INTRODUCTION

Migration is a behavioural phenomena which involves mass movement

of animals from one place to another. The purposes for migration varies
accordingly with the types of animals. Migratory behaviour of fish is a
regular phenomenon. Their journey is purposed mainly for feeding and
reproduction.

Many types of fish migrate on a regular basis, on time scales ranging

from daily to annually or longer, and over distances ranging from a few
metres to thousands of kilometres. Fish usually migrate to feed or to
reproduce, but in other cases the reasons are unclear.

Migrations involve movements of the fish on a larger scale and duration

than those arising during normal daily activities.[1] Some particular types
of migration are anadromous, in which adult fish live in the sea and
migrate into fresh water to spawn, and catadromous, in which adult fish
live in fresh water and migrate into salt water to spawn.

Marine forage fish often make large migrations between their spawning,

feeding and nursery grounds. Movements are associated with ocean
currents and with the availability of food in different areas at different
times of year. The migratory movements may partly be linked to the fact
that the fish cannot identify their own offspring and moving in this way
prevents cannibalism. Some species have been described by the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea as highly migratory species.
These are large pelagic fish that move in and out of the exclusive
economic zones of different nations, and these are covered differently in
the treaty from other fish.

pg. 1
Salmon and striped bass are well-known anadromous fish, and
freshwater eels are catadromous fish that make large migrations.
The bull shark is a euryhaline species that moves at will from fresh to
salt water, and many marine fish make a diel vertical migration, rising to
the surface to feed at night and sinking to lower layers of the ocean by
day. Some fish such as tuna move to the north and south at different
times of year following temperature gradients. The patterns of migration
are of great interest to the fishing industry. Movements of fish in fresh
water also occur; often the fish swim upriver to spawn, and these
traditional movements are increasingly being disrupted by the building
of dams.

AIM OF THE PROJECT

 To study the Main Purpose of the Migration.

 Of great commercial importance to fisheries and professional angling
bodies.
 Draws together much new information in one place.
 Detailed review of world wide migratory behaviour for most groups
of freshwater fishes.
 To Study Parental Care of Migratory Species.
 Factors affecting Migration.
 Merit & Demerit of Migration.

METHODOLOGY

 The survey of the migratory fishes was conducted mainly by

researching the published literature in the form of journals,
periodicals, handbooks, internet, and through correspondence

pg. 2
 with the relevant ex-perts. During this work, the online and CD-
ROM versions of Fishbase were used extensively for ref-erence. To
avoid the nomenclatural ambiguity which could arise from the
various taxonomic classifi-cations followed by various schools of
taxonomists, Fishbase was strictly followed. During the course of
the literature survey and correspondence with the relevant
experts, it was found that there are many genus, species and
subspecies which are not recorded in GROMS.
 The classification of fish migration followed for this work is the
same as in GROMS, after McDowall (1988). Thus, the different
types of migration followed here are anadromous, catadromous,
pota-modromous and oceanodromous. In addition to these, a new
category to describe the migration of some fishes between ocean
and estuaries has been added, using the abbreviation ''oceano-
estu'', in short for species which migrate between oceanic and
estuarine ecosystems. Very often, it was found that the literature
surveyed indicated that certain species undertake migrations, but
the exact nature of the migration is not explicitly indicated. In such
cases where the type of migration is unsure, but the species is
clearly documented to be migratory, it has been simply denoted
''migratory''. In some cases, though not explicitly categorized along
the lines of McDowall (1988), there was enough information to
classify them, and has been done so. In some cases, the identity of
the species was not fully clear due to taxonomic revisions since the
publication. In these cases, the valid name according to Fishbase
has been followed, and the Latin name mentioned in the literature
is mentioned in the comments col-umn of the database. Only the

pg. 3
 species which have been unambiguously identified up to the
species level have been included in the database. Wherever
subspecies of fishes have been mentioned in the literature as
migratory, and were found hitherto unrecorded in GROMS, the
subspecific level informa-tion has been incorporated. Examples of
such newly added fishes are Acipenser baerii baicalensis and
Acipenser baerii stenorrhynchus; two migratory subspecies
notified by the CITES. Some lesser known North American smaller
sturgeons found migratory, and notified endangered by the
United States Fish and Wildlife Service have also been added to
GROMS.

RECRUITMENT MIGRATION

Takes place when large number of larvae moves from nursery habitat to
the habitat of adults which may sometimes be distinctly different.

Adults of eels live in rivers in Europe and America but their larval
stages live and grown in sea and migrate to reach rivers which may take
one to two years.

OBSERVATIONS

Most of the journal articles reviewed are based on studies on the

ecological or reproductive habits of
individual fish species or fish communities in a specific ecosystem.
Some articles which reported the
aquatic fauna of a specific stream or an estuary also yielded data on
migratory fishes. A significant
number of studies and compilations on the effects of man-made barriers
to fish migration is available.

pg. 4
The prolific nature of literature on hydroelectric dam removal and river
restoration also yielded data.
The dam removal studies and assessments are mostly based on the
northern waters. In contrast studies
from the south report about the damages done by new barriers that are
being built across the rivers and
from the development of wetlands. Ecological impact assessment
studies have also been at times help-
ful with data on migratory fish. Studies on the fish plankton in rivers,
estuaries and lagoons have also
yielded migratory data.

The trend in fisheries ecology research generally seems to be

increasingly focussed around the study
of individual species. The reproductive ecology and observations on
spawning and migration of indi-
vidual species are being published in journals like Environmental
Biology of Fishes, Fisheries Man-
agement and Ecology and Journal of Fish Biology.

Besides the print literature, a significant share of information was

obtained also from the Internet. This
includes Hypertext Markup Language Language (.html) and Portable
Document Format (.pdf) docu-
ments. The URLs of these documents are included in the database. As
the URLs may change, print-
outs of all these documents have been made, appropriately marked, and
deposited with GROMS.
Most of the journal articles reviewed are based on studies on the
ecological or reproductive habits of individual fish species or fish
communities in a specific ecosystem. Some articles which reported the
aquatic fauna of a specific stream or an estuary also yielded data on
migratory fishes. A significant number of studies and compilations on
the effects of man-made barriers to fish migration is available. The
prolific nature of literature on hydroelectric dam removal and river
restoration also yielded data. The dam removal studies and assessments
are mostly based on the northern waters. In contrast studies from the

pg. 5
south report about the damages done by new barriers that are being
built across the rivers and from the development of wetlands. Ecological
impact assessment studies have also been at times help-ful with data on
migratory fish. Studies on the fish plankton in rivers, estuaries and
lagoons have also yielded migratory data.

Commenting on the Indian fisheries science, Kottelat and Whitten 19962

remark that there is a strong bias in studies towards large fish (especially
mahseer, Tor spp., very popular sport fish among anglers), and very
little attention is given to the study of smaller species. Biases of this kind
were found to be true in general in literature on migratory fishes in the
temperate and tropical countries. The preoccupation with the
economically important, the spectacular flagship/ charismatic species
like salmon or sturgeon obviously could overshadow the conserva-tion
of the ordinary, less spectacular species. Ideally, as Pister (1995)
observed, “the ultimate argument for species conservation may be one
founded on ethics rather than economics’’ (quoted in Winemiller 1996).

Types fish migration on the basis of needs:

1. Alimentary or Feeding migration: migration for search of feeding

ground. It occur when food resources get exhausted.
2. Gametic or spwaning migration: it occur during breeding season
in search for the suitable spawning ground.
3. Climatic or seasonal migration: migration in search for suitable
climatic condition.

pg. 6
 4. Osmo-regulatory migration: migration for water and electrolytes
balance from sea to fresh water and vice-versa.
5. Juvenile migration: it is larval migration from spawning ground
to the feeding habitats of their parent.

Movement of fishes during the migration

1. Drifting movement: It is a passive movement of fish along with

water currents
2. Dispersal movement: It is a random locomotory movement of fish
from a uniform habitat to diverse direction
3. Swimming movement: It is an orientated movement of fish either
toward or away from the source of stimulus
4. Denatant and Contranatant movement: It is an active swimming
movement. Denatant movement is swimming with the water
current while contrantant movement is swimming against water
current.

SHOALING & SCHOOLING:

When a large number of fishes come together and move socially it is

called shoaling. Sometimes migrating fishes exhibit high degree of
coordination in their movements and carry out synchronized
manoeuvres (a movement or series of moves requiring skill and care) to
produce different types of shapes is called schooling. It is seen in tunas
and sardines.

PERIODICITY OF MIGRATION

pg. 7
Most of migration occurs at regular intervals and may be daily, monthly,
seasonally, yearly bi-annually or longer. Thus, pacific salmon may
remain at sea for several years before returning to the spawning
grounds. Eel spend several years (up to 20) feeding in fresh water,
before undertaking spawning migration to sea. The periodicity thus
varies between different species, and even within a species and appears
to be due to many biotic and abiotic initiating factor.

MARKING AND TAGGING

Information about the pattern of fish migration, its direction and speed
of movement, can be studied by marking and tagging of fish followed
by capture. The mark or tag must be easily identifiable and must stay
with the till end of the study . Many types of tags have been developed
for attachment to the fish for easy recognition.

TYPES OF FISH MIGRATION

The migration of some fishes is a regular journey and is truly an innate

animal behaviour. The form or pattern of migration differs between
species, as well as within a species, Myers (1949) has used the following
terms to describe fish migration: The migration of some fishes is a
regular journey and is truly an innate animal behaviour. Fish migration
are classified into following types:

1. Diadromous migration

2. Potamodromous migration

3. Oceanodromous migration

pg. 8
1. Diadromous migration:

 It is the migration of fish between sea and fresh water.

 As we know, most of the fishes are restricted to either fresh water

or sea water. Changes in habitat may causes osmotic imbalance in
those fishes. However some fishes regularly migrate between sea
and fresh water and have perfect osmotic balance, they are the
true migratory fish.

Diadromous migration is of three types

i. Anadromous migration
ii. Catadromous migration

pg. 9
 iii. Amphidromous migration

i. Anadromous migration:

When migration occurs from sea to freshwater for spawning, called

anadromous migration; e.g., Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), Hilsa shad
(Tenualosa ilisha), Toli shad (Tenualosa toli), Paradise fish (Polynemus
paradiseus), Flat head sillago (Sillaginopsis panijus), Sturgeon
(Acipenser) and Salmon (Oncorhynchus).

ii. Catadronous migration:

The journey of freshwater fishes to the sea for spawning, called

catadromous migration; e.g., Indian longfin eel (Anguilla bengalensis
bengalensis), Shortfin eel (Anguilla bicolor bicolor), Common freshwater
or European eel (Anguilla anguilla, A. vulgaris), American eel (Anguilla
rostrata).

pg. 10
iii. Amphidromous migration:

 Type of migration which involves movement from fresh water to

the sea or vice versa, is not for the purpose of breeding.
 But this migration occurs regularly at some definite
stage of the life cycle.
 Myer suggests that the migration of some gobies might fall into
this category.
 Other examples includes Bigmouth sleeper, mountain mullet,
torrentfish, Dolly Varden

2. Potamodromous migration:

Migrations of fish that occur entirely in freshwater, called

potamodromous e.g., carps and trout. Trouts and carps travel long dis-

pg. 11
tances in large shoals in search of suitable spawning grounds and return
to feeding areas after spawning.

3. Oceanodromous migration:

Migration which occurs entirely in sea, called oceanodromous

migration. Horizontal and vertical distribution is considered in
oceanodromous migration. Many fishes undertake short distance
migrations throughout their life and some fishes like herrings, cod, tuna
and plaice, cover long distance migrations.

pg. 12
Other forms of fish migration are classified into following types:

4. Latitudinal migration:

 it is the migration of fish from north to south and vice-versa.It is a

climatic migration. Eg. Sward fish migrate north in spring and
south in autumn.

5. Vertical migration:

 It is a daily migration of fish from deep to the surface and vice-

versa for food, protection and spawning. Eg. Sward fish usually
move vertically downward to greater depth for food.

• The movement of fishes towards upper surface of sea during night

and towards bottom during day fro various endogenous and
exogenous reasons is called vertical migration.

• Diet vertical migration is a common behavior; many marine

species move to the surface at night to feed and then return to the
depths during daytime.

• Factors playing role in Vertical Migration:-

pg. 13
 1. Endogenous factors:- which originate from organism itself like sex,
age biological rhythms, etc.

2. Exogenous factors:- These are the environment factors acting on

the organisms such as light, gravity, oxygen, temperature,
predator-prey interactions etc.

6. Shoreward migration:

 it is the migration of fish from water to land. However it is a

temporary migration.

 Eg. Eel migrate from one pond to another pond via moist meadow
grass.

pg. 14
MECHANISM OF ORIENTATION

 The mechanism of orientation during fish migration has been

reviewed by Hasler ( 1971) and Able ( 1980).
 Orientation means arranging of an animal in a given direction.
 Homing- a fish may recognise its home site by a direct sensory
stimulus vision or olfaction . This is called ‘ homing ‘ or ‘ piloting’.
 ‘navigation’ refers to the mechanism by which an animal can find
direction towards a desired area.
 Homing ability of a fish required a knowledge of some kind of ‘
map’, whose information might be stored in the central nervous
system
 Fish can use the sun for orientation during migration the fishes are
observe the changing angle of the sun, relative to the horizontal

pg. 15
 and vertical planes.
 During night, fish might use the position of moon for orientation
 some species might make use of the magnetic and electrical field
for orientation , and have the ability to produce and receive
electric signals and exhibit the power of electrolocation.
REASONS OF MIGRATION

 (i)Feeding

(ii)Overcome environmental extremes

(iii) Sexual maturity

(iv)Hormones

(v) Instinct

(vi) Predators and competition

MIGRATORY SPECIES

Several species are migrated for spawning and feeding.

These are example of some notable migratory fishes

1. The cod ( Gadus morhua)

2. Herring (Clupea harengus)

3. Salmon (Salmo sp.)

4. Eel ( Anguilla anguilla, A. Rostrata and A. japanica)

5. Hilsa ( Hilsa ilisa)

6. Three- spined stickle back ( Gasterosteus aculeatus)

7. The tunas ( Thunnus thynnus)

pg. 16
Movement of fishes during the migration

1. Drifting movement: It is a passive movement of fish along with

water currents
2. Dispersal movement: It is a random locomotory movement of fish
from a uniform habitat to diverse direction
3. Swimming movement: It is an orientated movement of fish either
toward or away from the source of stimulus
4. Denatant and Contranatant movement: It is an active swimming
movement. Denatant movement is swimming with the water
current while contrantant movement is swimming against water
current

METHODS OF MIGRATION

pg. 17
 By drifting: fishes are carried passively by water currents. This is
called drift, may result in directional movements.

 Random locomotory movements: random in direction, lead to a

uniform distribution or to an aggregation.

 Oriented swimming movements: in a particular direction:

(a) Towards or away from the source of stimulation.

(b) At some angle to an imaginary line running between them and the
source of stimulation.

Factors Influencing Migration

Factors like physical, chemical and biological factors

influence the migrations in fishes.

Physical factors like depth of water, temperature,

light penetration, photoperiod, turbidity, velocity of current may cause
migration.

Chemical factors like pH and salinity.

Biological factors are hormonal action , maturity of gonads, food, blood

pressure etc. sometimes presence of predators in the area also may
influence the migration of fishes.

Salinity of water plays an important role in fish migration. Most of the

fresh water fishes remain in fresh water as they are stenohaline i.e. they
cannot tolerate great variations in salinity. But the species which are
euryhaline like Anguilla, salmon, hilsa under take migration as they can
tolerate a wide range of salinity.

pg. 18
Intensity and duration of light also effect the migration. Fishes like
Herrings migrate during full moon and sturgeon fishes migrate in night
time.

Water currents also influence the phenomenon. Eggs and tiny young
ones lead a pelagic life and drifted by currents.

After breeding the spent fishes of salmon are carried into the sea by the
currents produced in the river.

But most important factor that controls migration among fishes can be
referred to maturity of gonads and hormones secreted by endocrine
glands like pituitary.

SIGNIFICANCE OF FISH MIGRATION

 to find suitable feeding and spawning ground

 for protection from predators

 survive from extreme climatic conditions

 increases genetic diversity

 it is an adaptational characters for survival and existences

pg. 19
DISCUSSION :

 Acknowledge of the migratory movements of fish is of great

practical importance in the commercial fisheries, and accordingly
much research has been carried out on the subject by the maritime
nations of Europe and by the United States, largely by means of
marking experiments. The general schema of the migrations,
which holds good for most species, is (1) a spawning migration of
mature or maturing individuals towards a definite spawning area,
generally upstream or up‐current, (2) a dispersion of the spent fish,
generally downstream or down‐current, in search of food, leading
sometimes to definite feeding migrations. The general effect of this
cycle of migration is to keep the species within its ecological norm.

 These principles are illustrated by reference to the cod and the

plaice in the North Sea, Norwegian coast and Barentz Sea, Iceland
and Greenland. It is shown that in each of these areas there is a
definite migration cycle, and evidence is brought forward that in
most cases the spawning migration takes place against the
prevailing current. The recent spread of cod from Iceland to
Greenland and their return to the Icelandic spawning grounds is
described in some detail.

 In cod and plaice the eggs and larvae are pelagic and are at first
distributed passively by the currents. It seems impossible that they
should retain any individual memory of their spawning places. In
the case of the salmon, however, the eggs are deposited in the
upper waters of rivers and streams and the young fish spend one

pg. 20
 or more years of their life in the vicinity. It has been shown for the
chinook salmon of the Pacific that the fish returning from the sea
to spawn remember and return to the stream in which they were
brought up, even though they had been spawned in a stream
hundreds of miles away. Hence individual and not ancestral
memory is the dominant factor in the so‐called “homing instinct”.

 To provide a contrast with the salmon and other anadromous

forms, which run up rivers to spawn, brief reference is made to
katadromous forms such as the flounder, the eel, and the New
Zealand “whitebait” (Austrocobitis). The last‐named appears to
spawn just after the height of spring tides, as is also the case with
the Californian grunion (Leuresthes), whose very remarkable
spawning habits are discussed in detail.

CONCLUSION

Migration delay or failure is a key factor for species extinction and

reduces the availability of fish for human consumption. It is very
unfortunate that many migrating fish species are under increasing
threats by exploitation, pollution, habitat destruction, dispersal barriers,
overfishing and ongoing climate change that brings modified, novel,
more variable and extreme conditions and selection regimes. This raises
a question on their survival.

pg. 21
Migration can easily be observed in fishes when they migrate in large
shoals. It is an important aspect of life of fishes. it is significant in the
sense that it enhances the chance of a survival in the environment. It also
gives an opportunity to fishes to explore the waters of different regions
and search for proper sites for their young ones.

REFERENCES

1. Chordate Zoology - E.L. Jordan and Dr. P.S. Verma

2. Vertebrates - R.L.Kotpal

3. A textbook of Zoology(Vol.II) – Parker and Haswell

4. Biology of Animals(Vol.II) - Sinha, Adhikari and Ganguli

5. A textbook of fish biology and Fisheries - S.S. Khanna and

pg. 22
H.R. Singh

pg. 23