic particles (Dry method) over the area being inspected.
5. If the direction of a possible defect is not known, two inspection should be made in such area,
turning the yoke approximately 90 degrees for 2nd inspection.
Precautions
 Always operate the Y7 yoke under the supervision of the teacher/ instructor only.
 Do not operate the Y7 yoke for long time to maintain about I.e. 23% duty cycle.
 Do not energize the yoke for more than the duty cycle-if the yoke is too hot to hold in the bare
hand it is sign that the duty cycle has been exceeded.
 Do not change the AC?DC selector switch while the unit is energized.
 Keep firm contact between test piece and yoke legs.
Observations
(to be filled by students)
39
Conclusions
1. The cracked region of the specimen behaves like a cracked magnet, the iron particles are attracted
at the edges of the crack which are like the two poles of the magnet.
2. For the best sensitivity, the lines of the magnetic force should be perpendicular to the suspected
defects.
3. A number of factors such as direction and strength of the magnetic field, magnetic characteristic of
the material piece, location and orientation of discontinuous and type of the magnetic powder applied,
affect the formation of the powder pattern.

1. What are the characteristics that make MPI a widely utilized NDT method?
2. What is the primary requirement that a component must satisfy for MPI testing?
3. Mention some industries that make use of MPI testing.
4. With the help of diagrams , discuss briefly the basic principle of MPI testing.
5. Name some other NDT methods.
6. Distinguish between dry and wet method of MPI testing.
40

Experiment: Dye Penetration Test Expt. No.: Date:________
Objective: Identification of surface cracks by Dye Penetration Test of given sample.

Dye Penetration Test is a non-destructive testing method for detecting discontinuities that are open to
surface. It may be effectively used in the inspection of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and on
non-porous, non-metallic materials, such as ceramics, plastics and glass. Surface discontinuities, such
as cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts are indicated by these method.
Apparatus
Surface Cleanser, Developer and Penetrant
Theory:
In “Dye Penetration Test” a suitable liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the component under
examination and is permitted to remain there for sufficient time to allow the liquid to penetrant into
any defects open at the surface. After the penetrant time, the excess penetrant, which remain on the
surface, is removed. Then a light coloured, powder absorbent called a developer is applied to the
surface. This developer acts as a blotter and draws out a portion of the penetrant which had previously
seeped into the surface openings. As the penetrant is drawn out, it diffuses into the coating of the
developer, forming indications of the surface discontinuities or flaws
41
.Experimental procedure
Surface Preparation
The surface to be examined and all adjacent areas within at least 25 mm should be dry, free from any
dirt, lint, grease, welding flux, weld spatter, oil, or other extraneous matter that could obscure surface
openings or otherwise interfere with the examination. The method of cleaning depends on the nature
of the material of the part and contaminants. Typical cleaning facilities make use of detergents,
organic solvents, descaling solutions, alkali solutions, paints removers, abrasive blasting, etc.
Penetrant
After the part has been thoroughly cleaned, apply the penetrant to the surface to be inspected. In
case of small components, they may be dipped in a tank of penetrant. Where only a local area of a
component is to be tested, the penetrant may be applied by a brush or spray. Regardless of how it is
applied, it is important that all surfaces are wet by the penetrant. The length of penetration time is
critical and depends upon the type of material being inspected, type of penetrant, kind and size of
defect.
Rinsing
After allowing for necessary penetrant time, the surface film of penetrant on the part is removed by
rinsing. The piece after removal of excess penetrant should be dried with the help of dry lint free cloth
or normal evaporation method at ambient temperature.
Developing
After washing off the surface penetrant in the rinsing operation, apply developer to the part to blot
back to the surface any penetrant that may have penetrated into discontinuities.Wet developer is a
suspension of powder in water or a volatile solvent. It is applied by dipping or spraying and should be
agitated before use to ensure uniform dispersal of solid particles in the carrier fluid. When the
developer dries, a film of powder is left on the surface. Developing time should be allowed before
final inspection of the part to allow the developer to bring back the penetrant that may be in
discontinuities, to the surface .
Observations
Conclusions
Precautions

1. State the primary requirement of material structure for flaw detection by DPI method.
2. Mention some desirable penetrant properties.
3. Mention the components and their functionality of the DPI kit.
4. In what aspect does the DPI score over MPI.
5. Briefly write about capillary action and adhesive force.
42

Experiment: Sample preparation and metallographic observation of ferrous, non-ferrous metals
and alloys.
Expt. No.: Date:________
Objective:
1. Metallographic Sample Preparation.
2. To study the importance of the various steps in sample preparation.
3. To understand the need of mounting, polishing and etching.
Introduction: Metallography is the study of the microstructure of metals and alloys by means of
microscopy. It is an art and science of preparing, interpreting, and analyzing microstructures in
materials, to better understand materials behavior and performance. The method is used for the
evaluation of metallic materials in the various industries, including the aerospace industry, the
automotive industry and parts of the construction industry. It is also used for process control including
the examination of defects that appear in finished or partly finished products, as well as the studies of
parts that have failed during service. It is an important branch of the Metallurgical Engineering.
A well prepared metallographic specimen is:

a. A representative sample
b. Sectioned, ground and polished so as to minimize disturbed or flowed surface metal caused by
mechanical deformation, and thus to allow the true microstructure to be revealed by etching.
c. Free from polishing scratches and pits and liquid staining d. Flat enough to permit examination by
optical microscope or SEM.
Various steps involved in the specimen preparation, and the significance of each step: Many steps in
the preparation of metallographic specimens described here are also applicable in other types of
metallographic studies, such as electron microscopy, micro hardness testing, quantitative
measurement of constituents of structures, and electron microprobe analysis.
Preparation of metallographic specimens generally requires five major operations:

a. Sectioning
b. Mounting (which is necessary when the sample cannot be held properly due to its shape and/or
size, while polishing)
c. Grinding
d. Polishing
e. Etching
These operations are listed below in the order they are performed.
Sectioning:
Separate test pieces or coupons attached to castings or forgings should be designed so that a minimum
of sectioning is required for producing metallographic specimens. Sectioning becomes necessary
when studying parts that have failed in service where specimen has to be taken from a large block of
material. Therefore, metallographic studies of such samples often involve more than one sectioning
43
operation. Many metallographic studies require more than one specimen. For example, a study of
deformation in wrought metals usually requires two sections- one perpendicular to, and the other
parallel to, the major axis of the direction of deformation. Failed parts may best be studied by
selecting a specimen that intersects the origin of the failure, if the origin can be identified on the
surface. Depending on the type of failure, it may be necessary to take several specimens from the area
of failure and from adjacent areas.
Mounting of Specimens:
The primary purpose of mounting is to make it convincement to handle specimens of arbitrary shape
and/or small sizes during various steps of metallographic sample preparation and examination. A
secondary purpose is to protect and preserve extreme edges or surface defects during metallographic
preparation. Specimens may also require mounting to accommodate various types of automatic
devices used in metallographic laboratories or to facilitate placement on the microscope stage. An
additional benefit of mounting is the identification of the sample (name, alloy number or laboratory
code number) without damaging the specimen.
Compression mounting: It is most common mounting method, which involves molding around
the metallographic specimen by heat and pressure using the molding materials such as Bakelite,
Diallyl Phthalate resins, and acrylic resins. Bakelite and Diallyl phthalate are thermosetting, and
acrylic resins are thermoplastic. Not all materials or specimens can be mounted in thermosetting or
thermoplastic mounting. The heating cycle may cause changes in the microstructure, or the pressure
may cause delicate specimens to collapse or deform. The size of the selected specimen may be too
large to be accepted by the available mold sizes. These difficulties are usually overcome by cold
mounting. Cold Mounting requires no pressure and little heat, and is a mean of mounting large
numbers of specimens more rapidly than possible by compression mounting. Epoxy resins are most
widely used cold mounting materials. They are hard, and adhere tenaciously to most metallurgical,
mineral and ceramic specimens.
Grinding:
Grinding is a most important operation in specimen preparation. During grinding, the operator has
the opportunity of minimizing mechanical surface damage, that can be removed by subsequent
polishing operations. Even if sectioning is done in a careless manner resulting into a severely
damaged surface, the damage can be eliminated by prolonged grinding. However, prolonged grinding
should be avoided since it might lead to excess heating or surface damage.
Grinding is accomplished by abrading the specimen surface through a sequence of operations using
progressively finer abrasive grits. Grit sizes ranging from 6 0 mesh to 150 mesh are usually regarded
as coarse abrasives, and grit sizes ranging from 180 mesh to 600 mesh as fine abrasives. Grinding
should commence with the coarse grit size for making initial flat surface and remove the effects of
sectioning. Hack-sawed, band-sawed, or other rough surfaces usually require abrasive grit sizes in the
range of 80 to 150 mesh. Grinding should be done sequentially starting from the coarser one to finer
one. A satisfactory grinding sequence might involve grit sizes of 180, 240, 400 and 600 mesh. The
44
purpose of grinding is to remove the oxide layer or damaged layer or uneven surfaces that might have
formed during last sectioning operation. However, the depth of cold worked metal is roughly
inversely proportional to the hardness of the specimen and may be 10 to 50 times the depth of
penetration of the abrasive particle. To ensure the complete elimination of the previous grinding
scratches found by visual inspection, the direction of grinding must be changed by 90o from the one
stage of grinding to the next stage. In addition, microscopic examination of the various ground
surfaces during the grinding sequence may be worthwhile in evaluating the effect of grinding. Each
ground surface should have scratches that are clean-cut and uniform in size, with no evidence of
previous grinding scratches. Cleaning before going to next stage grinding is always helpful.
Grinding Mediums: Grinding media are silicon carbide (SiC), aluminium oxide (Al2O3 ),
emery (Al2O3- Fe3O4), and diamond particles. All except diamond are generally bonded to paper or
cloth backing material of various weights in the form of sheets, disks, and belts of various sizes. The
abrasives may be used also in t h e powder form by charging the grinding surfaces with loose abrasive
particles. Automatic grinding, as the name implies, is done without hand assistance. All automatic
grinding devices use lap surfaces on which paper-based disks are placed or abrasive powder is
charged. The lap is either a rotating or a vibrating disk, where the use of the latter is described as
vibratory grinding.
Polishing:
Polishing is the final step in producing a surface that is flat, scratch free, and mirror-like in
appearance. Such surface is necessary for subsequent accurate metallographic interpretation, both the
qualitative and quantitative. The polishing technique used should not introduce extraneous structure,
such as disturbed metal, pitting, dragging out of inclusions, and staining.
Mechanical polishing: Mechanical polishing is frequently used to describe the various final
polishing procedures involving the use of cloth-covered laps and suitable polishing abrasives
basically Al2O3 slurry. The laps have either a rotating or a vibrating motion, and the specimens are
held by hand, held mechanically, or merely confined within the polishing area. Polishing should be
done in a relatively dust-free area, preferably removed from the area for sectioning, mounting and
rough grinding. Any contamination of a polishing lap by abrasive particles carried over from
preceding operations or by dust, dirt or other foreign matter in the air cannot be tolerated.
Electrolytic Polishing: Even with the most careful mechanical polishing, some disturbed
metal, even very small the amount, will remain after preparation of a metallographic specimen. This
is no problem if the specimen is to be etched for structural investigation because etching is usually
sufficient to remove the slight layer of disturbed metal. However, if the specimen is to be examined in
the as polished condition, or if no surface disturbance can be tolerated, then either electrolytic
polishing or chemical polishing is preferred. The basic principle involved in this technique is anodic
dissolution of surface of the sample which results in a leveling and brightening of its surface.
Etching:
45
Metallographic etching is used to reveal particular structural characteristics of a metal. This is
essential since these structural characteristics are not visible in the as polished mirror like surface in
the metal. It can be used for phase identification, for dislocation density caculation (etch pitting), and
for orientation studies. The principle of etching multiphase alloys is based on the preferential attack
(different rates of electrochemical dissolution of phases in the etchant) or preferential staining of one
or more phases, because of differences in chemical composition and, because of differences in grain-
orientation. Before being etched, a specimen should be inspected for polishing defects, such as
scratches, pits, relief polish, comet tails, pulled out inclusions, and voids.
Procedures to be followed:
a) First, take a section from the original material which should be prepared for observation in
microscope.
b) Then mount it properly
c) After mounting, grind it using at least four different graded abrasive papers.
d) After grinding, polish it properly through a polishing machine so that mirror like finish can be
obtained in the surface.
e) After polishing, etch the surface with suitable etchant. For example, use Nital as etchant for ferrous
alloy, Kellers Etchant for aluminum or titanium alloys.
f) After etching, observe the surface under optical microscope. Adjust focus and magnification of
microscope accordingly.
How a microstructure look like after seeing in optical microscope:
(a) Material NuCU-150 Steel
46
(b) Titanium alloy
(c) Martensite phases

Q1. What is mounting?
Q2. Differentiate between hot and cold mounting?
Q3. Define terms polishing, grinding, and mesh size?
Q4. Explain the importance of etchant?
Q5. Which types of materials are basically polished by electrolytic polishing?
Q6. What are the effects you have observed on changing etchant time?
Q7. HF should not be kept in glass bottle. Why?
Q8. Which type of precaution should be taken care of before etching?
47
Expt. No. : Date -
Experiment: Impact Test – Charpy and Izod.
OBJECTIVE: To observe the brittle fracture and to determine the impact strength of a standard
notched specimen by Izod Impact Test.
APPARATUS: 1. Impact testing machine

2. A notched steel specimen
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS :
Pendulum Impact Testing Machine, serves for conducting Impact Test (CHARPY and Izod tests)
according to IS : 1757-1973, IS :1499-1977 and IS : 1598-1960 respectively.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
Maximum Impact Energy Of Pendulum = 300 Joules

Minimum value of cale graduation = 2 Joules
Distance Between supports : 22mm +/- 0.2mm
THEORY:
In manufacturing locomotive wheels, coins, connecting rods etc. the components are subjected to
impact (shock) loads. These loads applied suddenly. The stresses induced in the components are many
times more than the stress produced by gradual loading. Therefore, impact tests are performed to
asses shock absorbing capacity of materials subjected to suddenly applied loads. These capabilities
are expressed as (i) rupture energy (ii) modulus of rupture and (iii) notch impact strength.
Two types of notch impact tests are commonly

1. Charpy test
2. Izod test
Fig 1: Schematic diagram of Izod Impact Testing machine
48
Fig 2 Configuration of the test specimen for Izod Impact test
An impact test measures toughness of material that is the ability of material to absorb energy during
fracture. Static tension test of un-notched specimen do not always reveal the susceptibility of a metal
to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test. Toughness takes into account
both the strength and ductility of the material. The test measures the energy necessary to fracture a
standard notch bar by applying an impulse load. The energy of the pendulum which supplies the
impact load to break the specimen is recorded in the graduated scale of the testing machine.
In Izod test, the specimen is placed as cantilever beam. The specimens have V-shaped notch of 45°.
U-shaped notch is also common. The notch is located on tension side of Specimen during impact
loading. Depth of notch is generally taken as to where t is thickness of the specimen.
The energy of the pendulum to break the specimen is recorded in the graduated scale of the
testing machine.
Energy lost in impact = mg (h1  h f ) = Izod value or number
Where, h1  l  l cos 1 and h f  l  l cos  f
gT 2
Length l can directly be measured or calculated from l  , where T = period of oscillation.
4 2
PROCEDURE OF CARRYING OUT IZOD TEST :
 For conducting Izod test, a proper striker is to be firmly secured to the bottom of the hammer with
the help of clamping piece.
 The latching tube for Izod test is to be firmly clamped to the bearing housing at the side. The
frictional loss of the machine can be determined in the same fashion as it was determined in case of
Charpy test except the angle of fall in this case being 90°.
 Adjust the pointer along with pointer carrier on 168 J reading on the dial when the pendulum is
hanging free vertically.
 Now simply raise the pendulum manually and latch in.
 The specimen for Izod test is firmly clamped in the specimen support with the help of clamping
screw and setting gauge. Care is to be taken that the notch on the specimen should face the pendulum
49
striker.
 Operate the lever so that the pendulum is released and the specimen is hit.
 Wait till the pendulum is reverses its swing carefully retard the swinging pendulum by operating
the pendulum brake.
 Note down the impact energy.
EVALUATION OF TEST:
The notch impact strength ‘I’ is calculated according to the following relation:
I = impact strength N-m or J
K = impact energy absorbed on repute N-m or J
A = area of cross section of specimen below the notch before test m2
Area at V- notch,=…… m2
Breadth at V – notch = …… m
Depth at V-notch = ……. m
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Material No of Energy Impact Shear Area Notch

Observation absorbed Strength (mm2) Strength =
(Joule) (Joule) Impact
Strength/Shear
Area( J/mm2)
PRECAUTIONS:
The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions
Take reading more frequently
Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after the pendulum
Do not stand in front of swimming hammer or releasing hammer
Place the specimen proper position
RESULT:
i. The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be-------Joules.
50
Expt. No. : Date -
Experiment: Impact Test – Charpy and Izod.
OBJECTIVE: To observe the brittle fracture and to determine the impact strength of a standard
notched specimen by Charpy Impact Test.
APPARATUS: 1. Impact testing machine

2. A notched steel specimen
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS :
Pendulum Impact Testing Machine, serves for conducting Impact Test (CHARPY and Izod tests)
according to IS : 1757-1973, IS :1499-1977 and IS : 1598-1960 respectively.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION
Maximum Impact Energy Of Pendulum = 300 Joules

Minimum value of Scale graduation = 2 Joules
Distance Between supports : 22mm +/- 0.2mm
Fig 1 Schematic diagram of Charpy Impact Testing machine
51
Fig 2 Configuration of the test specimen for Charpy Impact test
DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE:
The pendulum impact testing machine consists of the robust frame, the pendulum, the specimen
support and the measuring dial. The pendulum shaft is attend in anti friction bearings. The pendulum
is clamped to pendulum shaft. The pendulum consists of the pendulum pipe and the pendulum
hammer of Ushaped design. Into this, the striker is mounted for conducting Charpy impact test. The
range, within which the pendulum is swinging, is partially protected by the guard. A latch is provided
which keeps the pendulum is elevated position. A lever is provided for operating the latch and
releasing the pendulum. There is a dial attached concentrically with the pendulum shaft. The scale is
designed such that the impact energy absorbed in breaking the specimen can be read directly in
joules.
PROCEDURE:
 For conducting Charpy test, Charpy striker is to be firmly secured to the bottom of the hammer with the
help of clamping piece.
 The latching tube for Charpy test is to be firmly clamped to the bearing housing on the inclined face.
Before proceeding to the actual test, the test for determining the frictional loss in the machine is to be
conducted.
 Adjust reading pointer with pointer carrier to 300 J dial reading, when the pendulum is hanging free
vertically. For this, use socket head screw of carrier.
 Now raise the hammer by hands and latch in. Release the hammer by operating lever. The pointer will
then indicate the energy loss due to friction. From this reading, confirm that the frictional loss is not
exceeding 0.5% of the initial potential energy.
 Now raise the hammer manually and latch in.
 Place specimen on the support touching end stop. The specimen should be placed in such a way that the
notch is opposite to the direction of impact of the pendulum. For correct centering of the specimen, the
end stop is provided.
 Operate the lever so that the pendulum is released and specimen is hit. Wait till the pendulum is reversing
its direction on motion and begins to swing slow. Thereafter, bring the pendulum carefully to stand still
position by applying the pendulum brake.
 Note down the impact energy.
EVALUTION OF TEST:
The notch impact strength ‘I’ is calculated according to the following relation:
52
I = , Where, I= impact strength N-m or J, K = Impact energy absorbed on repute N-m or J
A = area of cross section of specimen below the notch before test m2
Area at V- notch, _____m2
Breadth at V- notch = ______m
Depth at V- notch =________ m
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Material No of Energy Impact Shear Area Notch

Observation absorbed Strength (mm2) Strength =
(Joule) (Joule) Impact
Strength/Shear
Area( J/mm2)
PRECAUTIONS:
The specimen should be prepared in proper dimensions
Take reading more frequently
Make the loose pointer in contact with the fixed pointer after the pendulum
Do not stand in front of swimming hammer or releasing hammer
Place the specimen proper position
RESULT:
i. The energy absorbed for Mild Steel is found out to be-------Joules.
Fig 3: Schematic diagram of the full set up

Questions:
Q1. Define Fracture toughness and Impact toughness of the material.
Q2. Why Impact load is more dangerous than a gradual load.
Q3. Difference between Izod Impact test and Charpy Impact Test.
53

Expt No: MECH 2251/0__ Date:
Experiment : Fatigue test of a typical sample by rotary bending fatigue test
Objective: To study the effect of fluctuating stress normally encountered in the cyclic loading of
materials in service and to calculate peak stress and to observe fracture cycle and plot S-N
curve.
Apparatus :
1. Rotary Fatigue Testing Machine.
2. Dead Weight.
3. Mild Steel specimen.
Description of apparatus
Fatigue Testing Machine.

Maximum bending moment : 200 kg-cm
Maximum Rotating Speed : 4200 rpm
Motor : 3 phase, 0.5 HP, 3000 rpm.
Theory : Materials can fail by fracture when they are subjected to repeated applications of stress, even
though the peak stresses have magnitude less than the ultimate tensile stress and even less than the
yield stress. This phenomenon, known as fatigue, can result from either the cyclic repetition of a
particular loading cycle or entirely random variation in stress. Almost 90% of all metallic fractures
are in some degree attributed to fatigue.
Fatigue failures generally involve three stages:
1) Crack Initiation,
2) Crack Propagation, and
3) Fast Fracture.
Fatigue failures often occur quite suddenly with catastrophic results and although most insidious for
metals, polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to sudden fatigue failures.
Fatigue causes brittle like failures even in normally ductile materials with little gross plastic
deformation occurring prior to fracture. The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks
and, ordinarily, the fracture surface is close to perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile
stress.
For experimental simplicity, a periodic, sinusoidal loading is utilized, with the help of equal-
magnitude tension-compression reversals. These conditions is achieved by placing a cylindrical
specimen in a rotating drive and hanging a weight so as to produce elastic bending along the axis, as
shown in Figure 2.1. As a result of the elastic bending, material at the bottom of the specimen is
stretched, or loaded in tension, while material on the top surface is compressed. As the specimen
54
turns, the surface of the specimen experiences a sinusoidal application of tension and
compression with each rotation.
Fig1. Schematics diagram of a Rotary Fatigue Testing or Rotating Beam Machine (developed by R R
Moore)
Important Parameters A fluctuating stress is made up of two components, a mean stress m and a
fluctuating or variable component v. The range of stress is the algebraic difference between the
maximum stress (max) and minimum stress (min). Stress ratio (R) is the ratio of minimum stress to
maximum stress in a cycle. For a completely reversed stress cycle, R is -1.0.
Mean stress σm = (σmax + σmin)/2 whereas the
Fluctuating component  = (σmax – σmin)/2
The correct loading of the specimen (fig.1) will result in a constant bending moment PL/2 over the
test length of the specimen. In this loading condition, the specimen is said to be under reversed
flexural stress.
Where: P= load applied over the specimen in kg,

L=10cm (effective length)
Bending Moment: Mb = PL/2 = 5P kg-cm
(For the particular situation of the experimental set-up, bending moment in kg-cm will be directly
applied on the specimen, so the above calculations are not required)
Bending stress: b = Mb/Z

Where: Z= Section Modulus of the simply supported beam= πd3/32
Therefore, b = (Mb x 32)/πd3
By conducting multiple tests, subjecting identical specimens to different levels of maximum loading
and recording the number of cycles necessary to achieve fracture, curves such as that in Figure 2 can
be produced. These curves are known as stress versus number of cycles, or S-N, curves.
The stress below which the material will not fail regardless of the number of load cycles is known as
the endurance limit or endurance strength, and may be an important criterion in many designs. Above
this value, any point on the curve is the fatigue strength, the maximum stress that can be sustained for
the corresponding number of loading cycles.
55
Fig 2. Typical peak Stress-Cycle (S-N) diagram for steel
Experimental procedure:
Fig 3. A sample test specimen for fatigue test experiment
a) Polish the sample surface as smooth as possible and observe for any surface defects and deep
scratch/machining marks. Reject the sample if you find any defect.
b) Measure dimensions of the given specimen (fig.3) of mild steel.
c) Fit the specimen is in the sample holder such that it passes through the opening as per instructions.
d) After fitting the sample as shown in fig.4 (a), load the specimen by adjusting the bending moment
scale. The specimen will be subjected to a constant bending throughout the entire gauge length as
shown in fig. The top half of the sample will be subjected to tensile stress and the bottom half of the
sample will be under compressive stress.
Fig 4. Loading arrangement of a sample test piece (a) sample loading arrangement
(b) reversed stress on specimen as it rotates
e) Before starting the machine, make sure all the levels are in proper positions as well as all the
locking screws are rigidly attached. Reset the counter to show all zero before running the specimen.
56
f) Switch on the instrument to conduct the fatigue test and check the direction of rotation. During the
rotation of the sample, the both half of the sample will be subjected to tensile and compressive stress
alternatively as shown in fig4 (b).
g) The motor will stop after the specimen fails. From the counter, record the no. of cycles required for
the failure.
h) Repeat the steps for several specimens at different stress values.
i) Note the appearance of the fractured surface in each case.
Observation and results
a) Calculate the value of bending stress from the bending moment according to the given formula.
b) Complete the following table
No. of observations Peak Stress (b) Cycle for fatigue failure (N)
c) Make S-N plots using results of different sets of experiments and obtain the endurance limit.
d) Report the appearance of the fractured surface.
The endurance limit for the mild steel specimen is found to be ………………………....Mpa.
General Conclusion:
i) The failure points on the S-N diagram are scattered in the figure. An average curve is
drawn through them.
ii) For ferrous materials like Steel, the S-N curve becomes asymptotic beyond 106 cycles. The
corresponding stress is called the endurance limit. For non-ferrous materials, distinct
endurance limit are not found.
iii) The fractured surface on the component has two distinct areas
a. A smooth surface with fine fibrous appearance indicating slow growth of crack .
b. A rough surface area with coarse granular appearance indicating sudden fracture.
N cycles
Fig 5. S-N curve showing endurance limit
57

Applied Mechanics Lab Manual - MECH 2251 - 17-2-20

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied Mechanics Lab Manual - MECH 2251 - 17-2-20

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Applied Mechanics Lab Manual - MECH 2251 - 17-2-20

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Heritage Institute of Technology

Chowbaga Road, Anandapur, P.O.-East Kolkata Township

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)

Experiment No. : MECH 2251/____

Title of the Experiment : ____________________________________________

Objective of the Experiment: _________________________________________

Signature of Faculty/Examiner _______________________________________

Heritage Institute of Technology

Serial Name of Experiment Page No

1 Tensile test of mild steel. 6-8

Sl. Name of Specifications Sl. No. & Make Qty

FIE- Fuel Instruments & Engineers Pvt. Ltd.

MECH 2251: APPLIED MECHANICS LABORATORY

1. Tensile test of mild steel.

Sl. SCHEME- 1 SCHEME- 2

6 Hardness Test (Vickers's hardness). Deflection of cantilever beam using a strain

9 Fatigue test of a typical sample. Torsion test of a mild steel specimen.

10 Torsion test of a mild steel specimen. Fatigue test of a typical sample.

11 Sample preparation and metallographic Viva & Recap, if required.

12 Viva & Recap, if required. Sample preparation and metallographic

Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)

Experiment: Tensile Test of Mild Steel Expt. No. Date:________

Test Piece Specification: Mild Steel bar,

1. Measure the dimension of the test piece.

Observations: Gauge length: ______________ mm.

Sl. Load F Extensometer Reading Stress Strain Modulus of Avg.

Yield Point Load (kgf) Yield Point Strength (kgf/cm2)

Answer the following questions in the report:

Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)

Experiment: Torsion Test of Mild Steel Expt. No.: Date:________

Theory: From the elementary theory of torsion, within elastic range

Test Piece Specification: Torsion test specimen made of Mild Steel

Avg. Modulus of Rigidity, G (kgf/cm2)

Answer the following questions in the report:

(Back of the machine with cover removed)

Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)

Experiment: Determination of stiffness of leaf spring Expt. No.: Date______

1. Spring testing machine.

Test Piece Specification:

Material specification ……… …………………………………………………

Force applied Nature of Deflection Stiffness Mean

Stiffness of a leaf spring is given by the following formula:-

Answer the following questions in the report:

Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)

Experiment: Brinell Hardness Test Expt. No.: Date:_______

The tensile strength can be found approximately from BHN as follows:

(b) Brinell Microscope: Range:______________________, Least count = __________

Test Piece Specification:

Sl. Material Indenter & Diameter of BHN from BHN Tensile

Answer the following questions in the report:

Applied Mechanics Lab. (MECH 2251)

Experiment: Rockwell Hardness Test Expt. No.: 0__ Date:________

Objective: To be acquainted with the method of measurement of Rockwell hardness of a given

Total Test Load 60 kgf 100 kgf 150 kgf

Ball 1.588 mm dia.

Test Piece Specification:

Answer the following questions in the report:

Relation between BHN & RHN

(b) Brinell Microscope: Range:____________, Least count =

Experiment: Rockwell Hardness Test Expt. No.: 0 Date:______