CHEMISTRY SS1

SCHEME OF WORK FOR ALPHA TERM

WEEKS TOPICS

1 INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
2 NATURE OF MATTER
3 ELEMENTS
4 MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY
5 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
6 THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF ELEMENTS
7 COMPOUNDS
8 IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
9 MIXTURES
10 PRACTICALS ON SEPERATION OF MIXTURES

WEEK 1

Chemistry as a Subject and as a Central

Science
Chemistry as a Subject and as a Central Science

CHEMISTRY AS A DISCIPLINE

Human mind has always been very curious to make investigations and know about various
activities/phenomena occurring around him. This curiosity has led him to collect information
through experiments and observations. The curious mind has also been responsible for the
research activities of various people all over the world. The knowledge and data base
acquired like this is then systematized in a way that the mankind takes maximum benefit out
of it. This knowledge base is known as science. Science may, thus, be broadly defined as
systematized knowledge gained by mankind through observations and experimentation.
Science has been further classified into different branches due to its enormous expansion and
diversified fields. Some examples are: Chemistry, Physics, Biology, Geology, etc. Chemistry
is one of the most important discipline of science to which this present book is devoted.

CHEMISTRY AS A SUBJECT AND AS A CENTRAL SCIENCE

Chemistry may be defined as the branch of science which deals with the study of matter, its
composition, its properties and the changes which it undergoes in composition as well as in
energy during various processes.

The word chemistry has been derived from the word alchemy, which means ‘study of met
also Alchemy itself might have come from al chemical marked effect on our present day life.
Chemistry has helped us to meet all our requirement for better living. The continuous

research  in the field of chemistry has resulted in the production of useful materials such as,
clothes, drugs, artificial foods, plastics, rubbers, fertilizers, insecticides, weed killers, life

supporting products, etc., which have revolutionised our life.

Our life would have been very dull and dreary without the knowledge of chemistry. In fact,
we can say, chemistry is everywhere in the world around us; it is, in what we eat; in what we
breathe; in how we live and even in what we are.

CHEMISTRY-A CENTRAL SCIENCE

Modem chemistry is an abstract subject whose study presents a great intellectual challenges
and rewards. It is a practical field at the hub of man’s future.

Modern chemistry is CENTRAL DISCIPLINE, which correlates almost all branches of

science. It is used to study biological, physical, medical as well as environmental phenomena.
For example, a chemist works with:

• biologist to understand life processes and metabolic activities,

• physicist to understand properties of matter and to develope new sources of energy,

• geologist to probe outer and inner space,

• physician to design new drugs and medicines,

• ecologist to make improvement in environment,

• engineers and technical manager to provide material and energy for better life.

Chemistry, thus responds to all social needs. It plays critical role in any attempt to: discover
new processes; tap new energy sources; develop new materials feed the people properly;
improve health and conquer disease, monitor and protect our environment.
BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY

Chemistry can be broadly divided into Pure Chemistry and Applied Chemistry.

A. PURE CHEMISTRY

Pure chemistry deals with the attempt to get better  understanding of nature.

Pure chemistry is further divided into three main branches. Organic chemistry, Inorganic
Chemistry and Physical chemistry. These main branches have been further divided into large
number of sub-sections. The main branches meaning divided into large number of sub-
sections. The main branches are described briefly as follows:

1. Organic Chemistry. This branch of chemistry deals with the study of structure,
chemical composition and characteristics of compounds of carbon and hydrogen
elements (Hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.
2. Inorganic Chemistry. This branch concerns itself to the study of structure,
composition and behaviour of the inorganic compounds, i.e., the compounds other
than hydrocarbons or their derivatives. Such compounds are found in the crust of the
earth and constitute non-living matter.
3. Physical Chemistry. This branch deals with the study of fundamental principles
governing various chemical transformations and chemical systems. It is primarily
concerned with laws and theories of different branches of chemistry.

B. APPLIED CHEMISTRY

Applied chemistry deals with the application of the knowledge of chemistry for the benefit of
mankind. The different branches of applied chemistry are as under:

1.     Analytical Chemistry. This branch involves collection of techniques which allows
exact determination of the composition of the given sample of material. It has been further
divided into two categories:

(a) Qualitative analysis. It deals with the identification of various constituent particles (atoms,
ions, molecules) present in the material.

(b) Quantitative analysis. It deals with the estimation of various constituents in the material.

2.     Industrial Chemistry. This branch deals with the chemistry involved in different
industrial processes such as manufacture of various chemical substances.
 3.     Biochemistry. This branch concerns itself to the study of metabolic pathways and
enzymology pertaining to living organism. It deals with molecular, cellular and chemical
activities of living organisms.

4.     Geochemistry. This branch deals with the chemical processes occurring on earth such
as metamorphism of rocks, formation of petroleum, etc. It also deals with the composition of
soils and rocks.

5.     Petrochemistry. It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the transformation of
crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products and raw materials.

6.     Radiochemistry. It is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of radioactive
materials, both natural as well as man-made. It also involves the use of radioactive materials
to study the pathways/mechanism of ordinary chemical reactions.

7.     Biotechnology. It refers to the technological applications which uses biological systems,
living organisms or their cterivatives to make or modify products or process for specific use.
Biotechnology, infact, combines various disciplines like genetics, molecular biology,
biochemistry, embryology and cell biology for developing techniques for beneficial effects.

8.     Medicinal or Pharmaceutical Chemistry. It is scientific discipline at the intersection

of chemistry and pharmacology, which is involved with designing  synthesizing and
developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis
and development of new chemical entities suitable for therapeutic use. Medicinal chemistry is
highly interdisciplinary science that combines organic chemistry with biochemistry,
pharmacology, *pharmacognosy; molecular biology, statistics and physical chemistry.

Environmental Chemistry. It is a branch of chemistry which deals with scientific study of

chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. Environmental chemistry
is also an interdisciplinary science that includes atmospheric, aquatic, and soil chemistry
along with analytical chemistry, environmental studies and other areas of science.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES 

Since chemistry is a central science because of its multidisciplinary nature, therefore,

chemistry students can persue their careers in the field of industries, education, research
work, government agencies and other non raditional fields. Some of the careers
opportunities, that a student with degree in chemistry can have are as follows:

1.     Industries. Chemical industries employ about 66% of all the chemists. The majority of
them find opportunity in research and product development (Rand D), sales, or marketing.
Many of them work in quality control analysis and testing products. Other find work in areas
like industrial hygiene and safety or regulatory work for environmental compliance.

*pharmacognosy is a study of medicines derived from natural

2.     Academic Institutions. Educational institutions employ about 26% of the chemists. Ph.
D. degrees are required for most of academic positions at the colleges and universities. Some
of chemists having graduation degree in education take up teaching assignments in high
schools.

3.     Government Agencies. Government-employ about 7Cfr: of all the chemists. Federal,
local and state Government agencies hire chemists for variety of jobs including basic
research, testing work required to enforce government regulations, technical program
managers, authors/ editors of technical documents and government regulations.

4.     Non-traditional Fields. A small percentage of chemists (about 1%) find work in non -
traditional fields. They get opportunities to become patent lawyers, science writers,
information specialists, technical librarians, technical consultants or business owners.

 Group Discussion

Identify two applied chemistry professions and explain the chemistry they practice.

Hints: For reference, the two important professions associated with applied chemistry are
being discussed as follows: 

1. Analyst: Analysts find jobs in chemical industry,  food industry and pathological
laboratories. In chemical industries, they control the quality of final product through
chemical analysis of the product. In food laboratories, they analyse the food items to
detect adultration. In pathological labs they carry out chemical tests on sample of
blood or urine to help the doctor for diagnosis of disease.
2. Research scientist. Research scientists find jobs in pharmaceutical companies where
they can use their knowledge of chemistry in developing more convenient and
economical methods for the synthesis of drugs. They can also help in designing new
drugs.

Different career options in chemistry are summarized in Fig. 11

 Various careers associated with chemistry. 

Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition, its properties and changes which it
undergoes in composition as well as energy during various transformations. Chemistry is a
central science discipline which correlates various important branches of science. Chemistry
can be divided into pure and applied chemistry. Pure Chemistry has three main branches viz
organic, inorganic and physical chemistry while chemistry applied has branches namely
biochemistry, analytical

chemistry, radiochemistry, geochemistry, petro chemistry, environmental chemistry and

biotechnology.

EVALUATION

l. Which branch of pure chemistry deals with the study of compounds associated with non-
living sources?

(a) Physical chemistry             (b) Organic chemistry

(c) Biochemistry                      (d) Inorganic chemistry

2. Which of the following is not a applied chemistry?

(a) Geochemistry         (b) Biochemistry

(c) Radiochemistry      (d) inorganic chemistry.

3. In order to design new drug, a chemist has to seek the help of

(a) Engineer                 (b) Geologist

(c) Zoologist               (d) Physician.

4. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of hydrocarbons is called

(a) Organic chemistry              (c) Radiochemistry

(b) Inorganic chemistry           (d) Nuclear chemistry.

II. Fill in the Blanks

5. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) Ecologist and chemist work together to ….. .

(ii) The branch of pure chemistry which deals with study of fundamental laws and principles
is called  …..

(iii) Qualitative analysis deals with  ….. .

(iv) Radiochemistry deals with the study of  …..  substances.

(v) The phenomenon of metamorphosis of rocks is studied by ….. branch of chemistry. m.

Discussion Questions

6. Define chemistry and its various disciplines.

7. Comment on the statement that chemistry is a central science discipline.

8. Write the names of various disciplines of applied chemistry. Define any two of them.

9. Name and define various branches of pure chemistry.

10. Give a brief account of various career options of degree holder in chemistry.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

When conducting research, scientists use the scientific method to collect

measurable, empiricalevidence in an experiment related to a hypothesis (often in the form of
an if/then statement), the results aiming to support or contradict a theory.

The steps of the scientific method s are:

1. Make an observation or observations.

2. Ask questions about the observations and gather information.
3. Form a hypothesis — a tentative description of what’s been observed, and make
predictions based on that hypothesis.
4. Test the hypothesis and predictions in an experiment that can be reproduced.
5. Analyze the data and draw conclusions; accept or reject the hypothesis or modify the
hypothesis if necessary.
6. Reproduce the experiment until there are no discrepancies between observations and
theory.

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY COMMON EQUIPMENT

Below are photos and names of common lab equipment you will encounter in Chemistry.
Balance (electronic) Beakers Bunsen Burner Buret

Clay Triangle Crucible Crucible in Triangle Crucible Tongs

Dropper Pipets Dropper in action Erlenmeyer Flasks Evaporating Dish

Forceps Funnels  Goggles  Graduated Cylinders

 Plastic and Rubber  
Pinch Clamp Pipets and Bulbs Ring Clamp & Stand
Policemen

Scoopula Stirring Rods Thermometers Test Tubes in Rack

Tube & Holder in

Test Tube Holder Utility Clamp Clamp in action
Action
 Wash Bottle Watch Glasses Wire Gauze Combined for Heating

A List of Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus and Their Uses

Functions of common pieces of laboratory equipment.

In most labs, you'll encounter the same basic apparatus. Here, the use for each is explained.
You will learn about:

 Safety goggles and safety equipment

 Beakers
 Erlenmeyer flasks, AKA conical flasks
 Florence flasks, AKA boiling flasks
  Test tubes
 Watch glasses
 Crucibles
 Funnels
 Graduated cylinders
 Volumetric flasks
 Droppers
 Pipettes
 Burets
 Ring stands, rings, and clamps
 Tongs and forceps
 Spatulas and scoopulas
 Thermometers
 Bunsen Burners
 Balances

Safety Goggles and Safety Equipment

Safety goggles.

The first and foremost rule of any laboratory is to be safe! This may seem obvious, but people
often disregard safety protocols for one reason or another, putting themselves and those
around them in danger. The best thing you can do is to make sure you follow all safety
protocols at all times.

Safety goggles are required wear in all chemistry labs. Not wearing them puts you in danger
of eye irritation and possibly blindness in the case of an accident. A small droplet of acid
could splash out of the container at any time. Better safe than permanently blinded!

Latex gloves should be used when there is a possibility of corrosive chemicals spilling onto
your hands.

A lab apron or coat can also prevent injury in case of spills or splashes.
Never wear open-toed shoes or sandals in a lab.

Beakers

Beakers of various sizes.

A beaker is a common container in most labs. It is used for mixing, stirring, and heating
chemicals. Most beakers have spouts on their rims to aid in pouring. They also commonly
have lips around their rims and markings to measure the volume they contain, although they
are not a precise way to measure liquids. Beakers come in a wide range of sizes.

Because of the lip that runs around the rim, a lid for a beaker does not exist. However, a
watch glass can be used to cover the opening to prevent contamination or spl
Erlenmeyer Flasks, AKA Conical Flasks

Erlenmeyer flask.

Also known as a conical flask, the Erlenmeyer flask was named after its inventor in 1861. It
has a narrow neck and expands toward its base. This allows easy mixing and swirling of the
flask without too much risk of spilling. The narrow opening also allows for the use of a
rubber or glass stopper. It can easily be clamped to a ring stand as well as heated or shaken
mechanically.

Once again the marks on the side are meant primarily for estimation rather than precision.

An important safety tip here is to never heat this flask while it is capped. This could cause a
pressure build-up that could result in explosion.

Florence Flasks, AKA Boiling Flasks

Also known as a boiling flask, the Florence flask has a round bottom and a long neck. It is
used to hold liquids and can be easily swirled and heated. It can also easily be capped by
rubber or glass stoppers.

Once again, safety dictates that this flask never be heated when capped. Pressure build-up and
explosions can and do occur.
Test Tubes

Test tubes held in spring clamps.

A test tube is a glass tube with one end open and the other end closed. The closed end is
rounded. Test tubes are used to hold small samples. They are primarily used for qualitative
assessment and comparison. A common place to see these is the biochemistry lab. When a
large number of samples need to be tested and compared, test tubes are used to make this
easier. They are also easily capped with a rubber or glass stopper.

They are generally held in a test tube rack specifically designed for the purpose. If heated or
unsafe to touch with bare hands, test-tube tongs can be used to move them.

Never heat a capped test tube.

Watch Glasses

A watch glass holding a powder.

A watch glass is just a round piece of glass that is slightly concave/convex (think of a lens). It
can hold a small amount of liquid or solid. They can be used for evaporation purposes and
also can function as a lid for a beaker.

CRUCIBLES:

Crucibles

A crucible is a small clay cup made of a material that can be heated to extreme temperatures.
This is because they are used for heating. They come with lids.
Funnels

An inverted funnel positioned above a watch glass.

A lab funnel is just like any other funnel except that it was designed to be used in a laboratory
setting. They can be made of plastic or glass and can have either a short stem or a long stem,
depending on what they are needed for. There are several sizes that can be chosen from based
on the amount of liquid that needs to go through them quickly.

Graduated Cylinders
Graduated cylinders.

This is a primary measuring tool for the volume of a liquid. There are several markings up
and down the length of the container with specific increments. Graduated cylinders come in
many sizes. The smaller they are, the more specific the volume measurements will be.

When reading the volume from a graduated cylinder, you will notice that the liquid seems to
have an indentation. The liquid around the edges will be higher than the liquid in the center,
sloping down loke the sides of a trampoline when someone is standing in the middle. This is
called the meniscus. Line the lowest point of the meniscus up with the nearest marking,
keeping the cylinder level. That is how to properly read the volume.
Volumetric Flasks

A 500-ml volumetric flask.

A volumetric flask is a round flask with a long neck and flat bottom. It is used to measure an
exact volume of liquid. There is a small line on the neck that indicates how far to fill the
bottle (Use the bottom of the meniscus). They come with special caps that will not let
anything in or out.

Remember that temperature affects volume; therefore avoid using liquids that will fluctuate
in temperature (hot water that will cool, for example).

Droppers
A glass dropper.

These are small glass tubes with narrow tips and a rubber bulb on the end. They suck up
liquid that can then be squeezed out in small drops. These can be used to add an indicator to a
solution about to be titrated.

Pipettes

A Pasteur pipette.

There are a large variety of pipettes designed to accomplish specific goals. However, they are
all for measuring an exact volume of liquid and placing it into another container.

Buirets
A Mohr burette.

A buret is a glass tube that is open at the top and comes to a narrow pointed opening at the
bottom. Right above the bottom opening is a stopcock that can be turned to control the
amount of liquid being released. There are markings along the length of the tube that indicate
the volume of liquid present.

A buret is used for extremely accurate addition of liquid. By adjusting the stopcock, the
amount of liquid that is released can be slowed to a drop every few seconds. Burets are one of
the most accurate tools in the lab.

Burets are set up by using a buret clamp in combination with a ring stand, discussed below.

To determine how much liquid is added, write down how much is initially in the buret. Then
when you're finished adding, write down how much is left. Subtract the final amount from the
initial amount and you have the volume of liquid added.

Remember to measure from the bottom of the meniscus!

Ring Stands, Rings, and Clamps

The ring stand is used to suspend burets, beakers, flasks, crucibles, etc. above other
containers or in some cases a heat source (Bunsen burner, discussed below).
Always make sure everything is clamped to the stand tightly. When clamping glass, be
careful not to shatter the glass. Only tighten that end until snug.

When using a ring on the stand, there are usually other pieces necessary to accomplish the
goal. Wire mesh is laid across the ring to distribute evenly heat and support the beaker. A
clay triangle with an open center is used to suspend crucibles.

Make sure everything is balanced! Do not let the whole setup tip over.

Tongs and Forceps

Foreceps.

Tongs and forceps are for grabbing things that should not be touched by hand. Some tongs
are specially made to hold beakers, others to hold test tubes, and so on. There are also general
tongs.

Forceps are used to grab small things like solid chemicals that are broken into chunks, so they
can be safely handled and added to containers.
Spatulas and Scoopulas

Two scoopulas.

Spatulas and scoopulas are for scooping solid chemicals. The typical use for these in a lab is
scooping chemical out of its original container onto a weigh boat so that it can be weighed on
a balance.

Thermometers

Glass thermometer

A laboratory thermometer is a glass thermometer used for measuring the temperature of

liquids.
Bunsen Burners

A lit Bunsen burner.

A Bunsen burner is a mechanical apparatus that is connected to a flammable gas source.

There is a knob to adjust the amount of gas flow and a rotating collar that controls airflow.
These both must be adjusted to get an ideal flame for heating purposes. The burner is lit with
a striker.

Utmost safety is required when using a Bunsen burner.

Balances

Triple beam balance.

A balance is used to weigh chemicals. The chemicals are always in some form of container
and never placed directly on the balance. It is important not to move a balance because they
have been calibrated for the exact position they are in. Some balances have plastic housing
with small doors to keep air currents from affecting the measurement. Close these doors
whenever the balance is in use.
To use a balance to determine the weight of a chemical, first put the empty container that the
chemical will be in on the balance. Once you have a reading, press the "tare" or "zero" button
on the balance. Remove the container from the balance and add the chemical (never add
chemicals to a container while it is on the balance). Reweigh after adding the chemical to find
the weight of only the chemical.

It is important to keep the balance clean.

EVALUATION

l. Which branch of pure chemistry deals with the study of compounds associated with non-
living sources?

(a) Physical chemistry             (b) Organic chemistry

(c) Biochemistry                      (d) Inorganic chemistry

2. Which of the following is not a applied chemistry?

(a) Geochemistry         (b) Biochemistry

(c) Radiochemistry      (d) inorganic chemistry.

3. In order to design new drug, a chemist has to seek the help of

(a) Engineer                 (b) Geologist

(c) Zoologist               (d) Physician.

4. The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of hydrocarbons is called

(a) Organic chemistry              (c) Radiochemistry

(b) Inorganic chemistry           (d) Nuclear chemistry.

II. Fill in the Blanks

5. Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) Ecologist and chemist work together to ….. .

(ii) The branch of pure chemistry which deals with study of fundamental laws and principles
is called  …..

(iii) Qualitative analysis deals with  ….. .

(iv) Radiochemistry deals with the study of  …..  substances.

(v) The phenomenon of metamorphosis of rocks is studied by ….. branch of chemistry. m.

Discussion Questions

6. Define chemistry and its various disciplines.

7. Comment on the statement that chemistry is a central science discipline.

8. Write the names of various disciplines of applied chemistry. Define any two of them.

9. Name and define various branches of pure chemistry.

10. Give a brief account of various career options of degree holder in chemistry.

WEEK 2

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER 

In our daily life, we come across many objects, the knowledge about which can be gained by
one or more of our senses like sight, touch, hearing, taste and smelling. These objects possess
mass, occupy space and may have different shapes, sizes and colours. All these objects
constitute matter. Matter may thus, be defined as anything that occupies space, possesses
mass, offers resistance and can be felt by one or more of our senses. Some examples of
matter are, water, air, metals, plants, animals, etc. Thus, matter has countless forms. The
matter can be classified into different categories depending upon its physical or chemical
nature. Matter is categorized as a gas, a liquid or a solid on the basis of physical state. Air is
gas, water is liquid whereas sand is solid. Gases and liquids are fluids but solids are rigid.

On the basis of chemical nature matter is classified as an element, compound or mixture.

Elements and compounds are pure substances whereas mixtures contain two or more pure
substances.

In this Unit, we shall study classification of matter on the basis of its physical properties.
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

  Matter is made up of small particles

The particle nature of matter can be demonstrated in activity 4.1:

ACTIVITY4.1 

To demonstrate particle nature of matter

1. Take about 50 cm3 water in a 100 cm3 beaker.

2. Mark the level of water.

3. Add some sugar to the beaker and stir with the help of a glass rod.

4. Observe the change in water level.

Fig. 4.1. Dissolution of sugar in water. In solution particles of sugar are present in the spaces
between particles of water

It is observed that the crystals of sugar disappear. The level of water remains unchanged.
These observations can be explained by assuming that matter is made up of small particles.
On dissolution, the particles of sugar get distributed into the spaces between particles of
water.

• The constituent particles of matter are extremely small in size

The following activity demonstrates that the constituent particles of matter are very small

ACTIVITY 4.2 

To demonstrate that the particles of matter are very small 

1. Take a 250 cm3 beaker and add 100 cm3 water to it

2. Now add 2-3 crystals of KMnO4 and stir with a glass rod in order to dissolve the crystals.

3. Take 10 cm3 of this solution and add to 100 cm3 of water taken in another beaker.

4. Take 10 cm3 of this diluted solution and put into 100 cm3 of water taken in still another
beaker.

5. Repeat this process 10 times. Observe the colour of the solution in the last beaker.

It is observed that the water in the last beaker is still coloured but the intensity of colour
becomes light It indicates that KMnO4 crystal contains millions of tiny particles, some of
which are still present even in the last beaker after so much dilution.
• There are spaces between particles of matter In activity 4.1 we observed that when sugar
is dissolved in water, the volume of the liquid remains unchanged. During dissolution, the
particles of sugar get into the spaces between the particles of water. As a result, they get
evenly Distributed and there is no noticeable change in volume. Similarly, when KMnO4 is
dissolved in water, its particles get evenly distributed throughout the bulk of water. This is
indicated by uniform colour of the solution. This indicates that there are spaces between
particles of matter. The particles of KMnO4 get uniformly distributed in the spaces between
water molecules.

• The particles of matter are continuously moving The motion of particles of matter can be
demonstrated by the following practical activities:

ACTIVITY 4.3 

To demonstrate motion of particles of matter 

Place a bottle containing concentrated aqueous solution of ammonia in a corner of the room.
Remove the stopper.

What do you observe?

It is observed that ammoniacal smell can be sensed sitting at a distance.

It demonstrates that the particles of ammonia are moving. Due to this motion they are able to
reach the observer.

Similarly, if an incense stick is lighted and placed in one comer of a room, its pleasant smell
spreads in the whole room quickly. It demonstrates that the particles of matter possess
motion. A burning incense stick produces some gases (vapour) having pleasant smell. The
particles of these gases due to motion spread in the entire room and their presence can be felt
by sensing the smell.

ACTIVITY 4.4 

To demonstrate motion of particles in water and ink

1. Take a 250 cm3 beaker and add about 100 cm3 of water to it.

2. Put a drop of blue ink to the water taken in the beaker. What do you observe?

It is observed that the blue ink gets evenly distributed in the water.

This demonstrates that the particles of water and ink possess motion.

Due to motion of the particles, the particles of the two liquids are able to mix with each other.

ACTIVITY 4.5 

To demonstrate that the kinetic energy of particles increases with increase in

temperature
1. Take two beakers. To one beaker add 100 cm3 of cold water and to the other beaker add 1
00 cm3 of hot water.

2. Now add a crystal of potassium permanganate to both the beakers.

What do you observe?

It is observed that the purple colour of potassium permanganate starts spreading and after
sometime the entire solution becomes purple. The rate of mixing is faster in case of hot water.
This experiment demonstrates that the particles of matter possess motion and that the kinetic
energy of the particles increases with increase in temperature

The above activities demonstrate that when two different forms of matter are brought in
contact they intermix spontaneously. This intermixing is possible due to motion of the
particles of matter and also due to the spaces between them. The intermixing takes place due
to movement of particles of one form into the spaces between the particles of the other form
of matter. This spontaneous intermixing of particles of two different types of matter is called
diffusion. The rate of diffusion becomes faster with increase in temperature because at higher
temperature, the particles have more energy and hence move faster. 

• Particles of matter attract each other

There are forces of attraction between particles of matter. The evidence for forces of
attraction in gases is obtained from the fact that they can be liquefied by applying pressure.

The important characteristics of particles of matter are summarized below:

1. The particles of matter are extremely small in size.

2. The particles of matter have spaces between them.

3. The particles of matter are continuously moving.

4. The particles of matter attract each other.

The constituent particles of matter may be atoms, molecules or ions. Some examples are
given below in tabular form:

Constituent particles               Examples

1. Atoms                                 Argon, neon, helium, diamond

2. Molecules                            Sucrose , glucose,urea,methane carbon(IV) oxide

3. Ions                                     Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide, zinc sulphide

STATES OF MATTER
Matter can be classified into three categories depending upon its physical state, namely:
solids, liquids and gases. These states of matter arise due to variation in the characteristics of
the particles of matter. 

PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

(i) The matter in solid state possesses a definite volume, a definite shape, distinct boundaries
and a definite mass.

(ii) Solids are rigid and almost incompressible.

(iii) Solids may break under force but it is difficult to change their shape.

(iv) Solids generally possess high densities.

(v) Solids do not exhibit diffusion. Some common examples are: table, chair, common salt,
silver, ice, diamond, etc.

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS

(i) The matter in liquid state possesses a definite volume, a definite mass, but no definite
shape.

(ii) Liquids are also almost incompressible but are not rigid. In fact, they can flow and
acquire the shape of the container in which they are kept.

(iii) Liquids can undergo diffusion.

(iv) Liquids also have high densities but less than that of solids.

Some examples are: milk, water, alcohol, petrol, kerosene, fruit juices, etc.

PROPERT ES OF GASES

(i) The matter in gaseous state has neither definite volume nor definite shape but it has
definite mass. It acquires the shape and volume of the container.

(ii) Gases are highly compressible. For example, natural gas in compressed form is used as
fuel (Compressed Natural Gas-CNG) in internal combustion engines. Oxygen supplied to
hospitals in cylinders is also in compressed form. Due to high compressibility large volumes
of gas can be compressed into a small cylinder and transported easily.

(iii) The gases exhibit the property of diffusing very fast into other gases.

(iv) Gases exert pressure on the walls of the container in which they are stored.
(v) Gases have very low densities.

Some common examples of gases are: air, hydrogen  carbon(IV) oxide, hydrogen, sulphide,
ammonia, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.

 In solids, the interparticle spaces are small. They have smaller amounts of energy
than the same particles in the liquid and gaseous states. Consequently, the particles in
solid state cannot overcome the strong forces of attraction which are holding them
together. In solids, particles can only vibrate about fixed positions. Thus, particles in a
solid have vibrational and rotational motion but no translational motion. Because of
smaller interparticle spaces, solids are almost incompressible while due to absence of
translational motion they are rigid.

 In liquids, interparticle spaces are somewhat larger than in solids and the particles
have larger amounts of energy. The particles in liquids can overcome the interparticle
forces between each other to some extent and hence can move freely. However, the
intermolecular forces in liquids are strong enough to keep the particles within the
bulk. The particles in liquid state possess vibrational, rotational and translational
motion.

 In gases, the interparticle spaces are very large and the particle possess much larger
amounts of energy than those in solids and liquids. The gas particles have sufficient
energy to overcome the interparticle attractive forces almost completely. As a result
the gas particles move rapidly and randomly into any space available to them. Thus, a
gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept. That is why gases have neither
definite shape nor definite volume. Since particles in gaseous state are free to move,
they collide with one another and also against walls of the container. The pressure of
the gas is due to collisions of molecules against walls of the container.

 Solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter due to smaller
interparticle spaces” and negligible compressibility.

 Liquids and gases are known as fluids because of their ability to flow and take the
shape of container

PLASMA STATE-The Fourth State of matter

The matter in this state is in the form of ionized gas. It consists of neutral mixture of positive
ions and unbound electrons. The matter exists in this state at temperatures in the range
10000°C to 15000°C. The matter in the sun and stars exists in plasma state. It is estimated
that 99% of the matter in the universe exists in plasma state. Neon in neon lights is also in
plasma state.
Plasma

 Plasma has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.

 Plasma often is seen in ionized gases. Plasma is distinct from a gas because it
possesses unique properties. Free electrical charges (not bound to atoms or ions)
cause plasma to be electrically conductive. Plasma may be formed by heating and
ionizing a gas.

A comparison of the characteristic properties of solids,  liquids and gases are given in Table
4.1.

Table 4.1. Comparison of Characteristic Properties of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Property                      Solids                          Liquids                        Gases

l.Sbape                        Definite                       Take the shape           Take the shape of

of the con                    the container by

tainer, but do               occupying whole

not necessarily             of the space avaoccupy

all of it.                        ilable to them.

2. Volume                   Definite                      Definite                      Take the volume

of the container.

3. Compre-                  Almost            nil                   Almost nil                   Very large.

ssibility

4. Fluidity or               Rigid                           Fluid                                        Fluid

Rigidity

 
5. Density                    Large                           Large                           Very small.

6. Diffusion                 Generally                    Diffuse slowly            Diffuse rapidly.

do not

diffuse

7. Free                         Any                             Only one free              No free surface.

Surfaces                      number of                               surface

free

surfaces

Why Solids, Liquids and Gases Exhibit Different Properties?

The properties of matter in the three states of matter are different because the characteristics
of the particles vary in the three states of matter.

Now let us understand how the characteristics of particles vary in the three states of matter.
 Changes in states
Chemical Properties that do change tha
properties: chemical nature of matter

Examples of physical properties are: color, smell, freezing point, boiling point, melting point,
infra-red spectrum, attraction (paramagnetic) or repulsion (diamagnetic) to magnets, opacity,
viscosity and density. There are many more examples. Note that measuring each of these
properties will not alter the basic nature of the substance.

Examples of chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force.

The more properties we can identify for a substance, the better we know the nature of that
substance. These properties can then help us model the substance and thus understand how
this substance will behave under various conditions.

Physical and Chemical Properties

All substances have properties that we can use to identify them. For example we can idenify a
person by their face, their voice, height, finger prints, DNA etc.. The more of these properties
that we can identify, the better we know the person. In a similar way matter has properties -
and there are many of them. There are two basic types of properties that we can associate
with matter. These properties are called Physical properties and Chemical properties:

Physical Properties that do not change the

properties: chemical nature of matter
Chemical Properties that do change tha
properties: chemical nature of matter

Examples of physical properties are: color, smell, freezing point, boiling point, melting point,
infra-red spectrum, attraction (paramagnetic) or repulsion (diamagnetic) to magnets, opacity,
viscosity and density. There are many more examples. Note that measuring each of these
properties will not alter the basic nature of the substance.

Examples of chemical properties are: heat of combustion, reactivity with water, PH, and
electromotive force.

The more properties we can identify for a substance, the better we know the nature of that
substance. These properties can then help us model the substance and thus understand how
this substance will behave under various conditions.
Changing States of Matter

A material will change from one state or phase to another at specific combinations of
temperature and surrounding pressure. Typically, the pressure is atmospheric pressure, so
temperature is the determining factor to the change in state in thosecases.

Names such as boiling and freezing are given to the various changes in states of matter. The
temperature of a material will increase until it reaches the point where the change takes place.
It will stay at that temperature until that change is completed.
Changes in states

The states of matter are solid, liquid, gas and plasma. Since there is some debate on
whether plasma should be classified as a state of matter and since it is not commonly
experienced, we will not discuss its properties here.

Order of changes

When heat is applied to a material, its change in state typically goes from solid to liquid
to gas. There are some exceptions where the material will go directly from a solid to a
gas.

When a material is cooled, its change in state typically goes from gas to liquid to solid.
There are some exceptions where the material will go directly from a gas to asolid.

Names of changes

Each change in the state of matter has a specific name.

Start from: Change to: Name

solid liquid melting
liquid solid freezing
liquid gas boiling
gas liquid condensation
gas
solid sublimation
(skipping liquid phase)
solid
gas deposition
(skipping liquid phase)
Change in temperature

When a material reaches the temperature at which a change in state occurs, the
temperature will remain the same until all the energy is used to change the state.

Melting

When a solid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches its melting point. Any
additional heat added to the material will not raise the temperature until all of the
material is melted.
Thus, if you heat some ice, its temperature will rise until it reaches 0° C (32° F). Then
the ice will stay at that temperature until all the ice is melted. The heat energy is used to
melt the ice and not to raise the temperature. After the ice is melted, the temperature of
the water will continue to rise as more heat is applied.

Boiling

When a liquid is heated, its temperature rises until it reaches its boiling point. The
temperature will then remain at that point until all of the liquid is boiled away.

For example, the temperature of a pot of water will increase until it reaches 100° C
(212° F). It will stay there until all the water is boiled away. The temperature of the
steam can then be increased.

Cooling

Likewise, when a gas is cooled, its temperature will drop until it reaches the
condensation point. Any additional cooling or heat loss will not lower the temperature
until all of the gas is condensed into the liquid state.

Then the temperature of the liquid will continue to drop as more cooling is applied.
Once the liquid reaches the freezing point, the temperature will remain at that point
until all of the liquid is solidified. Then the temperature of the solid cancontinue to
decrease.
Chemical change
Changesis any change that results in the formation of new chemical substances. At
the molecular level, chemical change involves making or breaking of bonds between atoms.
Chemical changes
These changes are take place on the molecular level. A chemical change produces a new
chemical:
substance. Examples of chemical changes include combustion (burning), cooking an egg,
rusting of an
 iron
ironpan, and mixing
rusting hydrochloric
(iron oxide forms) acid and sodium hydroxide to make salt and
water.  gasoline burning (water vapor and carbon dioxide form)
 eggs cooking (fluid protein molecules uncoil and crosslink to form a network)
Physical Changes
 bread rising (yeast converts carbohydrates into carbon dioxide gas)
 milk souring (sour-tasting lactic acid is produced)
Physical changes are concerned
 suntanning withDenergy
(vitamin and states
and melanin of matter.
is produced)
 Physical change rearranges molecules but doesn't affect their internal structures. Some
examples of physical change are:
A physical change does not produce a new substance. Changes in state or phase (melting,
freezing, vaporization,
 whipping condensation, sublimation)
egg whites (air are the
is forced into physical
fluid, changes.
but no newExamples of is
substance
physical changes include
produced) crushing a can, melting an ice cube, and breaking a bottle.
 magnetizing a compass needle (there is realignment of groups ("domains") of
How to Tell Chemical & Physical
iron atoms, but no realChanges
change Apart
within the iron atoms themselves).
 boiling water (water molecules are forced away from each other when the
A chemical change
liquidmakes a substance
changes to vapor,that
but wasn't there before.
the molecules There
are still may be clues that a
H2O.)
chemical reaction took place,
 dissolving such
sugar as light,
in water heat,molecules
(sugar color change, gas production,
are dispersed odor,
within the or but
water,
sound. The starting and ending
the individual materials
sugar of a physical
molecules change are
are unchanged.) the potatoes
dicing same, even though they
(cutting
may look different.
usually separates molecules without changing them.)

Examples of Chemical Changes

 burning wood
 dissolving salt in water
 mixing acid and base
 digesting food

Examples of Physical Changes

 crumpling a sheet of paper

 melting an ice cube
 casting silver in a mold
 breaking a bottle

How to Tell?

Look for an indication that a chemical change occurred. Chemical reactions release or absorb
heat or other energy or may produce a gas, odor, color or sound. If you don't see any of these
indications, a physical change likely occurred.

In some cases, it may be hard to tell whether a chemical or physical change occurred. For
example, when you dissolve sugar in water, a physical change occurs. The form of the sugar
changes, but it remains the same chemically (sucrose molecules). However, when you
dissolve salt in water the salt dissociates into its ions (from NaCl into Na+ and Cl-) so a
chemical change occurs. In both cases a white solid dissolves into a clear liquid and in both
cases you can recover the starting material by removing the water, yet the processes are not
the same.

Difference between chemical and physical change

SUMMARY

 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

 Matter can be classified as solids, liquids and gases on the basis of its physical state.

 Matter is made up of extremely small particles.

 There are spaces between particles of matter.

 The particles of matter are continuously moving.

 The particles of matter attract each other.

 The spaces between particles are minimum in solid state and maximum in gases.

 The kinetic energy of particles minimum in solid state and maximum in gaseous state.

 The force of attraction between particles is maximum in solid state and negligible in
gaseous state.

 Liquids and gases exhibit diffusion because their particles possess translatory motion
and possess larger interparticle spaces.

 Solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter due to smaller
interparticle spaces and very little compressibility.

 Liquids and gases are known as fluids because of their ability to flow and take the
shape of the container.

EVALUATION

1.Which of the following is not an example of matter?

(a) Air                          (b) Almonds

(c) Cold-drink             (d) Love.

2. Which of the following has the strongest interparticle forces?

(a) Nitrogen                 (b) Water

(c) Iron                        d) Neon.

 
3 Which of the following has atoms as the constituent particles?

(a) Dry ice                   (b) Argon

(c) Glucose                  (d) Potassium chloride.

Fill in the blanks

Complete the following sentences by supplying appropriate words:

(i) The particles in …… state do not possess translator motion.

(ii) …… and …… states of matter are known as fluid states of matter.

(iii) Particles in …… state possess maximum kinetic energy.

(iv) Kinetic energy of particles of matter …… with increase in temperature.

I .Discussion Question 

5 What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?

6. Which out of iron and chalk has stronger interparticle forces?

7. Give reasons for the following observations:

We can get the smell of perfume sitting from several meters away.

8. A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of matter does
this observation show?

9. Describe an activity to demonstrate that the matter consists of particles and that the
particles are of extremely small size.

10. What are the characteristics of matter in solid state?

11.P Explain why:

(i) Solids do not undergo diffusion whereas liquids and gases undergo diffusion readily.

(ii) Gases are highly compressible.

12. Give reasons for the following:

(i) A gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept.

(ii) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.

11. Explain why solid and liquid states are known as condensed states of matter.

14. Give reasons:

(i) Sponge is a solid yet we are able to compress it.

(ii) Sugar when kept in jars of different shapes it takes the shape of the jar yet we call it a
solid.

15.With two examples in each case,mention physical and chemical processes in your
environment.

16.What are states of matter?Use a suitable diagram to show how one state can be converted
to another state.

WEEK 3.
ELEMENTS

Element Definition: A chemical element is a substance that cannot be broken down by

chemical means. Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.

These are the first 20 elements, listed in order:

1 - H - Hydrogen
2 - He - Helium
3 - Li - Lithium
4 - Be - Beryllium
5 - B - Boron
6 - C - Carbon
7 - N - Nitrogen
8 - O - Oxygen
9 - F - Fluorine
10 - Ne - Neon
11 - Na - Sodium
12 - Mg - Magnesium
13 - Al - Aluminum
14 - Si - Silicon
15 - P - Phosphorus
16 - S - Sulfur
17 - Cl - Chlorine
18 - Ar - Argon
19 - K - Potassium
20 - Ca - Calcium

States of Matter - Elements

The states of matter of all of the elements is given for normal conditions, i.e. a temperature
of 20°C. The 3 states of matter are either solid, liquid or gas. Most elements are solids, only
11 are gases and 2 are liquids.
Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements. Atoms are made
up of three particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in the center of the atom, which is
called the nucleus. Electrons are extremely lightweight and exist in a cloud orbiting the
nucleus. The electron cloud has a radius 10,000 times greater than the nucleus.

Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass. However, one proton weighs more
than 1,800 electrons. Atoms always have an equal number of protons and electrons, and the
number of protons and neutrons is usually the same as well. Adding a proton to an atom
makes a new element, while adding a neutron makes an isotope, or heavier version, of that
atom.

Nucleus

The nucleus was discovered in 1911, but its parts were not identified until 1932. Virtually all
the mass of the atom resides in the nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the "strong
force," one of the four basic forces in nature. This force between the protons and neutrons
overcomes the repulsive electrical force that would, according to the rules of electricity, push
the protons apart otherwise.
Protons

Protons are positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei. They were discovered
by Ernest Rutherford in experiments conducted between 1911 and 1919.

The number of protons in an atom defines what element it is. For example, carbon atoms
have six protons, hydrogen atoms have one and oxygen atoms have eight. The number of
protons in an atom is referred to as the atomic number of that element. The number of
protons in an atom also determines the chemical behavior of the element. The Periodic Table
of the Elements arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number.

Protons are made of other particles called quarks. There are three quarks in each proton —
two "up" quarks and one "down" quark — and they are held together by other particles
called gluons.

Electrons

Electrons have a negative charge and are electrically attracted to the positively charged
protons. Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals. The inner
orbitals surrounding the atom are spherical but the outer orbitals are much more complicated.

An atom's electron configuration is the orbital description of the locations of the electrons in
an unexcited atom. Using the electron configuration and principles of physics, chemists can
predict an atom's properties, such as stability, boiling point and conductivity.

Typically, only the outermost electron shells matter in chemistry. The inner electron shell
notation is often truncated by replacing the long-hand orbital description with the symbol for
a noble gas in brackets. This method of notation vastly simplifies the description for large
molecules.

For example, the electron configuration for beryllium (Be) is 1s22s2, but it's is written
[He]2s2. [He] is equivalent to all the electron orbitals in a helium atom. The Letters, s, p, d,
and f designate the shape of the orbitals and the superscript gives the number of electrons in
thatorbital.

Neutrons

Neutrons are uncharged particles found within atomic nuclei. A neutron's mass is slightly
larger than that of a proton. Like protons, neutrons are also made of quarks — one "up"
quark and two "down" quarks. Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or nucleon number, is the total
number of protons and neutrons (together known as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus. It
determines the atomic mass of atoms. Because protons and neutrons both are baryons, the
mass number A is identical with the baryon number B as of the nucleus as of the whole atom
or ion. The mass number is different for each different isotope of a chemical element. This is
not the same as the atomic number (Z) which denotes the number of protons in a nucleus,
and thus uniquely identifies an element. Hence, the difference between the mass number and
the atomic number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given nucleus: N=A−Z.[1]

The mass number is written either after the element name or as a superscript to the left of an
element's symbol. For example, the most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, or 12C,
which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic
number (Z) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly below the mass number:
12
6C.[2] This is technically redundant, as each element is defined by its atomic number, so it is
often omitted

The atomic number of a chemical element (also known as its proton number) is the
number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of that element, and therefore identical to
the charge number of the nucleus. It is conventionally represented by the symbol Z. The
atomic number uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an uncharged atom, the atomic
number is also equal to the number of electrons.

EVALUATION

1.Write the symbols of the first twenty elements.

2.Classify the first twenty elements into the three states of matter.

3.Define atomic number and mass number.

WEEK 4.

MOLECULES AND ATOMICITY

A molecule is the smallest particle in a chemical element or compound that has the chemical
properties of that element or compound. Molecules are made up of atom s that are held
together by chemical bonds. These bonds form as a result of the sharing or exchange of
electron s among atoms.

The atoms of certain elements readily bond with other atoms to form molecules. Examples of
such elements are oxygen and chlorine. The atoms of some elements do not easily bond with
other atoms. Examples are neon and argon.

Molecules can vary greatly in size and complexity. The element helium is a one-atom
molecule. Some molecules consist of two atoms of the same element. For example, O 2 is the
oxygen molecule most commonly found in the earth's atmosphere; it has two atoms of
oxygen. However, under certain circumstances, oxygen atoms bond into triplets (O 3 ),
forming a molecule known as ozone. Other familiar molecules include water, consisting of
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (H 2 O), carbon dioxide, consisting of one carbon
atom bonded to two oxygen atoms (CO 2 ), and sulfuric acid, consisting of two hydrogen
atoms, one sulfur atom, and four oxygen atoms (H 2 SO 4 ).

ATOMICITY OF ELEMENTS.

1.MONOATOMIC ELEMETS:these are elements with only one atom e.gthe noble
gases(neon,argon,helium),sodium magnesium, in short all metals are monoatomic.

2.DIATOMIC ELEMENTS:these elements contains two atoms .most non metals fall under
this category.e.g N2.F2.Cl2,O2,Br2.I2.H2.

3.POLYATOMIC ELEMENTS: are those elements with more than two atoms.e.g
phosphorus 5,sulphur 8
Foundations of Dalton's atomic theory

Dalton's atomic theory makes the following assumptions:

1. All matter consists of tiny particles. The existence of atoms was first suggested
more that 2000 years before Dalton's birth. Atoms remained pure speculation through
most of this time, although Newton used arguments based on atoms to explain the gas
laws in 1687. (Newton's speculations about atoms in the Principia were carefully
copied by hand into Dalton's notebooks.)
2. Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable. Atoms of an element cannot be
created, destroyed, broken into smaller parts or transformed into atoms of another
element. Dalton based this hypothesis on the law of conservation of mass and on
centuries of experimental evidence.

With the discovery of subatomic particles after Dalton's time, it became apparent that
atoms could be broken into smaller parts. The discovery of nuclear processes showed
that it was even possible to transform atoms from one element into atoms of another.
But we don't consider processes that affect the nucleus to be chemical processes. The
postulate is still useful in explaining the law of conservation of mass in chemistry. A
slightly more restrictive wording is "Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or
transformed into other atoms in a chemical change".

3. Elements are characterized by the mass of their atoms. All atoms of the same
element have identical weights, Dalton asserted. Atoms of different elements have
different weights. (Dalton used the word "weight" rather than mass, and chemists
have called atomic masses "atomic weights" ever since).

We now know that atoms of the same element sometimes have slightly different masses, but
always have identical nuclear charge. In modern atomic theory, the postulate has been
amended to read: "Elements are characterized by the nuclear charge of their atoms".

4. When elements react, their atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios. This
postulate suggested a practical strategy for determining relative atomic weights from
elemental percentages in compounds. Experimental atomic weights could then be
used to explain the fixed mass percentages of elements in all compounds of those
elements!

By suggesting that compounds contained characteristic atom-to-atom ratios, Dalton

effectively explained the law of definite proportions.

5. When elements react, their atoms sometimes combine in more than one simple,
whole-number ratio. Dalton used this postulate to explain why the weight ratios of
nitrogen to oxygen in various nitrogen oxides were themselves simple multiples of
each other. Even Dalton's critics were impressed by the power and simplicity of his
explanation, and it persuaded many of them that his atomic theory was worthy of
further investigation.

Unfortunately, Dalton included an additional postulate that prevented his theory from being
accepted for many years. When atoms combine in only one ratio, Dalton said, "..it must be
presumed to be a binary one, unless some cause appear to the contrary" [2]. He had no
experimental evidence to support this postulate, and it lead him to mistakenly assume that
the formula of water was OH and the formula of ammonia was NH. As a result, Dalton's
atomic weights for oxygen and nitrogen were incorrect and his experimental data did not
support many of the conclusions he drew from it.A consistent set of atomic weights was
absolutely essential before the theory could be accepted and applied. Next, we'll see how
Dalton's postulates can be used to estimate atomic weights from experimental data, and how
they explain three basic laws of chemistry.

EVALUATION

1.Define molecules and Atomicity.

2.State with examples, the types of Atomicity.

3.State Dalton’s Atomic theory. Describe its modification

WEEK 5

PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements. Atoms are made
up of three particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in the center of the atom, which is
called the nucleus. Electrons are extremely lightweight and exist in a cloud orbiting the
nucleus. The electron cloud has a radius 10,000 times greater than the nucleus.

Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass. However, one proton weighs more
than 1,800 electrons. Atoms always have an equal number of protons and electrons, and the
number of protons and neutrons is usually the same as well. Adding a proton to an atom
makes a new element, while adding a neutron makes an isotope, or heavier version, of that
atom.

Nucleus

The nucleus was discovered in 1911, but its parts were not identified until 1932. Virtually all
the mass of the atom resides in the nucleus. The nucleus is held together by the "strong
force," one of the four basic forces in nature. This force between the protons and neutrons
overcomes the repulsive electrical force that would, according to the rules of electricity, push
the protons apart otherwise.
Protons

Protons are positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei. They were discovered
by Ernest Rutherford in experiments conducted between 1911 and 1919.

The number of protons in an atom defines what element it is. For example, carbon atoms
have six protons, hydrogen atoms have one and oxygen atoms have eight. The number of
protons in an atom is referred to as the atomic number of that element. The number of
protons in an atom also determines the chemical behavior of the element. The Periodic Table
of the Elements arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number.

Protons are made of other particles called quarks. There are three quarks in each proton —
two "up" quarks and one "down" quark — and they are held together by other particles
called gluons.

Electrons

Electrons have a negative charge and are electrically attracted to the positively charged
protons. Electrons surround the atomic nucleus in pathways called orbitals. The inner
orbitals surrounding the atom are spherical but the outer orbitals are much more complicated.

An atom's electron configuration is the orbital description of the locations of the electrons in
an unexcited atom. Using the electron configuration and principles of physics, chemists can
predict an atom's properties, such as stability, boiling point and conductivity.

Typically, only the outermost electron shells matter in chemistry. The inner electron shell
notation is often truncated by replacing the long-hand orbital description with the symbol for
a noble gas in brackets. This method of notation vastly simplifies the description for large
molecules.

For example, the electron configuration for beryllium (Be) is 1s22s2, but it's is written
[He]2s2. [He] is equivalent to all the electron orbitals in a helium atom. The Letters, s, p, d,
and f designate the shape of the orbitals and the superscript gives the number of electrons in
that orbital.

Neutrons

Neutrons are uncharged particles found within atomic nuclei. A neutron's mass is slightly
larger than that of a proton. Like protons, neutrons are also made of quarks — one "up"
quark and two "down" quarks. Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

RULES FOR FILLING ORBITALS

Rule 1 - Lowest energy orbitals fill first. Thus, the filling pattern is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d,
etc. Since the orbitals within a subshell are degenerate (of equal energy), the entire subshell
of a particular orbital type is filled before moving to the next subshell of higher energy.
Rule 2 - Pauli Exclusion Principle - Only two electrons are permitted per orbital and they
must be of opposite spin. If one electron within an orbital possesses a clockwise spin, then
the second electron within that orbital will possess a counterclockwise spin. Two electrons
with opposite spins found in the same orbital are referred to as being paired.

Rule 3- Hund's Rule - The most stable arrangement of electrons in a subshell occurs when
the maximum number of unpaired electrons exist, all possessing the same spin direction.
This occurs due to the degeneracy of the orbitals, all orbitals within a subshell are of equal
energy. Electrons are repulsive to one another and only pair after all of the orbitals have been
singly filled.

Rules for Assigning Electron Orbitals

Occupation of Orbitals

Electrons fill orbitals in a way to minimize the energy of the atom. Therefore, the electrons
in an atom fill the principal energy levels in order of increasing energy (the electrons are
getting farther from the nucleus). The order of levels filled looks like this: 

1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, and 7p

One way to remember this pattern, probably the easiest, is to refer to the periodic table and
remember where each orbital block falls to logically deduce this pattern. Another way is to
make a table like the one below and use vertical lines to determine which subshells
correspond with each other. 

Pauli Exclusion Principle

The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons can have the same four quantum
numbers. The first three (n, l, and ml) may be the same, but the fourth quantum number must
be different. A single orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons, which must have
opposing spins; otherwise they would have the same four quantum numbers, which is
forbidden. One electron is spin up (m s = +1/2) and the other would spin down (m s = -1/2).
This tells us that each subshell has double the electrons per orbital. The s subshell has 1
orbital that can hold up to 2 electrons, the p subshell has 3 orbitals that can hold up to 6
electrons, the d subshell has 5 orbitals that hold up to 10 electrons, and the f subshell has 7
orbitals with 14 electrons.

Example 1: Hydrogen and Helium

The first three quantum numbers of an electron are n=1, l=0, ml=0. Only two electrons can
correspond to these, which would be either ms = -1/2 or ms = +1/2. As we already know from
our studies of quantum numbers and electron orbitals, we can conclude that these four
quantum numbers refer to the 1s subshell. If only one of the m s values are given then we
would have 1s1 (denoting hydrogen) if both are given we would have 1s2 (denoting helium).
Visually, this is be represented as:

Hund's Rule

When assigning electrons in orbitals, each electron will first fill all the orbitals with similar
energy (also referred to as degenerate) before pairing with another electron in a half-filled
orbital. Atoms at ground states tend to have as many unpaired electrons as possible. When
visualizing this processes, think about how electrons are exhibiting the same behavior as the
same poles on a magnet would if they came into contact; as the negatively charged electrons
fill orbitals they first try to get as far as possible from each other before having to pair up.

Example 2: Oxygen and Nitrogen

If we look at the correct electron configuration of the Nitrogen (Z = 7) atom, a very

important element in the biology of plants: 1s2 2s2 2p3

We can clearly see that p orbitals are half-filled as there are three electrons and three p
orbitals. This is because Hund's Rule states that the three electrons in the 2p subshell will fill
all the empty orbitals first before filling orbitals with electrons in them. If we look at the
element after Nitrogen in the same period, Oxygen (Z = 8) its electron configuration is: 1s2
2s2 2p4 (for an atom).

Oxygen has one more electron than Nitrogen and as the orbitals are all half filled the electron
must pair up.

The Aufbau Process

Aufbau comes from the German word "aufbauen" meaning "to build." When writing electron
configurations, orbitals are built up from atom to atom. When writing the electron
configuration for an atom, orbitals are filled in order of increasing atomic number. However,
there are some exceptions to this rule.

Example 3: 3rd row elements

Following the pattern across a period from B (Z=5) to Ne (Z=10), the number of electrons
increases and the subshells are filled. This example focuses on the p subshell, which fills
from boron to neon.

 B (Z=5) configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p1

 C (Z=6) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p2
 N (Z=7) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p3
 O (Z=8) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p4
 F (Z=9) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p5
 Ne (Z=10) configuration:1s2 2s2 2p6

Exceptions

Although the Aufbau rule accurately predicts the electron configuration of most elements,

there are notable exceptions among the transition metals and heavier elements. The reason
these exceptions occur is that some elements are more stable with fewer electrons in some
subshells and more electrons in others (Table 1).

Table 1: Exceptions to Electron Configuration Trends

Period 4: Period 5:
Chromium: Z:24 [Ar] 3d54s1 Niobium: Z:41 [Kr] 5s1 4d4
Copper: Z:29 [Ar] 3d104s1 Molybdenum: Z:42 [Kr] 5s1 4d5
  Ruthenium: Z:44 [Kr] 5s1 4d7
  Rhodium:  Z:45 [Kr] 5s1 4d8
  Palladium: Z:46 [Kr] 4d10
  Silver: Z:47 [Kr] 5s1 4d10
Period 6: Period 7:
Lanthanum: Z:57 [Xe] 6s2 5d1 Actinium: Z:89 [Rn] 7s2 6d1
Cerium: Z:58 [Xe] 6s2 4f1 5d1 Thorium: Z:90 [Rn] 7s2 6d2
Gadolinium: Z:64 [Xe] 6s2 4f7 5d1 Protactium: Z:91 [Rn] 7s2 5f2 6d1
Platinum: Z:78 [Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d9 Uranium: Z:92 [Rn] 7s2 5f3 6d1
Gold: Z:79 [Xe] 6s1 4f14 5d10 Neptunium: Z:93 [Rn] 7s2 5f4 6d1
  Curium: Z:96 [Rn] 7s2 5f7 6d1
   Lawrencium: Z:103 [Rn] 7s2 5f14 7p1
Writing Electron Configurations

When writing an electron configuration, first write the energy level (the period), then the
subshell to be filled and the superscript, which is the number of electrons in that subshell.
The total number of electrons is the atomic number, Z. The rules above allow one to
write the electron configurations for all the elements in the periodic table.

Three methods are used to write electron configurations:

1. orbital diagrams
2. spdf notation
3. noble gas notation

Each method has its own purpose and each has its own drawbacks.

Orbital Diagrams

An orbital diagram, like those shown above, is a visual way to reconstruct the electron
configuration by showing each of the separate orbitals and the spins on the electrons. This is
done by first determining the subshell (s,p,d, or f) then drawing in each electron according to
the stated rules above.

Example 4: Aluminum and Iridium

Write the electron configuration for aluminum and iridium.

SOLUTION

Aluminum is in the 3rd period and it has an atomic number of Z=13. If we look at the
periodic table we can see that its in the p-block as it is in group 13. Now we shall look at the
orbitals it will fill: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p. We know that aluminum completely fills the 1s, 2s, 2p,
and 3s orbitals because mathematically this would be 2+2+6+2=12.  The last electron is in
the 3p orbital. Also another way of thinking about it is that as you move from each orbital
block, the subshells become filled as you complete each section of the orbital in the period.
The block that the atom is in (in the case for aluminum: 3p) is where we will count to get the
number of electrons in the last subshell (for aluminum this would be one electron because its
the first element in the period 3 p-block). This gives the following:
Note that in the orbital diagram, the two opposing spins of the electron can be visualized.
This is why it is sometimes useful to think about electron configuration in terms of the
diagram. However, because it is the most time consuming method, it is more common to
write or see electron configurations in spdf notation and noble gas notation. Another
example is the electron configuration of iridium:

The electron configuration of iridium is much longer than aluminum. Although drawing out
each orbital may prove to be helpful in determining unpaired electrons, it is very time
consuming and often not as practical as the spdf notation, especially for atoms with much
longer configurations. Hund's rule is also followed, as each electron fills up each 5d orbital
before being forced to pair with another electron.

spdf Notation

The most common way to describe electron configurations is to write distributions in the
spdf notation. Although the distributions of electrons in each orbital are not as apparent as in
the diagram, the total number of electrons in each energy level is described by a superscript
that follows the relating energy level. To write the electron configuration of an atom, identify
the energy level of interest and write the number of electrons in the energy level as its
superscript as follows: 1s2. This is the electron configuration of helium; it denotes a full s
orbital. The periodic table is used as a reference to accurately write the electron
configurations of all atoms. 

Example 5: Yttrium

Write the electronic configuration of Yttrium.

SOLUTION

Start with the straightforward problem of finding the electron configuration of the element
yttrium. As always, refer to the periodic table. The element yttrium (symbolized Y) is a
transition metal, found in the fifth period and in Group 3. In total it has thirty-nine electrons.
Its electron configuration is as follows:

 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d1

This is a much simpler and more efficient way to portray electron configuration of an atom.
A logical way of thinking about it is that all that is required is to fill orbitals across a period
and through orbital blocks. The number of elements in each block is the same as in the
energy level it corresponds. For example, there are 2 elements in the s-block, and 10
elements in the d-block. Moving across, simply count how many elements fall in each block.
Yttrium is the first element in the fourth period d-block; thus there is one electron in that
energy level. To check the answer, verify that the subscripts add up to the atomic number. In
this case, 2+2+6+2+6+2+10+6+2+1= 39 and Z=39, so the answer is correct.

A slightly more complicated example is the electron configuration of bismuth (symbolized

Bi, with Z = 83). The periodic table gives the following electron configuration:

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p65s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p3

The reason why this electron configuration seems more complex is that the f-block, the
Lanthanide series, is involved. Most students who first learn electron configurations often
have trouble with configurations that must pass through the f-block because they often
overlook this break in the table and skip that energy level. Its important to remember that
when passing the 5d and 6d energy levels that one must pass through the f-block
lanthanoidand actinoidseries. Keeping this in mind, this "complex" problem is greatly
simplified.

Another method (but less commonly used) of writing the spdf notation is the expanded
notation format. This is the same concept as before, except that each individual orbital is
represented with a subscript. The p, d, and f orbitals have different sublevels. The p orbitals
are px,py, and pz, and if represented on the 2p energy with full orbitals would look like:
2px2 2py2 2pz2. The expanded notation for neon (Ne, Z=10) is written as follows:

1s2 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2
The individual orbitals are represented, but the spins on the electrons are not; opposite spins
are assumed. When representing the configuration of an atom with half filled orbitals,
indicate the two half filled orbitals. The expanded notation for carbon is written as follows:

1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1

Because this form of the spdf notation is not typically used, it is not as important to dwell on
this detail as it is to understand how to use the general spdf notation.  

Noble Gas Notation

This brings up an interesting point about elements and electron configurations. As the p
subshell is filled in the above example about the Aufbau principle (the trend from boron to
neon), it reaches the group commonly known as the noble gases. The noble gases have the
most stable electron configurations, and are known for being relatively inert. All noble gases
have their subshells filled and can be used them as a shorthand way of writing electron
configurations for subsequent atoms. This method of writing configurations is called the
noble gas notation, in which the noble gas in the period above the element that is being
analyzed is used to denote the subshells that element has filled and after which the valence
electrons (electrons filling orbitals in the outer most shells) are written. This looks slightly
different from spdf notation, as the reference noble gas must be indicated.

Example 6: Vanadium

What is the electronic configuration of vanadium (V, Z=23)?

SOLUTION

Vanadium is the transition metal in the fourth period and the fifth group. The noble gas
preceding it is argon (Ar, Z=18), and knowing that vanadium has filled those orbitals before
it, argon is used as the reference noble gas. The noble gas in the configuration is denoted E,
in brackets: [E]. To find the valance electrons that follow, subtract the atomic numbers: 23 -
18 = 5. Instead of 23 electrons to distribute in orbitals, there are 5. Now there is enough
information to write the electron configuration:

Vanadium, V: [Ar] 4s2 3d3

This method streamlines the process of distributing electrons by showing the valence
electrons, which determine the chemical properties of atoms. In addition, when determining
the number of unpaired electrons in an atom, this method allows quick visualization of the
configurations of the valance electrons. In the example above, there are a full s orbital and
three half filled d orbitals.

Ions: Atoms with an Electrical Charge

Atoms (or groups of atoms) in which there are unequal numbers of protons and electrons are
called ions. Usually, the number of protons and electrons in atoms are equal. But there are
cases in which an atom can acquire an electrical charge.

An ion example

For example, in the compound sodium chloride — table salt — the sodium atom has a
positive charge and the chlorine atom has a negative charge.

The neutral sodium atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons, which means it has 11 positive
charges and 11 negative charges. Overall, the sodium atom is neutral, and it’s represented
like this: Na. But the sodium ion contains one more positive charge than negative charge, so
it’s represented like this:

This unequal number of negative and positive charges can occur in one of two ways: An
atom can gain a proton (a positive charge) or lose an electron (a negative charge).

Cations and anions

So which process is more likely to occur? In general, it’s easy to gain or lose electrons but
very difficult to gain or lose protons. So atoms become ions by gaining or losing electrons.
And ions that have a positive charge are called cations.

The progression goes like this: The sodium ion shown above is formed from the loss of one
electron. Because it lost an electron, it has more protons than electrons, or more positive
charges than negative charges, which means it’s now called the:

Likewise, when the neutral magnesium atom loses two electrons, it forms the:

Now consider the chlorine atom in sodium chloride. The neutral chlorine atom has acquired
a negative charge by gaining an electron. Because it has unequal numbers of protons and
electrons, it’s now an ion. And because ions that have a negative charge are called anions,
it’s now called the:

Other details about ions

Here are some extra tidbits about ions:

 You can write electron configurations and energy level diagrams for ions. The neutral
sodium atom (11 protons) has an electron configuration of:
 The sodium cation has lost an electron — the valence electron, which is farthest away
from the nucleus (the 3s electron, in this case). The electron configuration of the
sodium ion is:

 The electron configuration of the chloride ion is:

This is the same electron configuration as the neutral Argon atom. If two chemical
species have the same electron configuration, they’re said to be isoelectronic.

 The preceding examples are all monoatomic (one atom) ions. But polyatomic (many
atom) ions do exist. The ammonium ion is a polyatomic ion, or, specifically, a
polyatomic cation. It is written as:

The nitrate ion, is also a polyatomic ion, or, specifically, a polyatomic anion. It is
written as

 Ions are commonly found in a class of compounds called salts, or ionic solids. Salts,
when melted or dissolved in water, yield solutions that conduct electricity.

A substance that conducts electricity when melted or dissolved in water is called an

electrolyte. Table salt — sodium chloride — is a good example.

On the other hand, when table sugar (sucrose) is dissolved in water, it becomes a
solution that doesn’t conduct electricity. So sucrose is a nonelectrolyte.

Whether a substance is an electrolyte or a nonelectrolyte gives clues to the type of

bonding in the compound. If the substance is an electrolyte, the compound is
probably ionically bonded. If it’s a nonelectrolyte, it’s probably covalently bonded.
EVALUATION

1.Write the electronic configuration of the first twenty elements.

2.Write out the characteristics of the first three fundamental particles in an atom.

3.An atom of an element is represented by X. How many electrons,protons and

neutrons are in the atom? Write the electronic structure of the atom.

WEEK 6.

THE RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES OF ELEMENTS.

ISOTOPE

Isotopes Definition: Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons, but differing
numbers of neutrons. Isotopes are different forms of a single element.

Examples: Carbon 12 and Carbon 14 are both isotopes of carbon, one with 6 neutrons and
one with 8 neutrons (both with 6 protons).

Week 6b

ATOMIC WEIGHTS AND ISOTOPIC ABUNDANCE

The atomic weight of an element is the relative atomic mass of that element. It is actually a
weighted mass of the elements isotopes (if any) and their relative abundance.

You know that the sum of the percentages of the isotopes is equal to 1 (100%), so the
relative abundance of the isotopes can be found using simple algebra.

Example #1:

Silver (Atomic weight 107.868) has two naturally-occurring isotopes with isotopic weights
of 106.90509 and 108.90470. What is the percentage abundance of the lighter isotope?

To avoid mistakes, use "x" as the multiplier for the isotope percentage you wish to find. In
this case, you want to find the percentage of the lighter isotope, so the "x" is associated with
106.90509. Since the sum of the isotopic abundance percentages is equal to 1 (100%), the
formula is:
 108.90470 (1 - x) + 106.90509 (x) = 107.868
Multiplying, re-arranging and condensing the above formula results in:
108.90470 - 108.90470x + 106.90509x = 107.868

- 108.90470x + 106.90509x = - 108.90470 + 107.868

- 1.9996x = - 1.0367

x = 0.5185

Therefore, the answer is 51.85 %

Example #2:

An imaginary element (Atomic weight 93.7140) has three naturally-occurring isotopes with
isotopic weights of 92.9469, 93.2923 and 94.9030. The abundance of the lightest isotope is
42.38 %. What is the percentage abundance of the heaviest isotope?

In this case, we know the abundance of one of the isotopes. We know the percentages of the
lighter isotope (42.38 %) and the percentage of the heavier isotope (x), so the percentage of
the middle isotope is equal to 1 (100%) minus the other two percentages (1 - 0.4238 - x).

92.9469 (0.4238) + 93.2923 [(1-0.4238)-x] + 94.9030x = 93.7140

39.3909 + 53.7550 - 93.2923x + 94.9030x = 93.7140

93.14 + 1.6107x = 93.7140

1.6107x = 0.4217

x = 26.18

Therefore, the answer is 26.18%

EVALUATION
1. Define the following terms i. Atomic number ii. mass number iii.
Isotopes iv. Isotopy
2. Determine the relative atomic mass of carbon from a sample with the
followingdata.98.9% of carbon -12 and 1.1% of carbon-13.

WEEK 7
COMPOUND
In chemistry, a compound is a substance that results from a combination of two or more
different chemical element s, in such a way that the atom s of the different elements are held
together by chemical bonds that are difficult to break. These bonds form as a result of the
sharing or exchange of electron s among the atoms. The smallest unbreakable unit of a
compound is called a molecule

Examples of compounds:

 water (H2O)
 table salt (NaCl)
 sucrose (table sugar, C12H22O11

The relationship is simple. 

Atoms are what all matter are ultimately made up of.  Atoms are the smallest units of an
element. 

Elements are substances composed of all the same type of atoms, and have specific chemical
properties.  Aluminum for example contains only Aluminum atoms, and no other, and has
chemical properties specific to Aluminum.

Molecules are combinations of atoms that are not necessarily all the same element. 
Sometimes they are the same element, like air molecules.  Air molecules are a mix of pairs
of Nitrogen, and pairs of Oxygen.  Although the pairs of atoms are the same element, they
are more than one atom so they are molecules.  Water molecules are made of Hydrogen
atoms and Oxygen atoms, i.e. different elements. 

Compounds are combinations of elements into new substances, like water.  Water combines
the elements of Hydrogen and Oxygen and has chemical properties distinct from the
elements it's made of. 

Long before chemists knew the formulas for chemical compounds, they developed a system
of nomenclature that gave each compound a unique name. Today we often use chemical
formulas, such as NaCl, C12H22O11, and Co(NH3)6(ClO4)3, to describe chemical compounds.
But we still need unique names that unambiguously identify each compound.

Common Names

Some compounds have been known for so long that a systematic nomenclature cannot
compete with well-established common names. Examples of compounds for which common
names are used include water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), and methane (CH4).
 Naming Ionic Compounds

(Metals with Non-metals)

The names of ionic compounds are written by listing the name of the positive ion followed
by the name of the negative ion.
NaCl sodium chloride
(NH4)2SO4 ammonium sulfate
NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate
We therefore need a series of rules that allow us to unambiguously name positive and
negative ions before we can name the salts these ions form.

Naming Positive Ions

Monatomic positive ions have the name of the element from which they are formed.

Na+ sodium Zn2+ zinc

Ca 2+
calcium H +
hydrogen
K+ potassium Sr2+ strontium
Some metals form positive ions in more than one oxidation state. One of the earliest methods
of distinguishing between these ions used the suffixes -ous and -ic added to the Latin name
of the element to represent the lower and higher oxidation states, respectively.

Fe2+ ferrous Fe3+ ferric

Sn 2+
stannous Sn 4+
stannic
Cu+ cuprous Cu2+ cupric
Chemists now use a simpler method, in which the charge on the ion is indicated by a Roman
numeral in parentheses immediately after the name of the element.

Fe2+ iron(II) Fe3+ iron (III)

Sn 2+
tin(II) Sn 4+
tin(IV)
Cu+ copper(I) Cu2+ copper(II)
Polyatomic positive ions often have common names ending with the suffix -onium.

H3O+ hydronium
NH4+ ammonium

Naming Negative Ions

Negative ions that consist of a single atom are named by adding the suffix -ide to the stem of
the name of the element.
 F- fluoride O2- oxide
Cl- chloride S2- sulfide
Br- bromide N3- nitride
I- iodide P3- phosphide
H- hydride C4- carbide
 

Common Polyatomic Negative Ions

-1 ions
hydrogen sulfate
HCO3- bicarbonate HSO4-
(bisulfate)
CH3CO2- acetate ClO4- perchlorate
NO3- nitrate ClO3- chlorate
NO2- nitrite ClO2- chlorite
MnO4- permanganate ClO- hypochlorite
CN- cyanide OH- hydroxide
-2 ions
CO3 2-
carbonate O22- peroxide
SO42- sulfate CrO42- chromate
SO32- sulfite Cr2O72- dichromate
S2O32- thiosulfate HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
-3 ions
PO4 3-
phosphate AsO43- arsenate
BO33- borate

Naming Polyatomic Ions

At first glance, the nomenclature of the polyatomic negative ions in the table above seems
hopeless. There are several general rules, however, that can bring some order out of this
apparent chaos.

The name of the ion usually ends in either -ite or -ate. The -ite ending indicates a low
oxidation state. Thus,the NO2- ion is the nitrite ion.

The -ate ending indicates a high oxidation state. The NO3- ion, for example, is the nitrate ion.

The prefix hypo- is used to indicate the very lowest oxidation state. The ClO- ion, for
example, is the hypochlorite ion.

The prefix per- (as in hyper-) is used to indicate the very highest oxidation state. The ClO4-
ion is therefore the perchlorate ion.

There are only a handful of exceptions to these generalizations. The names of the hydroxide
(OH-), cyanide (CN-), and peroxide (O22-) ions, for example, have the -ide ending because
they were once thought to be monatomic ions.
Naming Simple Covalent Compounds

( Non-metals with non-metals )

Oxidation states also play an important role in naming simple covalent compounds. The
name of the atom in the positive oxidation state is listed first. The suffix -ide is then added to
the stem of the name of the atom in the negative oxidation state.

HCl hydrogen chloride

NO nitrogen oxide
BrCl bromine chloride
As a rule, chemists write formulas in which the element in the positive oxidation state is
written first, followed by the element(s) with negative oxidation numbers.

The number of atoms of an element in simple covalent compounds is indicated by adding

one of the following Greek prefixes to the name of the element.

1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
4 tetra- 9 nona-
5 penta- 10 deca-
The prefix mono- is seldom used because it is redundant. The principal exception to this rule
is carbon monoxide (CO).

Naming Acids

Simple covalent compounds that contain hydrogen, such as HCl, HBr, and HCN, often
dissolve in water to produce acids. These solutions are named by adding the prefix hydro- to
the name of the compound and then replacing the suffix -ide with -ic. For example, hydrogen
chloride (HCl) dissolves in water to form hydrochloric acid; hydrogen bromide (HBr) forms
hydrobromic acid; and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) forms hydrocyanic acid.

Many of the oxygen-rich polyatomic negative ions in Table 2.1 form acids that are named by
replacing the suffix -ate with -ic and the suffix -ite with -ous.

Acids containing ions ending with ide often become hydro -ic acid
hydrochloric
Cl- chloride HCl
acid
hydrofluoric
F- fluoride HF
acid
hydrosulfuric
S2- sulfide H2S
acid
Acids containing ions ending with ate usually become -ic acid
CH3CO2- acetate CH3CO2H acetic acid
 CO32- carbonate H2CO3 carbonic acid
BO33- borate H3BO3 boric acid
NO3- nitrate HNO3 nitric acid
SO42- sulfate H2SO4 sulfuric acid
ClO4- perchlorate HClO4 perchloric acid
phosphoric
PO43- phosphate H3PO4
acid
permanganic
MnO4- permanganate HMnO4
acid
CrO42- chromate H2CrO4 chromic acid
ClO3 -
chlorate HClO3 chloric acid
Acids containing ions ending with ite usually become -ous acid
ClO2 -
chlorite HClO2 chlorous acid
NO2- nitrite HNO2 nitrous acid
SO3 2-
sulfite H2SO 3 sulfurous acid
hypochlorous
ClO- hypochlorite HClO
acid
Complex acids can be named by indicating the presence of an acidic hydrogen as follows.

sodium hydrogen carbonate (also known as sodium

NaHCO3
bicarbonate)
NaHSO3 sodium hydrogen sulfite (also known as sodium bisulfite)
KH2PO4 potassium dihydrogen phosphate

Valency

The valency of an atom is the number of single chemical bonds that it can make (in the case
of a covalently bonding substance) or the number of electrical charges that it carries (for an
ion). Notice that once again the nature of the substance in question requires that the
definitions be adapted appropriately. The concept of valence can be used to find the formula
of a compound from the valencies of its constituent elements, or to find the valency of an
elements within a compound of known formula.

Every atom within a substance is assigned a valency number that is either positive or
negative. The total sum of all of the valencies within a formula unit is zero

Using valencies

Once the valencies of a few elements are known it becomes a simple matter to construct the
formula of unknown compounds using the valency method. Remember that the sum of the
valencies of all of the atoms in the compound must equal zero.

Where an atom may have either positive or negative valency, it is negative if it is the more
electronegative element in the compound and positive if not.

Example: From the water molecule above we know that the valency of hydrogen is +1.
If the valency of nitrogen in ammonia is -3 then we can construct the formula of ammonia thus:
We need enough hydrogens to cancel out the -3 valency of nitrogen. Each hydrogen = +1 therefore we
 three hydrogen atoms.
The formula of ammonia = NH3

top

Working with ions

When using valencies to work out the formula of an ion we have to remember the final
charge on the ion must equal the sum of the valencies, taking into account whether the
valency of each atom is negative or positive.

Example: Find the formula of the sulfate (2-) ion given that the valency of the sulfur atom is +VI and
valency of the oxygen atom is -II
Oxygen always has negative valencies (unless bonded to fluorine)
There is one sulfur atom with a valency of +6 and overall the ion has a valency of -2
Therefore +6 +(xO) = -2
Therefore (xO) = -2 -6 = -8
each O =-2 therfore there are four oxgen atoms in the ion
Formula of the sulfate ion = SO42-
EVALUATION

1.write the symbols and the valencies of the following:

i. Iron ii. potassium iii. Oxygen iv. Chlorine

2. What is valency?

WEEK 8

OXIDATION NUMBERS

It is often useful to follow chemical reactions by looking at changes in the oxidation numbers
of the atoms in each compound during the reaction. Oxidation numbers also play an
important role in the systematic nomenclature of chemical compounds. By definition, the
oxidation number of an atom is the charge that atom would have if the compound was
composed of ions.

1. The oxidation number of an atom is zero in a neutral substance that contains atoms of only
one element. Thus, the atoms in O2, O3, P4, S8, and aluminum metal all have an oxidation
number of 0.

2. The oxidation number of simple ions is equal to the charge on the ion. The oxidation
number of sodium in the Na+ ion is +1, for example, and the oxidation number of chlorine in
the Cl- ion is -1.

3. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 when it is combined with a nonmetal as in CH4,

NH3, H2O, and HCl.

4. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 when it is combined with a metal as in. LiH,
NaH, CaH2, and LiAlH4.

5. The metals in Group IA form compounds (such as Li3N and Na2S) in which the metal
atom has an oxidation number of +1.

6. The elements in Group IIA form compounds (such as Mg3N2 and CaCO3) in which the
metal atom has a +2 oxidation number.

7. Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2. Exceptions include molecules and
polyatomic ions that contain O-O bonds, such as O2, O3, H2O2, and the O22- ion.

8. The elements in Group VIIA often form compounds (such as AlF3, HCl, and ZnBr2) in
which the nonmetal has a -1 oxidation number.

9. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.

H2O: 2(+1) + (-2) = 0

10. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
The oxidation number of the sulfur atom in the SO42- ion must be +6, for example, because
the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in this ion must equal -2.

SO42-: (+6) + 4(-2) = -2

11. Elements toward the bottom left corner of the periodic table are more likely to have
positive oxidation numbers than those toward the upper right corner of the table. Sulfur has a
positive oxidation number in SO2, for example, because it is below oxygen in the periodic
table.

SO2: (+4) + 2(-2) = 0

EVALUATION

Calculate the oxidation number of the central elements in the following compounds.

1. K2Cr2O7
2. KMnO4
3. H2SO4
4. CrO7-2

 WEEK 9
MIXTURES AND SEPERATION TECHNIQUES

A mixture is made from different substances that are not chemically joined.

For example powdered iron and powdered sulphur mixed together makes a mixture of iron
and sulphur. They can be separated from each other without a chemical reaction, in the way
that different coloured sweets can be picked

out from a mixed packet and put into separate piles.

Mixture and compounds

Mixtures have different properties from compounds. The table summarises these differences.

  Mixture Compound

Composition Variable composition – you can Definite composition – you cannot

vary the amount of each substance vary the amount of each element in a
in a mixture. compound.
Joined or The different substances are not The different elements are chemically
not chemically joined together. joined together.
Properties Each substance in the mixture keeps The compound has properties
its own properties. different from the elements it
contains.
Separation Each substance is easily separated It can only be separated into its
from the mixture. elements using chemical reactions.
Examples Air, sea water, most rocks. Water, carbon dioxide, magnesium
oxide, sodium chloride.
An example - iron, sulphur and iron sulphide

Remember that iron and sulphur react together when they are heated to make a compound
called iron sulphide. What are the differences between a mixture of iron and sulphur, and
iron sulphide? Here are some of them:

 The mixture can contain more or less iron, but iron sulphide always
contains equal amounts of iron and sulphur.
 The iron and sulphur atoms are not joined together in the mixture,
but they are joined together in iron sulphide.
 The iron and sulphur still behave like iron and sulphur in the
mixture, but iron sulphide has different properties from both iron
and sulphur.
 You can separate the iron from the mixture using a magnet but this
does not work for iron sulphide.

SEPARATION OF MIXTURES USING DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES

Our Objective

To separate the components of a mixture using the following techniques:

 Separating funnel
 Chromatography
 Centrifugation
 Simple distillation
 Fractional distillation

The Theory

How is a homogeneous mixture different from a heterogeneous mixture?

Most materials in our surroundings are mixtures of two or more components. Mixtures are
either homogeneous or heterogeneous. Homogeneous mixtures are uniform in
composition, but heterogeneous mixtures are not uniform in composition.

Air is a homogeneous mixture and oil in water is a heterogeneous mixture. Homogeneous

and heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their components by several physical
methods. The choice of separation techniques is based on the type of mixture and difference
in the chemical properties of the constituents of a mixture.

What are types of separation techniques?

Various types of separation processes are: 

 Crystallization
 Filtration
 Decantation
 Sublimation
 Evaporation
 Simple distillation
 Fractional distillation
 Chromatography
 Centrifugation
 Separating funnel
 Magnetic separation
 Precipitation

Let’s discuss some of the separation techniqueS

Using a separating funnel:

A separating funnel is used for the separation of components of a mixture between two
immiscible liquid phases. One phase is the aqueous phase and the other phase is an organic
solvent. This separation is based on the differences in the densities of the liquids. The liquid
having more density forms the lower layer and the liquid having less density forms the upper
layer.

Applications:  

 To separate a mixture of oil and water.

 To separate a mixture of kerosene oil and water.

Chromatography:

Chromatography is a separation technique used to separate the different components

in a liquid mixture. It was introduced by a Russian Scientist Michael Tswett.
Chromatography involves the sample being dissolved in a particular solvent called
mobile phase. The mobile phase may be a gas or liquid. The mobile phase is then passed
through another phase called stationary phase. The stationary phase may be a solid packed in
a glass plate or a piece of chromatography paper.

The various components of the mixture travel at different speeds, causing them to separate.
There are different types of chromatographic techniques such as column chromatography,
TLC, paper chromatography, and gas chromatography.

Paper chromatography is one of the important chromatographic methods. Paper

chromatography uses paper as the stationary phase and a liquid solvent as the mobile phase.
In paper chromatography, the sample is placed on a spot on the paper and the paper is
carefully dipped into a solvent. The solvent rises up the paper due to capillary action and the
components of the mixture rise up at different rates and thus are separated from one another.

Applications:  

 To separate colors in a dye.

 To separate pigments from natural colors.
 To separate drugs from blood.

Centrifugation:

Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very

small and can pass through a filter paper. For such
particles, the filtration technique cannot be used for
separation. Such mixtures are separated by
centrifugation. So, centrifugation is the process of
separation of insoluble materials from a liquid
where normal filtration does not work well. The
centrifugation is based on the size, shape, and
density of the particles, viscosity of the medium,
and the speed of rotation. The principle is that the
denser particles are forced to the bottom and the
lighter particles stay at the top when spun rapidly.

The apparatus used for centrifugation is called a centrifuge. The centrifuge consists of a
centrifuge tube holder called rotor. The rotor holds balanced centrifugal tubes of equal
amounts of the solid-liquid mixture. On rapid rotation of the rotor, the centrifuge tubes rotate
horizontally and due to the centrifugal force, the denser insoluble particles separate from the
liquid. When the rotation stops, the solid particles end up at the bottom of the centrifuge tube
with liquid at the top.

Applications: 

 Used in diagnostic laboratories for blood and urine tests.

 Used in dairies and home to separate butter from cream.
 Used in washing machines to squeeze water from wet clothes.

Simple distillation:

Simple distillation is a method used for the separation of components of a mixture

containing two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient
difference in their boiling points.

The distillation process involves heating a liquid to its boiling points, and transferring the
vapors into the cold portion of the apparatus, then condensing the vapors and collecting the
condensed liquid in a container. In this process, when the temperature of a liquid rises, the
vapor pressure of the liquid increases. When the vapor pressure of the liquid and the
atmospheric pressure reach the same level, the liquid passes into its vapor state. The vapors
pass over the heated portion of the apparatus until they come into contact with the cold
surface of the water-cooled condenser. When the vapor cools, it condenses and passes down
the condenser and is collected into a receiver through the vacuum adapter.
 Applications:  

 Separation of acetone and water.

 Distillation of alcohol.

Fractional distillation:Fractional distillation is used for the separation of a mixture of

two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25K.
The apparatus for fractional distillation is similar to that of simple distillation, except that a
fractionating column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser.

A simple fractionating column is a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide surface
for the vapors to cool and condense repeatedly. When vapors of a mixture are passed through
the fractionating column, because of the repeated condensation and evaporation, the vapors
of the liquid with the lower boiling point first pass out of the fractionating column, condense
and are collected in the receiver flask. The other liquid, with a slightly higher boiling point,
can be collected in similar fashion in another receiver flask.
Applications:  

 Separation of different fractions from petroleum products.

 Separation of a mixture of methanol and ethanol.

Separating solids from liquids – evaporation

Evaporation is used to separate a soluble solid from a liquid. For example, copper sulfate is
soluble in water – its crystals dissolve in water to form copper sulfate solution. During
evaporation, the water evaporates away leaving solid copper sulfate crystals behind.
A solution is placed in an evaporating basin and heated with a Bunsen burner.

Separating solids from liquids – filtration

If a substance does not dissolve in a solvent, we say that it is insoluble. For example, sand
does not dissolve in water – it is insoluble.

Filtration is a method for separating an insoluble solid from a liquid. When a mixture of sand
and water is filtered:

 the sand stays behind in the filter paper (it becomes the residue)
 the water passes through the filter paper (it becomes the filtrate)
A beaker containing a mixture of insoluble solid and liquid. There is filter paper in a filter
funnel above another beaker.

 components in a mixture retain their identities

 exploit properties that distinguish the components to separate mixtures

Some manufacturers add iron filings to cereal to increase its iron content! The bits of
iron will stick to a magnet, but the cereal won't. So you can easily separate the
mixture by stirring a bar magnet through a slurry of water and finely crushed cereal.

the more similar the properties are, the more difficult it is to separate them

Many elements occur in forms with slightly different masses. For example, uranium
occurs as uranium-235, which can be used to construct atomic bombs, and uranium-
238, which can't. The two are very difficult to separate because they are nearly
identical otherwise. The technical difficulties in separating this mixture is one of the
factors that has limited the proliferation of nuclear weapons.

 basic strategies
o phase conversion: convert components of the mixture into other forms that are
easy to isolate
o phase transfer: add a new phase that collects some components from the
mixture, but not others
technique basis for separation apply this technique to:

adsorption / phase transfer to a solid surface liquid or gaseous mixtures that

desorption contain at least one component
that adsorbs

chromatography phase transfer from a mobile liquid or gaseous solutions that

mixture to a stationary phase contain several components with
differing affinities for the
stationary phase

condensation phase separation by condensing gaseous mixtures containing at

gases in the mixture to liquids least one gas with a much higher
boiling point than the others

dialysis phase transfer through a porous solutions containing small

membrane that allows some molecules mixed with very large
molecules to pass through, but not molecules
others

effusion gases with faster molecules flow gaseous mixtures containing

through tiny pinholes faster than gases with different molecular
gases with slow molecules weights

dissolution soluble components can be washed mixtures of solids with different

(washing, solvent away, leaving behind insoluble solubilities
extraction) components (phase transfer to a
washing solvent)

electrorefining separate a metal from impurities by solid mixtures with a metal as

dissolving it and then plating it one component
onto an electrode

filtration collect solid particles on a filter heterogeneous mixture

containing a solid phase

floatation dense components sink, and lighter heterogeneous mixture with

ones float phases with different densities

ion exchange ions in the mixture bind to surfaces solutions containing ions
with oppositely charged sites
(phase transfer to an ion exchange
 resin)

precipitation convert solutes to an easily solutions containing a solute

separated solid form that can be precipitated

scrubbing bubble mixture through a solution gaseous mixtures containing a

that selectively absorbs a solute that can be selectively
component (phase transfer from absorbed by a scrubbing
gas to solution) solution

stripping a gas bubbled through the mixture a liquid mixture containing at

carries off the most volatile least one volatile component
components

(phase transfer from solution to

gas)
volatilization components with widely differing a mixture containing
volatility can be driven out of the components with differing
(drying, distillation, mixture by heating (phase change volatility
sublimation) from solid or liquid to gas)

Adsorption and desorption

 some solids bind gases and organic materials to their surfaces, removing them from
mixtures
 adsorbed gases or liquids can recovered from the adsorbent material by washing with
a solvent
 examples
o activated charcoal adsorbs many gases and liquids
 used as a "universal antidote" for poisoning
 used in water purifiers (removes particulates, lead, copper, mercury,
chlorine, hypochlorite, organics)
 used to adsorb drugs from the blood of overdose victims
o silica gel absorbs moisture from air

Condensation

 cooling a vapor causes components with the highest boiling points to condense as
liquids first
 examples
o separating steam and air
o separating oxygen and nitrogen in air
Dialysis

 a semipermeable membrane allows some components in a mixture through, but not

others
 how does the membrane distinguish components?
o some membranes act as a "molecular sieve" that discriminates between large
and small molecules
o some membranes dissolve one component better than others
o development of new membranes is an active area of research in industry and
government
 components flow spontaneously from the high concentration to low concentration side
o pressure applied to the low concentration side can stop or even reverse this
flow (reverse osmosis)
 examples
o purification of blood in dialysis machines
o purification of seawater by reverse osmosis
o separation of pollutants from drinking water

Effusion

 use porous membranes to separate light gases from heavy ones

o average speed of gas molecules depends on the masses of their molecules
o heavy molecules in a mixture move slower on average than light ones
o gases made of light molecules diffuse through pores in membranes faster than
heavy molecules
 differences from dialysis
o membrane is permeable, not semipermeable: all gas molecules in the mixture
can pass through it
o size of molecules isn't usually important: pores in membrane are much larger
than gas molecules
o ...molecular velocity (and so, molecular mass) is the basis for separation, not
size
 examples
o separating helium from oxygen
o separating uranium isotopes as volatile UF6

Dissolution (washing)

 separate solids by washing away those that are soluble

 examples
o separating sand and salt by water washing
o separating feldspars from quartz in rocks by washing with hot concentrated
phosphoric acid
o separating organic stains from clothing by washing with organic solvents (dry
cleaning)

Electrorefining

 used to separate metals from impurities

  strategy
o dissolve the impure metal
o plate it on an electrode, using a strong electric current
o pure metal deposits on the electrode, and the impurities stay in solution

Filtration

 pass a mixture that contains solid particles through a porous filter

 if pores are smaller than particles, solid particles stay on filter and liquid/gaseous
components pass through
 often used after separation by precipitation

Ion exchange

 used to separate ions from mixtures

 pass the mixture over a surface that is covered with charged sites
 some ions stick to the charged sites
 examples
o water deionization

Precipitation

 precipitation is the conversion of a solute to solid form by chemical or physical

change
 solids are then separated by filtration or floatation
 examples
o separating mud and bacteria from water
 a gooey aluminum hydroxide precipitate is formed in the water to carry
particulates and bacteria to the bottom of a vat
 clean water is drawn off the top
o separating sulfate ions from water by adding barium ions
 barium ion + sulfate = insoluble barium sulfate
o water softening with washing soda

carbonate + calcium ion = insoluble calcium carbonate

Scrubbing

 scrubbing is bubbling a gas stream through a solution that traps some components
 examples
o CO2 can be separated from air by bubbling it through a solution of barium
hydroxide
o H2S can be removed from air by bubbling it through a zinc acetate solution

Solvent extraction

 a component moves into a solvent shaken with the mixture

 works best with solvents that dissolve only one component
Solvent extraction can be used to extract vanillin from vanilla beans. Shaking the
 beans with an organic solvent like chloroform transfers organic compounds (including
the vanillin) to the chloroform. Shaking the chloroform with a sodium hydroxide
solution transfers the vanillin into the sodium hydroxide solution.

Stripping

 a stream of gas bubbled through the mixture will carry off the most volatile
components

Blowing air through a straw in a glass of soda will cause it to go flat, because the air
carries off the volatile carbon dioxide.

 volatile components can be reclaimed from the gas by scrubbing

Volatilization

 heating a mixture can cause low-boiling components to volatilize (vaporize)

 several variations
 distillation is collecting and condensing volatilized components

Alcohol can be separated from fermented corn mash by heating the mash to vaporize
the alcohol. The vapor is collected and passed through coils of copper tubing, where it
cools and condenses as a liquid once again. Moonshiners sometimes used old car
radiators for the condensation step; the soldered joints added a toxic quantity of lead
to the shine!

 drying is complete volatilization of some components in the mixture

Separation of water from clothes on a clothesline is one obvious example. The

separation of salt from seawater using evaporating pools is another.

 sublimation is volatilization of a solid (without melting!)

Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) is probably the most familiar example of a solid that
sublimes. But water ice can also be converted directly into water vapor without
melting, at low pressure. Snow on mountain peaks disappears without moistening the
soil.

Separation by sublimation is sometimes called 'freeze drying'. Instant coffee is

manufactured by freeze drying. (Boiling the coffee destroys the delicate molecules
that give coffee its flavor, and so does exposure to air after a certain time, so
distillation or simple drying isn't used). Fresh coffee is frozen to form a mixture of ice
and coffee crystals. The pressure over the mixture is lowered so that the ice
sublimates, leaving the coffee crystals behind.

EVALUATION