Applsci 12 06132

applied
sciences
Article
Decision-Making Problems in Construction Projects Executed
under the Principles of Sustainable Development—Bridge
Construction Case
Jarosław Górecki 1, * and Pedro Núñez-Cacho 2
1 Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, Bydgoszcz University of Science and
Technology, Kaliskiego 7, 85-796 Bydgoszcz, Poland
2 Linares Higher Polytechnic School, University of Jaén, 23071 Jaén, Spain; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-502-637067
Abstract: The high environmental impact of bridge construction causes numerous dilemmas in
decision making related to the choice of the best material and technological solutions and their
consequences in subsequent phases. These decisions adopt from the management condition the
successful investment in this type of project. A bridge construction project includes consecutive
stages: design, construction, operation/maintenance, and decommissioning. The latter usually
involves the demolition of the infrastructure, generating elements that cannot be reused. This waste-
generating linear production process must be urgently replaced by closed-loop production, framed
within the Circular Economy (CE) philosophy that provides a practical response to the challenges
related to sustainable development goals (SDGs). This document performs an analysis of case studies
in an attempt to sort out the management challenges related to the construction, operation and
decommissioning of bridges. The research is based on a questionnaire carried out among civil
engineering project managers and explores the possibility of adapting the principles of the Circular
Citation: Górecki, J.; Núñez-Cacho, P. Economy in bridge construction projects, especially in the context of the traceability of construction
Decision-Making Problems in materials used for the construction.
Construction Projects Executed under
the Principles of Sustainable Keywords: bridge construction project; decision making; risk; sustainable development; Circular
Development—Bridge Construction Economy
Case. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126132
Academic Editor: Joamin

Gonzalez-Gutierrez
1. Introduction
Construction is a unique sector characterized by the intensity of capital employed
Received: 9 April 2022
and the variability of turnover over time. In particular, global economic crises (including
Accepted: 15 June 2022
the consequences of the current COVID-19 pandemic or the aftermath of the Russian
Published: 16 June 2022
invasion of Ukraine) have highlighted its importance and impact on other spheres of
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral life [1,2]. Regardless of the specific field (residential construction, industrial construction,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in transportation, agricultural construction, or water projects), certain circumstances arise
published maps and institutional affil- that alter the pace of projects, generating deviations between plans and reality. This
iations. affects basic parameters such as execution time, cost, scope, or quality. On the other hand,
the construction sector has been characterized as an intensive generator of waste and
emissions [3,4] that permanently affect the natural environment [5].
Another distinguishing factor of construction projects is their duration, generally
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
long, which increases the risks. These risks must be controlled during the different phases
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
that the projects follow (programming, design, construction) in order to achieve the final
distributed under the terms and
success: an assembly of the structure according to the design, complying with the technical
conditions of the Creative Commons
requirements in the execution of the construction works.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The specific characteristics of construction projects refer both to the products—built
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ and unbuilt structures—and to the development of the investment process throughout the
4.0/). entire life cycle of the project. The task of stakeholders in construction projects is to prepare
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126132 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 2 of 21
and implement responses to environmental risk, leading to the neutralization of their

effects, especially to support the management of construction and demolition waste [6,7].
An effective risk management strategy is the priority for the construction sector [8,9].
Multiple threats exist in the design as well as the subsequent phases of construction
projects [10,11]. Usually, reliable construction processes that create resilient and safe
facilities are expected. Moreover, for facility managers, the management of digital risks
turns out to be essential too. For instance, protection against unauthorized intentional
access does not have to mean just anti-theft issues. In the era of digitization, it is also
necessary to ensure cybersecurity [12–14]. Data leakage can even contribute to drastic
sabotage attempts [15]. This, in turn, may translate into a reduction in users’ trust in
the infrastructure. Thus, civil engineering appears as a discipline where both safety and
security become key success factors [13–15].
A bridge, as a special case of civil infrastructures, is an object that requires serious
insight into its security, resilience, and sustainability [16,17]. Attempts of sabotage can lead
to severe consequences, including accidents, environmental pollution, and an influence
on socioeconomic and political stability. However, incorrect operation can be a source of
danger as well. The bridge administrator must ensure the safe use of the facility in the
event of external factors affecting the bridge (excessive loads, storms, seismic shocks, etc.)
that may endanger human life or health, property, or the environment.
In addition, poor maintenance of bridges reduces their durability and increases the
probability of breakdowns, hence causing unscheduled renovations and repairs. Such a
situation may contribute to increased traffic jams, emissions, as well as the frustration of
drivers or residents, which may lead to a reduction in their well-being. All in all, bridges
need special treatment because of their vulnerability to malfunctions, damages, or collapses
that can affect sustainability [16].
In the common conception of the sector, sustainable development in construction is
mainly identified with energy efficiency [18], alternative energy sources [19], or expensive
and unprofitable operations. Bridge construction projects are quite specific due to their
social and engineering nature. They must meet basic technical requirements and, at
the same time, serve users. However, nothing prevents the design, construction, and
maintenance process from being consistent with sustainable development. Sustainable
development can be perceived as socioeconomic development harmonized with respect
for the environment. Therefore, its objective is to reduce negative externalities, including
environmental impacts, caused by economic growth, hence protecting future generations
and enabling their further development. In practice, there are some actions to minimize the
negative impact of civil infrastructures (e.g., bridges) on the environment in all phases of
their life cycle [17].
The responsible management of bridge construction projects must be supported by
a dual economic and environmental analysis. A life cycle cost analysis (LCCA) and life
cycle assessment (LCA) should provide decision makers with insights into the benefits of
alternative technologies and design solutions [20,21]. It is not without importance what
building material a given bridge is made of.
The available statistics show that the scale of the challenges is significant. According
to some public reports, in 2021, there were 619,588 bridges in the United States. At the
same time, more than 7% of the country’s bridges were in poor technical condition, that
is, they were structurally deficient. More than 40% of them were at least 50 years old [22].
At the current rate, it would take about 30 years to repair or replace all of them [23]. In
contrast, in Poland, the average age of the country’s bridges, managed by the General
Directorate of National Roads and Highways (Polish: Generalna Dyrekcja Dróg Krajowych
i Autostrad), is slightly different from that in the United States. Bridges less than 12 years
old predominate, with 47.9% [24]. Despite this, 14.8% of all structures are in a state of
concern—they have at least some damages, which may lead to a shorter period of safe
operation and maintenance. This shows the magnitude of the repairs and the need to build
new bridges in the future throughout the world.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 3 of 21
However, a limited number of studies in this area creates a problematic gap in knowl-
edge, especially when it comes to management challenges in terms of sustainability. To
eliminate some euphemisms, a research question was asked whether bridge construction
projects fit in the context of sustainable development. In addition, the construction sec-
tor’s propensity to take for granted that construction projects must meet sustainability
requirements was considered a secondary motivation for research.
This study contributes to the theoretical description of bridge construction project
management strategies. At this point, it must be underlined that in works representing
technical disciplines, not only are innovative solutions important. The applicability of the
results of scientific research is also crucial from the point of view of contributing to the
development of science. Since learning from mistakes is a basic prerequisite for successful
project management, the content of the article may be of interest to selected stakeholders,
especially those involved in bridge construction projects.
This article discusses decision-making problems in the execution of bridge construction
projects within the context of sustainability. To do this, a case study related to a real bridge
construction project is analysed. The emblematic example of the cable-stayed bridge over
the Brda River in Bydgoszcz was chosen. It is a unique bridge, not only because of its
architectural form, but also because it had to be closed within a few years of its opening,
and the dispute between the bridge’s contracting company and the designer became a
national public debate.
The city of Bydgoszcz is one of the main Polish cities in terms of the number of
bridges. Some of them were built in the 19th century (or even earlier). This means that past
generations have left their heritage to the present, and it is still in use today. These assets,
of course, require appropriate investment outlays. They are even higher as the renovation
of historic infrastructure is subject to strict legal regulations. Therefore, it is necessary to
build 21st century bridges based on innovative solutions that support the sustainability
of projects [20,25–28] with low maintenance and repair costs in relatively long periods of
operation. The simplicity of the repairs or replacement of the bridge parts is a relevant
factor for the success of this type of project [29].
This study is complemented by quantitative research on the managerial risks in these
projects. For this, a questionnaire distributed to professionals, mainly construction man-
agers and construction managers from Poland, has been used. This qualitative–quantitative
study tries to find the conditions for the execution of bridge construction projects and
the management of their risks under the principles of sustainable development. With
this, we want to achieve our objective, which is to learn about risk management in bridge
construction projects within a context of sustainable development.
The article has been divided into six main chapters. The first one is a theoretical
introduction to the subject of the paper. Then, the main dimensions of the challenges faced
by decision makers in construction projects implemented in accordance with sustainable
development are presented. Afterwards, a meaning of sustainability in construction is
specified. After a description of the methodology, the results of the analysis (the case
study and the survey results) are shown. The end includes a discussion and a concluding
paragraph that draws the introduction and the middle together.
2. Main Challenges
2.1. Technology
The specificity of bridge construction is based on some of its characteristics, related
to building and non-building structures, as well as the nature of the technological and
organizational processes for its production [30]. This process consists mainly of:
• Structures are permanently attached to the ground and have a large mass and size;
they have a longer life cycle than other construction projects;
• The individual nature of technical solutions for buildings and non-building structures;
• The differentiated quality standards for this type of construction;
• Differentiated quality standards for construction;
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 4 of 21
• Need for individual technological and organizational solutions for the execution of
construction;
• Complex nature of the execution processes;
• Long production cycles and high costs;
• A large number of specialised processes;
• A significant impact of construction on the natural environment;
• Many different stakeholders are involved in the process;
• The probabilistic nature of construction processes, implying the risk [31].
Bridges, due to their symbolic function (the connection between two banks of a
river, valley, etc.), occupy a significant position among construction products, leaving
a permanent mark that reflects the time in which they were built. Bridge construction
technology has recently been recognized for its long service life, up to 1000 times longer than
other technology products, in addition to the requirement of absolute safety throughout
the useful life of the bridge. The literature shows the keys to the development of new
values of such infrastructures, including the breaking of technological limits in response to
new environmental changes and social requirements. Bridge construction technology must
take into account all related design requirements, first with the statics and dynamics of the
structure. This means that specific construction conditions may apply to individual types
of bridges. At this point, bridges serving high-speed rail appear to be relatively interesting
and technologically demanding [32].
Bridge-related technology is not just construction technology in the strict sense. Due to
the long-term durability of structures (or, more broadly, their life cycle), it must also include
monitoring of the functioning of the structure during the maintenance phase. Thanks
to modern technologies and the achievements of the 21st century, there are computer-
assisted monitoring solutions, sometimes automated monitoring or monitoring supported
by artificial intelligence. They can function both in the short and long term and can be
responsible for measuring deflections [33], displacements [34], strains [35], etc. In turn, a
completely new area of possibilities opens up with 5G technology, which is heralded as a
means of creating smart city solutions.
For all these reasons, bridge construction projects today must go beyond their mere
technical value, adopting the concept of a combination of national/regional economic,
cultural or political values. Therefore, it is necessary to look at the construction of bridges
through the prism of sustainable development. This concept also includes the Circular
Economy philosophy, which is based on promoting the closed circulation of matter charac-
terized by significant production potential. However, the reuse of recovered materials both
in construction, in general, and in the construction of bridges in particular, is limited, and
more and more examples of this approach can be found. In the literature, for example, wind
blades can be found that were used as load-bearing components in various conceptual
bridge designs [36]. Other ideas for the applications of materials used in construction are
also being tested, often requiring the development of new technologies in manufacturing.
2.2. Project Management

“Construction project” is understood as the set of all activities related to decision
making, the work that precedes the start of the construction work, execution, start-up of
the facility (construction, non-building structures), and the achievement of the productive,
commercial or service capacity of a specific investment project. This process also includes
the technical maintenance of the building structure until its dismantling (for example, de-
construction, demolition, etc.). On the other hand, “investment projects under construction”
consist of investments made to create new or additional assets that investors intend to turn
into profits in the future.
Decision making during project management is associated with three main constraints:
cost, quality, and time [37,38]. Efficient project management requires the simultaneous
awareness of these factors, including efforts to make the project cheaper, better, and
faster [39]. These challenges, despite the apparent contradiction, mark contemporary
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 5 of 21
trends in the search for optimal solutions in the management of construction projects.
They become the object of commitment and constitute key performance indicators (KPI) of
construction projects to lead them to final success.
Construction investment projects are executed through various organizational for-
mulas that pose a risk to individual stakeholders. The investor, relying on his capabili-
ties, decides the method of execution of the project: conventional (Design–bid–build) or
non-conventional: Design–build, Design–build–finance, Design–build–finance–operate–
maintain, etc. [9,40] The latter is sometimes associated with build–own–operate–transfer
partnerships since the owner (a private partner), according to the signed agreement, trans-
fers ownership to the public partners at the end of the project.
Construction project management has a mix of tasks resulting from reconciling the
aspirations of the stakeholders. Considering the financial aspect of projects, an investor
generally wants to spend as little as possible. On the other hand, the contractor wants to
earn as much as possible.
The foregoing shows the complexity of the forecasts for the course of investment
projects under construction, which is reflected in the risk assessment of said undertakings.
The risk understood as a probability of changes in the basic parameters of the project is
often shared by all the participants of investment projects in construction, but their results
are usually different for them.
It is worth emphasizing here that complex construction projects usually require
computer-aided management methods. However, digitization has one significant drawback.
It makes the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry more vulnerable
to cyberattacks [14], what is often equated with digital risks. Fortunately, there are spe-
cific rules for senior management to understand security problems and organize security
processes [12,13].
2.2.1. Risk Management

In a construction project, risk management is a key factor to achieve the objectives [8]. It
will be effective when carried out systematically throughout the life cycle of the construction
project [21,41]. A wide range of risks are associated with and affect the project [8,11]. The
mapping of the risks associated with the project must be based on a study of its internal
structure as well as the conditions that emerge from the stakeholders.
The success of the project is a consequence of the effort of all those who are involved in
its delivery [10]. As a result, project risk management information should not be restricted
to just the project manager but should be disseminated wherever threats exist. Therefore,
in addition to the basic tasks of project management staff, their role in raising awareness
among all stakeholders of the possibility of discrepancies between plans and reality is also
very important.
Managing risk is expecting the unexpected. In the construction sector, where there
are formalized construction plans, which become models of future construction facilities
(including building and non-building structures), the possibility of risk arising is extremely
high. Due to the need to simplify reality, engineers work on construction designs; how-
ever, these simplifications complicate reality even more because they create an area of
underestimation and, therefore, an environment of uncertainty. Thus, risk management
in a construction project must be dynamic, monitoring the sources of risk, verifying the
interference of risk factors, and seeking ways to respond to emerging threats (risk response).
Designing the construction under the Building Information Modelling (BIM) model, which
has become very popular in recent times, reduces the area of uncertainty and can make risk
management easier and processes more predictable [42,43]. However, it should be noted
that BIM is just a tool whose potential can be used appropriately or inappropriately. The skills
of those responsible for executing the construction project primarily determine whether the
strengths of this solution will contribute to taking advantage of the opportunities [44].
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2.2.2. Resource Management

A construction project is a complex and organized multi-entity activity carried out
by people with the appropriate resources and following the established plan. Resources
include personnel, materials, equipment, as well as information and financial resources
used in the execution of the project. The use of purchased direct materials for a construction
project relates to the sphere of technological readiness of the entire construction process.
The availability of work (“work-limited progress”) or the availability of resources
(“resource-limited progress”) are perceived as constraints on construction progress [45].
While the job availability determines the potential build rate based on the amount of work
available, the resource-based build rate is primarily determined by the availability and
productivity of resources. Due to the progressive scarcity of resources, both in terms of
work and the availability of resources, there is a growing concern among construction com-
panies about the effective management of resources, including traceability of construction
materials [46].
Resource management relates not only to the matter consumed during construction
projects. Civil infrastructure can be used to manage resources that serve people generally.
For example, drinking water resources that require appropriate rainwater harvesting (RWH)
systems are crucial for human existence. Larger and larger areas of the Earth are extremely
sensitive to water shortages. Buildings, but also structures such as bridges and tunnels, can
support water or energy management [47–49].
3. Sustainability in Construction
Each investment, regardless of its location, interferes with the natural environment to
some extent. This interference may manifest itself at the stage of construction works, at the
stage of operation and maintenance of the facilities, as well as at the moment of locating
the structure near protected areas, where the investment affects the immediate and further
surroundings, emitting gases, noise, and discharge of sewage, contributing to the lowering
the groundwater level [50].
The long life cycles of the investment and construction projects of the erected structures
(from the cradle to the grave) make it necessary to take into account the philosophy of
sustainable development (ecological–socio-economic), harmonized with respect for the
environment. Respect for the principles of sustainable development in construction requires
building and structure design solutions, as well as new methods for their erection in a way
that respects people and the natural environment, including also economic calculation [31].
When analysing construction projects from an environmental perspective, the follow-
ing factors should be considered:
• The consumption of non-renewable resources and the energy required for their pro-
cessing, especially in the construction phase of buildings and non-building structures;
• Emissions level of harmful substances, especially in the operation phase of the facilities;
• Possibility of recycling in the dismantling phase of the facilities.
As a result, it is necessary to eliminate the negative impact of building structures on
the natural environment. The construction sector has a significant environmental impact.
With the growing demand for sustainable development, it is essential to make efforts to
limit the amount of waste generated by the construction industry (mainly on construction
sites). Construction and engineering companies can no longer resist the urge to join the
“sustainable mainstream” for fear of being ignored and called irresponsible [51]. Sustainable
development is currently considered a balance between the natural environment, society,
and the economy. However, complying with the principles of sustainable development
in construction implies the design and implementation of solutions for structures that are
respectful of humans and the environment, as well as being economically justified.
The main challenges of sustainable development in the construction sector include the
proper management of waste, as well as the controlled transition from the linear economy
model to the Circular Economy model.
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3.1. Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW)

The construction industry is very important for policymakers, due to its emission of
dangerous gases, generation of waste, and consumption of resources [52]. Currently, one of
the key strategies for the European Union is to minimize waste in construction projects [53].
The European Commission adopted the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC (WFD),
which provides a comprehensive framework of waste management standards and estab-
lishes waste definitions for all members of the European Union. The WFD includes a
comprehensive description of the “Waste Hierarchy”, which prioritises the prevention of
waste generation over preparation for reuse, recycling, and recovery. A 70% recovery target
has been set for construction and demolition waste (C&D) [54]. Unfortunately, public insti-
tutions (e.g., Eurostat) usually do not collect direct data on the amount of CDW. Mineral
waste is the most significant waste source of CDW by weight, accounting for more than
80% of the total CDW generated in the EU [55]. As a result, the CDW generated in each EU
member state is estimated using the mineral waste reference.
Waste from the construction, renovation, and dismantling of buildings and infrastruc-
ture is generated in the residential sector and industrial construction, as well as in railways,
road construction, and bridge engineering. This type of waste is generated during construc-
tion, rehabilitation, and demolition works that are found throughout the life cycle of the
construction project. Since this waste can be generated at various stages of the projects, the
possibility of prevention is closely related to the technology used. Before renovation and
construction work, optimization of the consumption of building materials should be carried
out. To minimize CDW, it is suggested to use modern and mostly welcome technologies
without waste. However, effective resource management consisting of checking material
consumption standards is very helpful in reducing the amount of waste.
3.2. Linear Economy vs. Circular Economy

In the 20th century, the relationship of economic and social systems with the envi-
ronment was called into question [56] because both Western countries and a sphere of
influence of the USSR, participating in the conflict of civilizations, wanted to demonstrate
their superiority in the effectiveness of the reconstruction of the world after the Second
World War. Nothing mattered except productivity. There was no thought in terms of the
entire life cycle. This approach must have resulted in economic problems, overproduction,
and environmental problems. The latter was mainly because the “take–make–dispose”
approach was the guiding principle in economies, especially in developing countries. The
fashion had come to have new and better goods and abandon the old ones. Not everyone
succumbed to it because poverty or scarcity forced other alternative actions such as the
repairs, improvement, and reuse of old products.
Construction and engineering, especially on a large scale, required the supply of
freshly mined raw materials, newly manufactured materials, or semi-finished products. It
was faster, more efficient, and the first thing that mattered was the final effect. Providing
houses for people, building bridges, or other infrastructure all required large investments
in a short time. A model based on a simple “take–make–dispose” relationship has been
called “linear economy”.
It maintains the basic idea of abandoning all use of non-renewable resources [57] at
the end of the product’s life cycle. Today’s production systems imply a serious challenge
based on the change from a traditional linear economic model that creates products and
releases waste to a new business production model followed by the transformation of the
Circular Economy (CE).
CE can be treated as a concept of reducing the ecological footprint by creating new
flows of matter in manufacturing processes. It is necessary to abandon the traditional
understanding of the product transformation process based on the “take–make–dispose”
principle and replace it with a completely different understanding of the production system.
In the construction sector, this shift is primarily about carrying out only these produc-
tion processes that are featured by minimal waste and pollution. Thus, modern low-waste
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 8 of 21
design solutions, energy-saving technologies, or environmentally friendly facility manage-

ment become necessary for the effective implementation of CE. Moreover, a long-lasting
circulation of products and construction materials in the whole production system is vital
for its resilience. Therefore, decisions made during the design phase about the materials
used for construction, the construction strategy (monolithic vs. prefabricated), and the
types of joints (between different elements and parts of bridges) affect the efficiency of this
flow in the subsequent project phases. The last pillar of the CE-based approach concen-
trates on care for nature. In the context of the construction sector, this must mean giving
preference to biodegradable materials, materials of natural origin, as well as technologies
imitating natural processes and solutions emulating natural systems [58].
Unlike the linear economy, the Circular Economy (CE) has more advantages and
manifests fewer negative externalities of business activity. The contemporary aspirations
of European Union politicians aim to convert the paradigm of the so-called linear econ-
omy. Incorporating CE ideas into sustainable supply chain management provides several
environmental benefits over a standard linear model [59].
Decision making in bridge construction projects executed under the principles of
sustainable development and the Circular Economy requires a lot of simulations, analysis,
and certainly basic competencies (knowledge, skills, experience) to manage sustainable
construction projects.
3.3. Human Well-Being and Needs of Future Generations

Sustainable development is a broad and frequently misunderstood concept. Originally,
it meant ensuring the satisfaction of the current demands without jeopardizing future
generations’ ability to develop [60]. The report underlines that civilization can achieve a
certain level of prosperity unless poor management occurs. This wrong “path” involves
the mutual contradiction of economic growth, respect for the environment and quality of
life. Only by integrating these three areas, it is possible to achieve the goals of sustainable
development.
However, theoretical considerations sometimes have to receive political support,
which usually takes the form of guidelines, recommendations, or resolutions of various
international institutions (e.g., European Commission, United Nations, etc.). For this
reason, the document called Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development was accepted by all 193 UN member states in 2015 in New York. It defines
17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) and 169 related targets that are to be achieved by
the world by 2030 [61]. This document replaces the former UN Millennium Development
Goals, which were to be achieved by 2015. It underlines that new investments in infrastruc-
ture are crucial to achieving sustainable development and empowering communities in
the world.
The protection of human health and well-being plays a significant role in these political
instructions. Noises or vibrations caused by transport systems can significantly affect
people’s health as well as environmental ecosystems [62]. For instance, railway-induced
vibrations in urban zones can cause disturbances and damage to buildings or infrastructures
and harm the health of local residents [63–65]. Vehicle traffic has a similar negative impact
on the environment [66,67]. Fortunately, potentially damaging effects can be evaluated
according to international standards [68].
4. Methods
The paper uses a hybrid qualitative–quantitative study of the conditions for the
execution of bridge construction projects under the principles of sustainable development.
4.1. Case Studies

The manuscript uses the case study method, which contains the description of a given
phenomenon, aimed at its in-depth analysis and evaluation. This approach can be used to
allow others to follow the evolution of some processes. It is also used to develop knowledge
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 9 of 21
about a case that is not fully defined. Detailed guidelines for the case study procedure have
been discussed in the literature [69]. Since social and behavioral concerns, as well as the
unique environment of the project, have a substantial impact on project management, case
studies are a powerful research design option in this discipline [70]. It should be noted here
that the main problem described in the article concerns the decision-making process and,
therefore, the scope of project management.
4.2. Survey
To find out the opinion of professionals on the main topic of the research, an online
survey was used. The questionnaire research method allows both a quantitative and
qualitative examination of the defined problem. Findings can be presented descriptively
or graphically, as a percentage or number. After completing and collecting the data, a
questionnaire must be constructed and conclusions formed.
Before the main research phase, the questionnaire template was tested by an expert in
the field of construction management. It was a representative of the scientific staff with
more than forty years of experience. All recommendations had been implemented before
the survey started.
The questionnaire was distributed to more than 1000 randomly selected construction
professionals, mainly construction managers (engineering employees) and construction
managers (management staff) on construction sites in Poland. They represented both gen-
eral contractors and entities that carried out construction works as subcontractors. These
were construction companies of various sizes, from micro-enterprises to large companies.
Filtering criteria were deliberately selected to have uniform coverage of participants ge-
ographically and to mimic a model gender distribution in the construction management
market. According to the “Women in Business 2020” report by Grant Thornton, the propor-
tion of women in senior management in the European Union is 30%, while globally it is
almost similar (29%) [71]. In the construction sector, participation is comparatively similar.
However, the age parameter is the most difficult to assess, which is why the duration of the
respondent’s professional experience was used as a filter. At least a quarter of all surveyed
experts were expected to have worked in the selected position for at least five years. This
gives a more objective view of the phenomena studied.
The survey was sent via email in the first half of 2021, and responses were collected
between June and July 2021. There was limited access to other techniques, particularly
self-administered, due to the COVID-19 pandemic; 112 surveys were returned (response
rate ~11%) and formed the database for further analysis.
In the literature, there are many algorithms to calculate the minimum sample size and
its representativeness, but they are mainly applied to measurable phenomena expressed
numerically [10,72,73]. It can be noted that a representative sample is a subset of the
population that allows describing characteristics of the entire population. A sample that
does not meet this condition is called unrepresentative or biased [74]. The representative-
ness postulate can be implemented in various ways, but random sampling [75,76] and
quota [77,78] sampling are the most popular methods. In the latter, the most widely used
set of characteristics at the national level is education, age, gender, and city size. However,
the study on the construction sector is slightly different. In this article, the conditions of the
studies on construction management personnel included the Polish specificity.
To become a site manager, construction qualifications and a membership of the Polish
Chamber of Civil Engineers are required. Project managers do not have to meet such
requirements, but in that case, they do not have independent technical roles in the con-
struction process. Due to the complexity of the matter, another approach was adopted. It
should be noted that if the sample size is too small, it will not give valid results, while an
appropriate sample size produces accurate results. Therefore, such a practical determi-
nation of the number of observations can be evaluated based on the following rule: the
number of cases studied will be sufficient when further increasing the observed cases does
not change the results of the study. In short, if the 113 surveys seriously change something
Polish Chamber of Civil Engineers are required. Project managers do not have to meet
such requirements, but in that case, they do not have independent technical roles in the
construction process. Due to the complexity of the matter, another approach was adopted.
It should be noted that if the sample size is too small, it will not give valid results, while
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 an appropriate sample size produces accurate results. Therefore, such a practical determi-
10 of 21
nation of the number of observations can be evaluated based on the following rule: the
number of cases studied will be sufficient when further increasing the observed cases does
not change the results of the study. In short, if the 113 surveys seriously change something
in a global perspective of the results, we could assume that the 112 surveys are not enough.
in a global perspective of the results, we could assume that the 112 surveys are not enough.
Fortunately, this does not apply in this case, so finally the total number of questionnaires
Fortunately, this does not apply in this case, so finally the total number of questionnaires
answered was a sufficient size for the sample. Regarding the profile of the interviewees,
answered was a sufficient size for the sample. Regarding the profile of the interviewees,
the study covered upper and middle management as well as site managers from Poland.
the study covered upper and middle management as well as site managers from Poland.
5. Results
5. Results
5.1. Case Study
5.1. Case Study to answer the main research question. “how can bridge building projects
An attempt
fit intoAntheattempt
contextto answer the main
of sustainable research question.
development?” was “how
basedcan on bridge
a case building
study ofprojects
bridge
fit into the context
construction in theofcity
sustainable development?”
of Bydgoszcz was Poland).
(west-central based on aThe casebridge
study ofwasbridge con-
put into
struction in
operation inthe cityItofisBydgoszcz
2013. a structure(west-central Poland). and
with a characteristic The bridge
unusual was put into
shape operation
(according to
in 2013.
some It is a structure
suggestions, with
its pylon a characteristic
resembles and unusual
interpenetrating shape
letters (according
of the to somealpha
Greek alphabet sug-
gestions,
and omega), its arousing
pylon resembles
various interpenetrating
emotions rangingletters of the Greek
from delight alphabet
to strong alpha
criticism. and
There
omega),
is no doubt arousing various
that, due to theemotions ranging
complexity of thefrom delight
structure, itstoconstruction
strong criticism.
was notThere is no
an easy
doubt that,
project, due to the
imposing the highest
complexity of the structure,
professional its construction
requirements was not
on a designer anaeasy
and project,
contractor,
imposing
Most the highest (original
Uniwersytecki professional requirements
name), on aadesigner
to carry out cable-stayedand abridge
contractor,
overMost Uni-
the river
wersytecki (original name), to carry out a cable-stayed bridge over the river Brda as part
Brda as part of Trasa Uniwersytecka avenue. The view of the main bridge is presented in
of Trasa Uniwersytecka avenue. The view of the main bridge is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Figure1.
Figure 1. The
The bridge
bridge on
on the
theBrda
Brdariver
river(photo:
(photo: 99 May
May 2021).
2021).
The entire
The entire Trasa
TrasaUniwersytecka
Uniwersytecka construction
construction project
project lasted
lasted three
three years,
years, and
and the
the esti-
esti-
mated cost
mated cost was
was 211
211million
millionPolish
Polishzloties
zloties(PLN).
(PLN).
The gap
The gap between
between the
the lowest
lowest and
and the
the highest
highest part
part of
of the
the route
route is
is 30
30m.m. In
In total,
total, there
there
are eight
are eight bridges
bridges ononthe
theroad:
road:two left
two bank
left bankoverpasses,
overpasses,each 270 270
each m long (intersection
m long with
(intersection
Jagiellońska Street), two right bank overpasses, each 250 m long (intersection with
with Jagiello ńska Street), two right bank overpasses, each 250 m long (intersection with
Toruńska Street and a tram line), a 200 m-long suspension bridge (the main one), and two
ramps of 93 m each. Over the route, there is a 32 m-long walkway [79]. This pedestrian
overpass allows the passage of traffic without affecting the safety of pedestrians. The most
interesting element of the route is the pylon of the bridge (68.7 m high). Its construction
was carried out on-site from prefabricated voussoirs, joined together by welding. Each
straight leg consists of 25 to 28 segments, 1.5 to 2.5 m tall. The cycle of fusing a segment
on each leg of the pylon lasted about four days. A Terex Demag CC2800 crane was used
to assemble the last elements at the top of the structure. The heaviest element, which was
raised in Bydgoszcz, weighed almost 140 tons. The deck plate was suspended from the
pylon with eight pairs of cables.
Every engineering structure (including bridges) in the city is subject to mandatory
technical inspections. Depending on the type of structure, some inspections take the
was carried out on-site from prefabricated voussoirs, joined together by welding. Each
straight leg consists of 25 to 28 segments, 1.5 to 2.5 m tall. The cycle of fusing a segment
on each leg of the pylon lasted about four days. A Terex Demag CC2800 crane was used
to assemble the last elements at the top of the structure. The heaviest element, which was
raised in Bydgoszcz, weighed almost 140 tons. The deck plate was suspended from the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132
pylon with eight pairs of cables. 11 of 21
Every engineering structure (including bridges) in the city is subject to mandatory

technical inspections. Depending on the type of structure, some inspections take the form
of detailed
form analyses
of detailed and require
analyses the use
and require theofuse
specialized equipment.
of specialized According
equipment. to the to
According inves-
the
tor [80], [80],
investor this was
this also
was the
alsocase
the here. As the
case here. Asfacility manager
the facility explains,
manager at theatend
explains, theofend2020,
of
the detailed
2020, expertise
the detailed of the
expertise ofnodes, that that
the nodes, is, the
is, elements thatthat
the elements anchor thethe
anchor cords
cords(ropes)
(ropes)of
the Most Uniwersytecki, was commissioned. The tests showed that the elements that at-
of the Most Uniwersytecki, was commissioned. The tests showed that the elements that
tached the
attached thesteel wire
steel wire strand
strandcables
cablestoto
thethe
bridge
bridge were
weredeformed.
deformed. In In
thisthis
situation,
situation,thethe
in-
vestor introduced traffic restrictions (Figure 2) and immediately commissioned a detailed
investor introduced traffic restrictions (Figure 2) and immediately commissioned a detailed
survey of
survey of the
the entire
entire structure,
structure, inin particular,
particular, the
the element
element for
for fixing
fixing the
the cables
cables toto the
the bridge
bridge
slab. As
slab. As aa consequence,
consequence, the the bridge
bridge was
was completely
completely closed
closed to
to traffic,
traffic, and
and repair
repair work
work began
began
(Figure 3), which lasted several months.
(Figure 3), which lasted several months.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Traffic
Trafficrestrictions
restrictionson
onthe
theroute
route(photo:
(photo:99May
May2021).
2021).
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Closed
Closed bridge
bridge during
during repair
repair works
works (photo:
(photo: 21
21 August
August 2021).
2021).
The technical condition and failure of the bridge after 7 years of maintenance have
been, first of all, a big problem for drivers driving through Bydgoszcz. The traffic jams
caused by the closure of the structure cause the impatience and frustration of thousands
of people. Second, it has been a challenge for the facility manager to restore the bridge to
working order safely in the shortest amount of time. Third, it has been an image problem
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 12 of 21
The technical condition and failure of the bridge after 7 years of maintenance have
been, first of all, a big problem for drivers driving through Bydgoszcz. The traffic jams
caused by the closure of the structure cause the impatience and frustration of thousands
of people. Second, it has been a challenge for the facility manager to restore the bridge to
working order safely in the shortest amount of time. Third, it has been an image problem
for the designer and the general contractor (waging a public battle over arguments, and
the case could go to court). In addition, it should be noted that the durability of solutions
is key to guaranteeing sustainable development. What if in this case, as in other similar
ones, it turns out that the bridge must be deconstructed? Such a decision might be made,
for example, if the total repair costs exceed the costs of demolishing and rebuilding a new,
safe structure.
5.2. Survey
The quantitative part of the exploration of the problem involves the analysis of the
online survey carried out [81]. In total, 112 responses were collected between June and
July 2021. Initially, all responses were filtered by the professional area represented by the
respondent, so additional responses were limited to two groups: management staff and
engineering and technical personnel related to construction projects. Other areas were
excluded from the database. Subsequently, 97 opinions were analysed (Table 1).
Table 1. Filtering profiles of interviewed experts.
Group of Experts Quantity Comments

Engineering and technical staff
80 Accepted to next round
related to construction projects
Management staff related to
17 Accepted to next round
construction project
Other areas 15 Not qualified to further studies
Taking into account the education level of the respondents, 49% of people answered
“bachelor’s degree, engineer” and the vast majority of them (92%) said, “I represent en-
gineering and technical staff related to construction projects”. A comparable subgroup
included master’s level graduates (48%). Detailed statistics about the professional experi-
ence of the respondents are shown in Figure 4.
There are four sectors represented by the respondents: municipal facilities (66%),
transportation networks, including bridge construction (19%), industrial facilities (14%),
and hydroengineering (1%).
Next, it was revealed that most of the experts (57%) agree that both the design and
construction phase (functional perspective, process-oriented perspective) and the structure
itself (subjective perspective, product-oriented) together and inseparably make up the
sustainability of the construction projects. Respondents were asked to mark one of four
responses, specifically:
• R1: “design and construction phase leads to the creation of a building/non-building
structure, and both of these spheres (functional and subjective) must meet the princi-
ples of sustainable development”;
• R2: “building/non-building structure is created as a result of design and construction
phase that meet the principles of sustainable development”;
• R3: “at the final stage, a building/non-building structure is created and meets the
principles of sustainable construction”;
• R4: “I do not know”.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 engineering and technical staff related to construction projects”. A comparable subgroup 13 of 21
included master’s level graduates (48%). Detailed statistics about the professional experi-
ence of the respondents are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Structure
Structureofofthe professional
the experience
professional among
experience respondents.
among respondents.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

There
All are four
answers sectorstorepresented
related by the
this area (Q1) can respondents: municipal
be seen in Figure facilities
5. Such (66%),
14 of 22
considerations can
transportation networks, including bridge construction (19%), industrial facilities (14%),
be called project-oriented sustainable construction.
and hydroengineering (1%).
Next, it was revealed that most of the experts (57%) agree that both the design and
construction phase (functional perspective, process-oriented perspective) and the struc-
ture itself (subjective perspective, product-oriented) together and inseparably make up
the sustainability of the construction projects. Respondents were asked to mark one of
four responses, specifically:
• R1: “design and construction phase leads to the creation of a building/non-building
structure, and both of these spheres (functional and subjective) must meet the prin-
ciples of sustainable development”;
• R2: “building/non-building structure is created as a result of design and construction
phase that meet the principles of sustainable development”;
• R3: “at the final stage, a building/non-building structure is created and meets the
principles of sustainable construction”;
• R4: “I do not know”.
All answers related to this area (Q1) can be seen in Figure 5. Such considerations can
be called project-oriented sustainable construction.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Hierarchy
Hierarchyofof
principles of sustainable
principles development
of sustainable in construction
development projectsprojects
in construction according to
according to
respondents (answer 1 (blue) = R1, answer 2 (orange) = R2, answer 3 (grey) = R4, answer 4 (yellow)
respondents (answer 1 (blue) = R1, answer 2 (orange) = R2, answer 3 (grey) = R4, answer 4 (yellow) = R3).
= R3).
Moreover, it was interesting to receive feedback from the experts on how they treat
sustainable structures. The most popular concept was that the building structure should
result in low costduring
result in low cost duringthethe operation
operation andand maintenance
maintenance phases.
phases. This suggests
This suggests the needthe need
to
to calculate the costs of the different phases of the life cycle. This observation can also be also be
calculate the costs of the different phases of the life cycle. This observation can
applied to
applied tobridge
bridgeconstruction
construction projects. Detailed
projects. statistics,
Detailed related
statistics, to thisto
related area (Q2),
this areawere
(Q2), were
presented ininFigure
presented 6. In
Figure 6. this case,case,
In this such considerations can be called
such considerations can product-oriented sus-
be called product-oriented
tainable construction.
sustainable construction.
result in low cost during the operation and maintenance phases. This suggests the need
to calculate the costs of the different phases of the life cycle. This observation can also be
applied to bridge construction projects. Detailed statistics, related to this area (Q2), were
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 14 of 21
presented in Figure 6. In this case, such considerations can be called product-oriented sus-
tainable construction.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Reasons
Reasons for
for sustainable
sustainable structure
structure(*—applies
(*—appliesto
tobuildings).
buildings).
Another fact that deserves to be highlighted is that 11–12% of all those surveyed do
Another fact that deserves to be highlighted is that 11–12% of all those surveyed do not
not have a specific opinion on sustainable construction, which can be a barrier to the im-
have a specific opinion on sustainable construction, which can be a barrier to the implemen-
plementation of projects of these characteristics. This dilettantism among the representa-
tation of projects of these characteristics. This dilettantism among the representatives of the
tives of the construction industry is manifested in the generation of negative externalities
construction industry
for the natural is manifested
environment, derivedinfrom
the generation of negative
the execution externalities
of construction forHow-
projects. the natu-
ral environment, derived from the execution of construction projects. However,
ever, comparing this problem with the experience of the respondents (Figure 7) may ex- comparing
this problem
plain with the
why younger experience
experts are notofsufficiently
the respondents (Figure
informed about7)the
may explain
issues why
related toyounger
sus-
experts are not sufficiently informed about the issues related to sustainable
tainable construction and therefore answer “I don’t know” more often than their more construction
and thereforepeers.
experienced answer “I don’t know” more often than their more experienced peers.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. The
The trend
trend line
line of
ofaadecrease
decreaseininresponse
responseuncertainty
uncertaintyas as
experience increases.
experience increases.
On the
On the other
other hand,
hand, ititcan
canbe
beaastimulus
stimulusfor
forvarious
variouseducational activities,
educational including
activities, including
expanding the knowledge of professionals within some postgraduate studies, training,
expanding the knowledge of professionals within some postgraduate studies, training, or or
workshops.
workshops.
6. Discussion
Researchers have been interested in the issues of sustainable construction projects for
decades [82–87]. In the meantime, new technological and organisational challenges are
emerging, including Building Information Modelling [44,46,88], 3D printed structures
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 15 of 21
6. Discussion
Researchers have been interested in the issues of sustainable construction projects
for decades [82–87]. In the meantime, new technological and organisational challenges
are emerging, including Building Information Modelling [44,46,88], 3D printed struc-
tures [20,27], UAVO VLOS-based systems [28], Internet of Things [26], or blockchain [25,26].
However, the main topic is still being studied from the same angle. It is crucial for decision
makers to know how to reliably plan and execute construction projects to avoid future risks
and losses [11,89]. Particular attention should be paid to the decision-making process [90]
and, more generally, to the management of such projects [88,91]. This article has underlined
these ideas about the importance of decision-making processes in the implementation of
bridge construction projects, especially when the company seeks to meet the requirements
of sustainable development. The analysed case study, the bridge over the Brda River in
Bydgoszcz shows us how sensitive the project parts are for the design-build phase [21,92]
of such a construction project. The results of the survey on managerial challenges revealed
the existence of a knowledge gap that remains a major challenge for the sector [93].
On the other hand, two different areas can be distinguished within the analysis of the
sustainability of construction projects, on the one hand the “process-oriented” approach and
on the other the “product-oriented” approach. Both can be tested separately but must be
given simultaneously [17]. Criteria such as durability (no major repairs after several years
of operation) and harmony with the environment (including public transport passengers
and drivers) must be built in early in the project to ensure that the result satisfies all
all concerned
concerned parties.
parties. Therefore,
Therefore, sustainability
sustainability requirements
requirements should
should not not
onlyonly be limited
be limited to
to the
the execution
execution phasephase but should
but should also
also be be captured
captured in whole
in whole lifeproject
life cycle cycle project specifications
specifications [20,21].
[20,21].
A A graphical
graphical summary summary of this
of this idea canidea can in
be seen be Figure
seen in8.Figure 8.
Figure 8. Sustainable bridge construction project model.

Figure 8. Sustainable bridge construction project model.
A specific relationship between the process-oriented and the product-oriented area
of the construction project has been shown. The three consecutive states of the bridge, (1)
virtual “twin” (model) of bridge, (2) bridge under construction, and (3) real bridge in-use,
aggregate milestones for sustainable bridge construction project delivery. All these chal-
lenges were imported from the literature review.
It is worth noting that before the virtual infrastructure is designed, the investor
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 16 of 21
A specific relationship between the process-oriented and the product-oriented area

of the construction project has been shown. The three consecutive states of the bridge,
(1) virtual “twin” (model) of bridge, (2) bridge under construction, and (3) real bridge
in-use, aggregate milestones for sustainable bridge construction project delivery. All these
challenges were imported from the literature review.
It is worth noting that before the virtual infrastructure is designed, the investor should
implement the LCA supplemented with the LCCA, as well as select the design office
and contractor based on green procurement practices as a part of the sustainable project
planning. Hence, when thinking about sustainable development in construction, we must
take into account both the process and the product spheres.
7. Conclusions
The qualitative–quantitative hybrid study tracked the conditions for the execution of
construction projects under the principles of sustainable development. Bridge construction
was treated here as a special case. The most important findings of the research should be
addressed to both stakeholders and policymakers.
7.1. Point of View of Stakeholders

Construction projects (including infrastructures such as bridges) must take into ac-
count the full life cycle perspective. The multitude of participants in construction projects
requires considering the interests of each party. The correctly implemented design phase
should contribute to both the error-free construction and risk-free operation and mainte-
nance phases. Therefore, individual stakeholders should see the benefit they receive when a
project is implemented correctly, as it signifies the success of the project and therefore their
individual success. In addition, the functional (the process) and subjective (the structure)
spheres must comply with the principles of sustainable development.
A bridge construction can be a very interesting, but on the other hand demanding,
project. Its outcome (bridge) has usually strategic importance. It is a critical element of the
whole infrastructure. Its closure, due to a failure, means various problems for stakeholders.
The investor may have a grudge against the general contractor, who in turn may transfer
the responsibility to the designer. Repair works can take months. In the meanwhile, local
residents, drivers, and other users suffer the most. Whereas the bridge improves traffic, its
closure leads to traffic congestion, which in turn contributes to an increase in emissions,
waste of time, frustration, etc. Hence, a well-designed bridge must be properly constructed,
without any need for repairs; otherwise, a reduction of the project sustainability will be
the fact.
7.2. Point of View of Policymakers

At the regional, national, and international levels, policymakers must focus on creating
legal norms that favor sustainable construction. It is necessary to create incentives for the
use of modern technologies, especially based on the concept of sustainable development
and in line with the idea of a Circular Economy. The construction of bridges, as durable
structures, must also take into account the need to use local materials, respect nature and
minimize the impact on the natural environment. Therefore, market mechanisms must be
supported by prudent and wise legislation.
Adapting the conditions for the construction of specific facilities, such as bridges, to
the requirements of sustainable construction is a challenging process. Bridge construction
is mainly carried out as a public contract. The European Union supports decision makers
in the public procurement process. For this reason, the collections of good practices and the
criteria for selecting the best offer were published by the European Commission. Fourteen
groups detailing these principles have been developed. One of them—“Road Design,
Construction and Maintenance”—describes challenges related to roads, but unfortunately,
it does not cover specific requirements for structures such as bridges. Perhaps this is the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 17 of 21
right time to prepare a new package with recommendations for the construction of bridges,
viaducts, tunnels, and similar types of infrastructure?
7.3. Final Remarks

The long life cycles of construction projects, from the idea through its materialization,
operation, and maintenance to dismantling, make it necessary to take into account the
philosophy of sustainable socioeconomic development, harmonized with respect for the
environment. Compliance with the principles of sustainable development in relation
to construction projects means the implementation of cost-effective design solutions for
buildings and non-building structures and the methods of their execution in a manner that
is friendly to people and their natural environment.
The poor condition of many bridges built several decades ago implies the need to
prepare production capacity for large-scale repair projects. In addition, the construction
of new structures to replace the old ones must be carried out methodically. In the first
place, a plan for the reuse of used materials must be presented under the principle that
the products at the end of their useful life become nutrition for the following production
cycles. Secondly, it is necessary to prepare designs for new facilities that consider the
idea of a Circular Economy. It is essential to list the types of materials that can be reused,
reconditioned, and ultimately recycled.
Also important from an environmental point of view is the carbon footprint, under-
stood as the sum of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the atmosphere caused by the
construction of the bridge throughout its entire life cycle. It covers the emissions produced
during the construction phase, as well as those related to the manufacture of construction
materials (embodied carbon), operation and maintenance of the facility, and finally the
demolition process at the end of the bridge’s life. Of course, the share of each phase in
the carbon footprint depends on the materials used in it and the design solutions adopted.
Perhaps in the future, since cement production is responsible for significant CO2 emissions
into the atmosphere, the most popular concrete bridges will be replaced by facilities built
with other materials, even those that are not yet widely known. However, to improve the
efficiency of the material management, traceability is required. This will make it easier to
identify what a particular material is and whether it can be reused or not. Certainly, life
cycle assessment (LCA) is an important tool to achieve sustainable development goals, and
in any case such analysis should precede the decision on the selection of specific variants of
bridge design solutions.
Finally, it is worth mentioning that costs must be calculated for all phases of the
project life cycle. Respondents tend to say that sustainable construction means the low-cost
servicing of facilities during their operation and maintenance phase. It is also related to
the need to build bridges without failure. This will be possible thanks to the use of proven
design solutions and the involvement of experienced actors in this type of project.
7.4. Research Limitations and Future Research Lines

Although the goals set in the study were achieved, some simplifications resulting
from research limitations were not avoided. Firstly, the case study was based on pub-
licly available sources. In the future, the authors will plan a more in-depth analysis of
the classified documentation to refine their observations on the management of bridge
construction projects. The analysis was based on the emblematic example of the bridge
in Bydgoszcz, Poland. However, further studies may include extended observations of
other cases, especially from different countries. A specific definition of managerial dilem-
mas faced by individual decision makers throughout the life cycle of bridges can become
another motivation for further research projects.
Moreover, there are many types of bridges (road, railway, etc.). The article focuses on
the road bridge only. It is also worth exploring the differences between them.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132 18 of 21
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.G. and P.N.-C.; methodology, J.G.; software, J.G.; vali-
dation, J.G. and P.N.-C.; formal analysis, J.G.; investigation, J.G.; resources, J.G.; data curation, J.G.
and P.N.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, J.G.; writing—review and editing, J.G. and P.N.-C.;
visualization, J.G. and P.N.-C.; supervision, J.G.; project administration, J.G.; funding acquisition, J.G.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was presented at the workshop “Engineering and circular economy: the road to
sustainability” funded as a part of the ECO-MET-AL Project (PID2019-109520RB-I00), “Can industrial
and mining metalliferous wastes produce green lightweight aggregates? Applying the Circular
Economy”, funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and ERDF funds,
framed in the “Grants for “R&D&I Projects” in the framework of the State Programmes for the
Generation of Knowledge and Scientific and Technological Strengthening of the R&D&I System and
R&D&I oriented to the Challenges of Society, Call 2019.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 6132. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12126132 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

and implement responses to environmental risk, leading to the neutralization of their

2.2. Project Management

2.2.1. Risk Management

2.2.2. Resource Management

3.1. Construction and Demolition Waste (CDW)

3.2. Linear Economy vs. Circular Economy

design solutions, energy-saving technologies, or environmentally friendly facility manage-

3.3. Human Well-Being and Needs of Future Generations

4.1. Case Studies

Every engineering structure (including bridges) in the city is subject to mandatory

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 22

Table 1. Filtering profiles of interviewed experts.

Group of Experts Quantity Comments

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22

Figure 8. Sustainable bridge construction project model.

A specific relationship between the process-oriented and the product-oriented area

7.1. Point of View of Stakeholders

7.2. Point of View of Policymakers

7.3. Final Remarks

7.4. Research Limitations and Future Research Lines

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