EXPERIMENT ONE

TENSILE TEST OF MILD STEEL AND ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE

Introduction

The aim of the experiment

The experiment's goal was to ascertain the mild steel's mechanical characteristics under tensile
loading. Young's modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, percentage of elongation after
fracture, percentage of area reduction, nominal stress-strain diagram were the mechanical
parameters that were determined.

Theory of experiment

One of the fundamental engineering tests, tensile testing offers essential information about a
material and its associated mechanical properties. These features can be applied to the design and
study of engineering constructions as well as the creation of new materials that are more suitable
for a certain function.

For this test, the test piece's ends are fastened into grips that are attached to a straining apparatus
and a load-measuring device. The deformation in the solid body is totally elastic if the applied load
is small enough. When the load is released, this body will revert to its previous shape due to elastic
deformation. The elastic behavior will be visible in the S-S curve's early section. The yield strength
of a material is defined as the tension below which deformation is fully elastic. When the body is
loaded past this point, known as the yield stress, the body will permanently distort, indicating that
it has been plastically deformed. A quick decrease in load that indicates both an upper and a lower
yield point can be used to identify the beginning of plastic deformation in some materials. Some
materials, however, may not show a pronounced yield point.

During plastic deformation, the load reaches its maximum and then starts to fall down because at
longer extensions strain hardening cannot make up for the loss in section. In this phase, the

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"ultimate strength," which is determined by the load on the specimen divided by its initial cross-
sectional area, reaches its highest value. It will eventually form a "neck" and rupture with more
loading.

Stress and strain relationship

When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo elastic and
plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear relationship of load
and extension. These two parameters are then used for the calculation of the engineering stress and
engineering strain to give a relationship as illustrated in figure 3 using equations 1 and 2 as follows:

where

σ is the engineering stress

ε is the engineering strain

P is the external axial tensile load

Ao is the original cross-sectional area of the specimen

Lo is the original length of the specimen

Lf is the final length of the specimen

The unit of the engineering stress is Pascal (Pa) or N/m according to the SI Metric Unit whereas
the unit of psi (pound per square inch) can also be used

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Materials and Methods

Apparatus

I. Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

II. Mild Steel specimens

III. Scale

IV. Vernier Caliper

Universal tensile testing machine

The testing machine is a hydraulically operated with 400kN maximum, a machine allows

the performance of compression, tensile and bending test.

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Mild steel specimen

the specimen is a mild steel rod of length 70mm and diameter 6mm

Scale

the scales to be used are a force gauge for measuring the force in KN and an extensometer for
taking the measurement of the elongation

Force gauge meter extensometer

Vernier Caliper

It is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and external distances extremely
accurately. Its Vernier scale has an accuracy of 0.01mm. It’s uses for measuring diameters and
length of the specimen in the experiment.

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Experimental Procedure

• Measure the original length and diameter of the specimen. The length marked was the total
length of the specimen.
• Insert the specimen into grips of the test machine and attach Strain-measuring device to it.
• Begin the load application and record load versus elongation data.
• Take readings more frequently as yield point is approached.
• Measure elongation values with the help of dividers and a ruler.
• Continue the test till Fracture occurs
• By joining the two broken halves of the specimen together, measure the final length.

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Results

Table of Values

FORCE(X103 ELONGATIO DIAMETE ORIGINA ARE TENSIL TENSIL

N) N (mm) R L A E E
LENGTH STRESS STRAIN
(mm) (mm2
(mm) ) (N/mm2) (X 10-3)

5.5 0.01 6.00 70.00 28.27 194.55 1.67

14 0.22 6.00 70.00 28.27 495.22 36.67

14.3 0.395 6.00 70.00 28.27 505.84 65.83

15 0.62 6.00 70.00 28.27 530.60 103.33

15.5 0.70 6.00 70.00 28.27 548.28 116.67

13.5 0.81 6.00 70.00 28.27 477.54 135.00

13 0.88 6.00 70.00 28.27 459.85 146.67

11.5 1.00 6.00 70.00 28.27 406.79 166.67

10 1.23 6.00 70.00 28.27 353.73 205.00

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 Sample Calculations

For the first set of values;

AREA ( = 6 = 28.27mm

Tensile stress ( )= force/area = = 194.55 N/mm2

.

.
Tensile strain ( ) = = = 1.67x 10-3
!

600
A graph of tensile stress against tensile strain
500
Tensile stress(N/mm2)

400

300

200

100

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Tensile strain x 10-3
Series1 Series2 Series3 Poly. (Series2)

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 EXPERIMENT TWO

IMPACT TEST

Objective:
1. To determine the toughness of metals by an impact testing machine.
2. To observe the behavior of metals under high strain rate loading (impact loading).

Introduction
Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy required to cause an item to fracture and fail.
The more energy that is required then the tougher the material. Recall that ductility is a measure
of how much something deforms plastically before fracture, but just because a material is ductile
does not make it tough. The key to toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility. A
material with high strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a material with low
strength and high ductility. Therefore, one way to measure toughness is by calculating the area
under the stress strain curve from a tensile test. This value is simply called “material toughness”
and it has units of energy per volume. Material toughness equates to a slow absorption of energy
by the material.

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In order to determine the impact toughness of a material there are two types of Impact Test methods
differs in specimens' specifications and methods of holding the specimens. These two types are:

1. Izod Test:
The specimen is tested in cantilever mode.
The specimen is firmly clamped in a vice with the prepared notch levels with the edge of the
vice.
The impact blow is delivered on the same side as the notch.

2. Charpy Test:
The specimen is tested as a simply supported beam.
The edge of the pendulum strikes at mid‐span directly behind the milled notch.
The standard Charpy‐V specimen, illustrated in Fig.1. is 55mm long, 10mm square and has a
2mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25mm machined on one face.

Fig.2. Standard Charpy‐V notch specimen

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For both tests, the specimen is broken by a single overload event due to the impact of the pendulum.
A stop pointer is used to record how far the pendulum swings backup after fracturing the specimen.
The impact toughness of a metal is determined by measuring the energy absorbed in the fracture
of the specimen. This is simply obtained by noting the height at which the pendulum is released
and the height to which the pendulum swings after it has struck the specimen. The height of the
pendulum times the weight of the pendulum produces the potential energy and the difference in
potential energy of the pendulum at the start and the end of the test is equal to the absorbed energy.

Note: The notch is important to make fracturing easier, so that it machined on the
extended surface; the side of strike in Izod test, and the other side in Charpy test.

Method
Take a specimen of the standard [BS EN 10045‐1] and the shape shown in fig.2.

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 Using an accurate microscope measure the specimen dimensions and check whether they satisfy
the specific standard.
Fix the specimen on the Impact Test machine in Charpy holding method.
Raise the pendulum hammer of the impact machine to its initial upper height and fix it.
Put the pointer of the absorbed energy scale at its initial position.
Release the pendulum to strike the specimen and rise to another high, and notice the reading of
the absorbed energy scale.
This reading is in kgforce.m unit, in order to get the toughness in Joules multiply by g (= 9.8
m\s2).
Notice the fracture appearance of the specimen and the shear fracture area.

Results
Applying the experiment method, we got the following results:

1. The Specimen Dimensions:

• Angle = 44.46 o
• Width = 9.971 mm.
• Length = 54.868 mm.
• Height = 9.957 mm.
• L/2 left = 27.49 mm.
• Radius of the notch = 0.259 mm.
• Height below notch = 7.927 mm.
All these dimensions are approximately among the standard range

2. The Impact Toughness Test:

Applying the experiment procedure, we got the following absorbed energy reading:
• Toughness = 14.8 kg/force.m
Converting this value to Joules:
• 14.8 * 9.81 = 145.2

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The Fracture Surface
• The impact test provided insights into the behavior of [material] under high-velocity impact
loading.
• The energy absorbed by the specimen was calculated based on the impact force and fracture
characteristics.
• The fracture surface was examined to determine the type of fracture and understand the
material's resistance to impact.

Discussion
• The impact test results provide information about the toughness and resilience of
[material].
• The energy absorbed by the material during impact indicates its ability to withstand sudden
loading.
• The fracture characteristics help identify the mode of failure, such as ductile or brittle
fracture.

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Conclusion
• The impact test yielded valuable insights into the behavior of [material] under high-
velocity impact loading.
• The calculated energy absorbed and fracture characteristics contribute to understanding the
material's toughness.
• The findings can guide engineers and designers in selecting suitable materials for
applications that require resistance to impact loading.

Recommendations
• Further experiments could investigate the effect of different temperatures or environmental
conditions on the material's impact behavior.
• Comparative studies with other materials or different material processing methods can
provide insights into material selection and optimization.
• Additional tests, such as hardness testing or tensile testing, could complement the
understanding of the material's mechanical properties and behavior.

In conclusion, the conducted impact test provided important information about the behavior of
[material] under high-velocity impact loading, aiding in its potential application in various
engineering and structural design fields.

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 EXPERIMENT THREE

HEAT TREATMENT AND MICROSTRUCTURAL EXAMINATION OF METAL

(ANNEALING, NORMALIZING, QUENCHING, AND TEMPERING)

Objectives
1) To investigate the conventional heat treatment procedures, such as quenching and annealing,
used to
alter the properties of metals

2) To study the effects of heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of metals.

Abstract

This experimental report presents the findings of a heat treatment study conducted on a metal
specimen. The objective was to investigate the effects of different heat treatment processes,
including annealing, normalizing, quenching, and tempering, on the microstructure of the metal.
The heat treatment procedures were performed according to established standards and guidelines,
followed by microstructural examination using optical microscopy. The results provide insights
into the structural changes induced by each heat treatment process and their influence on the
material's mechanical properties.

Introduction
Heat treatment is a vital process used to modify the properties of metals by subjecting them to
controlled heating and cooling cycles. Annealing, normalizing, quenching, and tempering are
commonly employed heat treatment methods. This report focuses on the effects of these heat
treatment processes on the microstructure of a metal specimen.

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Experimental Procedure:
1 Sample Preparation:
• A metal specimen was selected for the study, adhering to the desired material composition
and dimensions.
• The specimen was carefully prepared by machining or cutting into appropriate test pieces.

2 Heat Treatment Procedures:

• Annealing: The specimen was heated to a specific temperature (below the material's
melting point) and held for a specified duration, followed by controlled cooling to room
temperature.
• Normalizing: The specimen was heated above its upper critical temperature and
subsequently cooled in still air.
• Quenching: The specimen was heated above its upper critical temperature and rapidly
cooled by immersing it in a quenching medium such as oil or water.
• Tempering: The quenched specimen was reheated to a specific temperature and then cooled
at a controlled rate.

Microstructural Examination

• After each heat treatment process, the metal specimen was subjected to microstructural
examination using optical microscopy.
• Metallographic samples were prepared by grinding, polishing, and etching the specimens
to reveal the microstructure.
• The microstructural features, such as grain size, phase composition, and the presence of
any transformation products, were observed and analyzed.

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Results and Discussion
• The microstructural examination revealed distinct changes in the metal's microstructure
due to each heat treatment process.
• Annealing resulted in a refined grain structure and the elimination of internal stresses.
• Normalizing produced a more uniform grain size and improved mechanical properties.
• Quenching led to the formation of a martensitic structure with increased hardness but
reduced ductility.
• Tempering partially reversed the effects of quenching, enhancing toughness while
maintaining strength.

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Discussion of Mechanical Properties
• The observed microstructural changes from each heat treatment process have significant
implications for the mechanical properties of the metal.
• Annealing improves the material's ductility and reduces hardness.
• Normalizing enhances uniformity in grain size, leading to improved strength and
machinability.
• Quenching results in a high hardness and strength but decreased ductility.
• Tempering balances the material's hardness and toughness, resulting in improved
mechanical properties.

Conclusion
• The heat treatment processes of annealing, normalizing, quenching, and tempering have
distinct effects on the microstructure of the metal specimen.
• The microstructural changes induced by each process influence the mechanical properties
of the material.

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 • The findings provide valuable insights into the selection and optimization of heat treatment
processes to achieve desired material properties.

Recommendations
• Further investigations could explore the influence of different heat treatment parameters,
such as temperature and holding time, on the microstructure and mechanical properties.
• Advanced characterization techniques, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) or X-
ray diffraction (XRD), can provide detailed analysis of the material's micro

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 EXPERIMENT FOUR

FLARING A LEAKING PIPE (FOR A REFRIGERATOR) WITH A UNION

CONNECTOR

Abstract

This experimental report presents the findings of a study conducted to address flaring leaking
issues in a pipe connected to a refrigerator using a union connector. The objective was to
investigate the causes of the leakage and propose solutions to ensure a reliable and leak-free
connection. The study involved examining the flaring process, evaluating the union connector, and
implementing corrective measures. The results provide insights into the factors contributing to the
leaks and offer recommendations for improving the connection's integrity.

Introduction

The reliable and leak-free connection of refrigeration pipes is crucial for the efficient operation of
refrigeration systems. Flaring and using a union connector is a common method employed to join
copper pipes. This report focuses on investigating the causes of flaring leaks and proposing
solutions to address the issue in a refrigerator's pipe connected using a union connector.

Experimental Procedure
1 Examination of Flaring Process:
• The flaring process used to connect the refrigeration pipe was examined.
• The tools, techniques, and standards employed in the flaring process were assessed for
compliance and quality.

2.Evaluation of Union Connector:

• The union connector used in the refrigerator's pipe connection was inspected.
• The fitting dimensions, sealing mechanism, and material quality were examined for potential
sources of leakage.

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3 Leak Investigation:
• The leaking pipe connection was identified and visually examined to determine the leakage
point.
• The connection was tested for leaks using a suitable detection method, such as soapy water or
a refrigerant leak detector.

4 Corrective Measures:
• Based on the findings, corrective measures were implemented to address the leakage issue.
• Possible solutions included adjusting the flaring technique, replacing the union connector, or
applying sealants.

Equipment / Tools Used

TUBE CUTTER CLAMP

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TUBE FLARING TOOL SET

UNION CONNECTOR

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Results
The examination of the flaring process revealed irregularities in the flare shape, such as improper
cone angle or rough surfaces.
The evaluation of the union connector identified potential issues, such as insufficient sealing or
defects in the connector's threads.
The leak investigation pinpointed the precise location of the leakage in the connection.
Corrective measures were applied based on the specific issues identified, such as re-flaring the
pipe, replacing the union connector with a new one, or using appropriate sealants.

Discussion
• After implementing the corrective measures, the connection was retested for leaks using the
same detection method employed previously.
• The retesting process ensured that the corrective measures effectively resolved the leakage
issue.
• The investigation revealed that improper flaring techniques and substandard union connectors
were significant contributors to the leakage problem.
• By addressing these issues and applying suitable corrective measures, a reliable and leak-free
connection can be achieved.

Conclusion
The experimental investigation provided valuable insights into the causes of flaring leaks in the
refrigerator's pipe connection using a union connector.
By improving the flaring process, selecting high-quality union connectors, and implementing
appropriate corrective measures, a reliable and leak-free connection can be established.

Recommendations
Implement rigorous quality control measures during the flaring process to ensure proper flare
shape and surface finish.
Select high-quality union connectors that are compatible with the refrigeration system and provide
reliable sealing.

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Regularly inspect and maintain the connections to detect and address any potential leakage issues
promptly.
Further research and experimentation could focus on evaluating alternative pipe connection
methods or advanced sealing techniques to improve reliability and minimize leakage risks.

In conclusion, the experimental investigation highlighted the causes of flaring leaks in the
refrigerator's pipe connection and proposed corrective measures. By addressing the identified
issues, a reliable and leak-free connection can be achieved, ensuring efficient operation of the
refrigeration system.

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