NDF WORKSHOP CASE STUDIES

WG 8 Fishes
CASE STUDY 4
Hippocampus spp.
Original language Spanish

CASE STUDY: HIPPOCAMPUS SPP. PROJECT SEAHORSE

AUTHOR:
Sarah Foster
Project Seahorse. The University of British Columbia.

I. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE TAXA

1. BIOLOGICAL DATA

1.1 Scientific and common names

Seahorses comprise one genus (Hippocampus) of the family
Syngnathidae, which consists of about 52 genera of pipefishes, pipe-
horses and seadragons.The CITES Nomenclature committee currently
recognizes about 39 species of seahorse, based on morphometric and
genetic analysis, although a few more species may emerge from fur-
ther taxonomic research. The vast majority of seahorse species, and
certainly populations, have not been studied adequately in the wild.
Although easily recognised as a group, many seahorse species are
superficially similar in appearance. The problems regarding species
identification and the large number of names in the literature (over
130) means that seahorse names are often unreliable. It is imperative
to employ taxonomies that are precise and unambiguous about featu-
res that distinguish species, and that use original (type) specimens for
their source data, as significant overlap among characters or depen-
dency on photographic sources is problematic.
Effective implementation of the CITES listing will require that
government authorities and other stakeholders be able to identify
seahorse species that are utilized in international trade. Project
Seahorse and Traffic North America developed an ID guide for seahor-

1 The complete guide can be found at http://seahorse.fisheries.ubc.ca/pdfs/IDguide/Seahorse

_ID_Guide_2004.pdf
 ses to help meet this need. It is recommended that individuals use A
Guide to the Identification of Seahorses1 when identifying seahorses
(Lourie et al. 2004).

1.2. Distribution
Seahorses occupy both temperate and tropical coastal waters, with a
distribution from about 50 degrees north to 50 degrees south.
Distribution maps by species can be found in the Project Seahorse and
Traffic North America publication A Guide to the Identification of
Seahorses (Lourie et al. 2004).

1.3 Biological characteristics

1.3.1 General biological and life history characteristics of the species

The following is drawn from a published review of the biology and
ecology of seahorses (Foster & Vincent 2004). Primary references to all
statements can be found therein.

Life history and conservation

A dearth of knowledge on the biology of seahorses, particularly life
history parameters, makes it difficult to manage effectively a popula-
tion, let alone a species. However, existing information on life history
does indicate that many species may be susceptible to high levels of
exploitation:

Production of few young per breeding cycle limits the potential

reproductive rate, although this may be offset by advanced develop-
ment of the young when they leave the pouch
Male pregnancy means that young seahorses depend on parental
survival for far longer than is the case among most fish
Monogamy in most species studied means that widowed animals
stop reproducing until they find a new partner
Low population density means that lost partners are not quickly
replaced
Monitoring of known individuals suggests that natural rates of adult
mortality may be low, making fishing a new pressure
Low adult mobility and small home ranges in many species may res-
trict the recolonisation of depleted areas, although juveniles may be
the primary dispersers

Seahorse research has made great advances, but much more needs to
be learned about key life history parameters such as natural mortality,
growth rates and juvenile dispersal.

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.2

Survival
Lifespans for seahorses are estimated (generally from laboratory
observations) to range from about one year in the very small species
to about 3-5 years for the larger species. Mortality from predation is
probably greatest in juveniles, which are eaten by many fish and inver-
tebrates. Adult seahorses are presumed to have few predators as a
result of excellent camouflage, and unappetizing bony plates and spi-
nes. Crabs may be among the most threatening predators. Seahorses
have also been found in the stomachs of large pelagic fishes such as
tuna and dorado and are eaten by skates and rays, penguins, other
water birds, and the occasional sea turtle.

Reproduction
The male seahorse, rather than the female, becomes pregnant,
although it is still the female that produces the eggs, and the male the
sperm. The female deposits eggs into the males brood pouch, where
he fertilizes them. The pouch acts like the uterus of a mammal, com-
plete with a placental fluid that bathes the eggs, and provides
nutrients and oxygen to the developing embryos while removing
waste products. The pouch fluid is altered during pregnancy from
being similar to body fluids to being more like the surrounding seawa-
ter. Pregnancy lasts about 2 to 6 weeks, the length decreasing with
increasing temperature. At the end of gestation the male goes into
labour, pumping and thrusting for hours to release his brood.
Males of most species release about 100-200 young per pregnancy,
but the total ranges from 5 for the smaller species, to well over 1000
young. The low number of young produced may be somewhat offset
by their more advance stage of development at release, such that each
young should have a higher chance of survival than in most fish, in the
absence of other pressures. Young seahorses look like miniature adult
seahorses, are fully independent after birth, and receive no further
parental care. Newborns of most species measure 7-12 mm.
Sexual maturity in males can be recognized by the presence of a
fully developed brood pouch. Seahorse weights vary with reproducti-
ve stage, increasing a great deal when they have ripe eggs (females)
or are pregnant (males).
The breeding season varies according to species, and is most likely
dependant on water temperature, monsoon patterns, and the lunar
cycle. Most (but perhaps not all) species of seahorses studied to date
appear to be monogamous, forming pair bonds that last the entire
breeding season. Pair bonds in monogamous species are commonly
reinforced by daily greetings that are extended into courtships once
the male gives birth.

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.3

 Movement
Most seahorse species studied to date exhibit high site-fidelity and
small home range sizes, at least during the breeding season.

1.3.2 Habitat types

Most seahorses are generally found among seagrasses, macroalgae,
mangrove roots, and corals, while others live on open sand or muddy
bottoms. Some species are also found in estuaries or lagoons.
Seahorses tend to be patchily distributed at low densities, and are
highly influenced by anthropogenic activities, especially habitat
degradation.

1.3.3 Role of the species in its ecosystem

Seahorses are a group of charismatic fishes that serve as flagship spe-
cies for marine conservation. Little is known, however, regarding their
functional role in the ecosystem. In order to increase understanding of
seahorses role in marine food webs, Project Seahorse has begun to
document reports of seahorses and other syngnathids as prey (Blight
& Vincent in prep). In some places, the importance of syngnathids as
food for marine animals seems to be increasing for example, in
recent years there has been a change in diet of nesting seabirds from
forage fish to pipefish, likely in response to environmental
change/disappearance of preferred prey species (Harris et al. 2007).

1.4 Population

1.4.1 Global Population size

Current population sizes for most, if not all, seahorse species are unk-
nown.

1.4.2 Current global population trends

___increasing _X_decreasing ____ stable _X_unknown

See details in Section 1.5.1 Global Population Size

1.5 Conservation status

1.5.1 Global conservation status (according to IUCN Red List)

___Critically endangered ___Near Threatened

_X_Endangered ___Least concern
_X_Vulnerable _X_ Data deficient

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.4

Globally, nine seahorses species are listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN
Red List (World Conservation Union (IUCN) 2006), based on observed,
estimated, inferred or suspected population declines of 30% (Tables 1
and 2). Each of these species is found in trade. These declines are attri-
buted to changes in area of occupancy, occurrence, habitat and levels
of exploitation.
The majority of seahorses species (23) are listed as Data Deficient,
which means there exists inadequate information to make a direct, or
indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution
and/or population status (Tables 1 and 2). Conservation prospects can-
not be evaluated without better information on how species are
faring. Until our understanding improves, we run the risk of losing
species about which we know little. At the same time, the threats to
seahorse habitats are widely recognized, and the deteriorating state
of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and other coastal ecosystems
around the world should be cause for concern for all marine species.

Table 1. Summary table of the IUCN Status for seahorses.

Category # Species # Species Criteria

in category In Trade

EN B1+2c+3d 1 0 Extent of occurrence <5000 km2 or area of occupancy

<500 km2; known to exist in <5 locations; decline in
area, extent and/or quality of habitat; fluctuation
in the number of locations or subpopulations
VU A2cd 2 2 An observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected
population size reduction of >30% over the last 10
years or three generations, whichever is the longer,
where the reduction or its causes may not have ceased
OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible,
based on (and specifying) a decline in area
of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of
habitat AND actual or potential levels of exploitation.
VU A4cd 7 7 An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or
suspected population size reduction of >30% over any
10 year or three generation period, whichever is longer
(up to a maximum of 100 years in the future), where
the time period must include both the past and the
future, and where the reduction or its causes may not
have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be
reversible, based on (and specifying) a decline in area
of occupancy, extent of occurrence and/or quality of
habitat AND actual or potential levels of exploitation.
DD 23 15 Inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect,
assessment of its risk of extinction based on its
distribution and/or population status.
na 6 not assessed
totals 39 24

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.5

Table 2. IUCN Status for seahorses (Hippocampus spp.)

Species IUCN Global Assessment Live Dried Comments

Assessment Year Trade Trade

abdominalis DD 2006 yes yes dried as curio

alatus na
algiricus DD 2002 no no
angustus DD 2002 yes yes
barbouri VU A4cd 2002 yes yes common TM species
bargibanti DD 2003 no no
biocellatus na
borboniensis DD 2003 yes yes
breviceps DD 2005 yes no
camelopardalis DD 2003 yes yes
capensis EN B1+2c+3d 2000 no no
comes VU A2cd 2002 yes yes common TM species
coronatus DD 2003 yes no
denise DD 2003 no no
erectus VU A4cd 2003 yes yes
fisheri DD 2003 no no
fuscus DD 2003 yes yes
guttulatus DD 2003 yes yes
hippocampus DD 2003 yes yes
histrix DD 2002 yes yes common TM species
ingens VU A4cd 2003 yes yes
jayakari DD 2003 no no
jugumus na
kelloggi DD 2002 yes yes common TM species
kuda VU A4cd 2003 yes yes common TM species
lichensteinii DD 2002 no no
minotaur DD 2005 no no
mohnikei VU A2cd 2005 yes yes
montebelloensis na
patagonicus na
procerus na
reidi DD 2003 yes yes
sindonis DD 2003 no no
spinosissimus VU A4cd 2003 yes yes common TM Species
subelongatus VU A4cd 2003 yes no
trimaculatus VU A4cd 2003 no yes common TM Species
whitei DD 2003 yes no
zebra DD 2002 no yes
zosterae DD 2003 yes no

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.6

1.5.2 National conservation status for the case study country
We have not prepared a country specific case study

1.5.3 Main threats within the case study country

___No Threats
_X_Habitat Loss/Degradation (human induced)
___Invasive alien species (directly affecting the species)
_X_Harvesting [hunting/gathering]
_X_Accidental mortality (e.g. Bycatch)
___Persecution (e.g. Pest control)
_X_Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species)
___Other_______________
_X_Unknown

Much of the information presented here on trade and conservation is

based on the report that first raised awareness of large scale trade in
seahorses: The International Trade in Seahorses (Vincent 1996).
Additional supporting references are given.
We have not prepared a country specific case study. Rather, we here
address the threats faced by seahorse populations worldwide.
Seahorses are threatened by direct exploitation, accidental capture in
non-selective fishing gear (bycatch), and degradation of their habitats.
Some of the worlds poorest fishers make their living specifically targe-
ting seahorses. Bycatch from trawlers, however, appears to be the lar-
gest source of seahorses in international trade, and the trawl gear also
damages their coastal habitats (A.C.J. Vincent and A. Perry, Project
Seahorse, unpublished data). More research needs to be done to assess
loss of seahorse habitat, especially seagrasses, and its impact on wild
populations.
Seahorses are sold dried for traditional medicines, tonic foods and
curiosities, and live for ornamental display. Traditional medicines (TM),
particularly traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and its derivatives,
account for the largest consumption of seahorses (approx 95% of the
global trade). Large, pale and smooth seahorses are believed by some
to have a higher medicinal value in TCM (Vincent 1996). Pre-packaged
pharmaceuticals are also popular in TM, and offer industry a chance to
absorb animals previously thought undesirable for use in conventional
(whole) form, including juvenile seahorses (Vincent 1996, S.K.H. Lee,
TRAFFIC East Asia, pers. comm.). Although globally the dried trade is
larger, for some species and populations the live trade is the greatest
pressure. A survey of the live trade suggest that all cultured seahorses
are traded live (A. Mangera, Project Seahorse, unpublished data).

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.7

 The available evidence showed that in 1995 at least 32 countries
traded syngnathids (seahorses and their immediate relatives), and that
trade in Asia alone exceeded 45 tonnes of dried seahorses (Vincent
1996). Further research showed that nearly 80 countries had traded
syngnathids by 2000, with many new sources in Africa and Latin
America (A.C.J. Vincent and A. Perry, Project Seahorse, unpublished
data). Moreover, the few official data, trade surveys, and qualitative
evidence all indicated that the Asian trade in dried seahorses exceeded
50 tonnes in 2000. Hundreds of thousands of live seahorses were tra-
ded internationally in both 1995 and 2000, with small specimens fin-
ding a ready market (A.C.J. Vincent and A. Perry, Project Seahorse,
unpublished data).
The impacts on seahorse populations of this trade are considerable,
especially when combined with the damage that is being inflicted on
their vulnerable inshore marine habitats. It is impossible to determine
exactly how many seahorses live in the wild and it is difficult to assess
how individual species are coping with the exploitation that is taking
place, but a combination of customs records, quantitative research and
qualitative information indicates that seahorse catches and/or trades
have declined markedly. This reflects a loss of population rather than
a drawdown of the trade: estimated population declines of between
15 and 50 percent over five-year periods are common (A.C.J. Vincent
and A. Perry, Project Seahorse, unpublished data).

2. SPECIES MANAGEMENT WITHIN THE COUNTRY FOR WHICH CASE STUDY

IS BEING PRESENTED

We have not prepared a country specific case study. However, many

countries have established their own domestic conservation assess-
ments or have drawn up regulations that recognise the threat to sea-
horse populations. The list of jurisdictions undertaking direct seahorse
conservation action is still quite short and patchy. We apologise in
advance for any exclusions and/or mistakes, and encourage Parties to
make Project Seahorse aware of any National legislation affecting sea-
horses.

Australia: Seahorses and their relatives came under Wildlife

Protection Act on 1 January 1998, and then placed under the
Environment Protections and Biodiversity Act in 2001. Export permits
are only granted for approved management plans or captive-bred
animals. The states of Tasmania and Victoria explicitly ban seahorse
collection without a special permit, under fisheries regulations.

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.8

 China: H. kelloggi is listed under Category II of the Law of Wild
Animal Protection of the People's Republic of China, and as Priority
Fish Species (Grade B) in a national biodiversity action plan.
India: Indian seahorse populations were moved under Schedule-I of
the Wildlife Protection Act (1972) in 2001 which bans and collection
or trade.
Mexico: Intentional capture and trade of wild seahorses prohibited,
only the commercialization of cultured and incidentally caught sea-
horses is permitted.
Phillipines: Section 97 of the Philippines Fisheries Code currently
legislates that harvesting and trade of any species listed on any
CITES appendix is illegal.
Portugal: H. hippocampus and H. ramulosus [to be revised as H. gut-
tulatus] are both included in its national Red Data book.
Slovenia: H. guttulatus is protected under a Government Order on
the Protection of Threatened Animal Species (October 1993), which
prohibits trade and bans keeping them in captivity.
South Africa: Harvest of H. capensis illegal without permit from
Cape Nature Conservation (CNC) under CNC Ordinance 19, 1974. All
Syngnathids are protected from harvest, and disturbance except
with a permit (Draft Regulations of the Marine Living Resources Bill,
and Sea Fisheries Act, 1988).
Vietnam: Lists H. histrix, H. japonicus, H. kelloggi, H. kuda and H. tri-
maculatus as Vulnerable in its national Red Data book.

We will address possible management measures for seahorses, as well

as monitoring, under Section II: Non-detrimental Finding procedure
(NDFs) (see below).

2.1 Management measures

2.1.1 Management history

2.1.2 Purpose of the management plan in place

2.1.3 General elements of the management plan

2.1.4 Restoration or alleviation measures

2.2 Monitoring system

2.2.1 Methods used to monitor harvest

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.9

2.2.2 Confidence in the use of monitoring

2.3. Legal framework and law enforcement: Provide details of

national and international legislation relating to the conserva-
tion of the species

3. UTILIZATION AND TRADE FOR RANGE STATE FOR WHICH CASE STUDY
IS BEING PRESENTED

We have not prepared a country specific case study, but see Section
1.5.3 Main threats within the case study country.

3.1 Type of use (origin) and destinations (purposes)

3.2 Harvest

3.2.1 Harvesting regime

3.2.2 Harvest management/ control

3.3 Legal and illegal trade levels

II. NON-DETRIMENT FINDING PROCEDURE (NDFS)

Provide detailed information on the procedure used to make the non-

detriment finding for the species evaluated.
This section, on Non-detrimental Finding procedure (NDFs) for sea-
horses (Hippocampus spp.) is largely based on the findings of the
International Workshop on CITES Implementation for Seahorse
Conservation and Trade, February 3-5, 2004, Mazatlan, Mexico. In
places the text is lifted directly from the proceedings of this workshop
(Bruckner et al. 2005) this text is in quotes. This workshop is hereaf-
ter referred to as the CITES Implementation Workshop.

1. IS THE METHODOLOGY USED BASED ON THE IUCN CHECKLIST

FOR NDFS?
__yes _X_no

An attempt was made at the CITES Implementation Workshop to use

the IUCN methodology to make NDFs for some of the better known
seahorse species and populations. Unfortunately, insufficient informa-

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.10

 tion exists, for any species or population, to make use of the checklist.
It was decided, therefore, to suggest interim measure for making NDFs
for seahorses, while further information is gathered by Parties to
allow for the development of more specific NDFs. These interim mea-
sures (minimum export size, protect seahorse habitats, and enforce
existing laws), as well as lists of information required to make more
specific NDFs, are outlined below.

2. CRITERIA, PARAMETERS AND/OR INDICATORS USED

The main criteria/indicators used to implement the three interim mea-
sures suggested by the participants of the CITES Implementation
Workshop are: a) for minimum export size an indication of whether
the size of individual seahorses entering trade is at or above the
recommended height for seahorse exports (currently 10 cm height); b)
for protecting seahorse habitats an idea of what percentage of sea-
horses habitats, or preferably populations, are within marine protec-
ted areas; and c) for enforcing existing laws knowledge that seahor-
ses entering trade from non-selective fishing practices are being sour-
ced legally.

3. MAIN SOURCES OF DATA, INCLUDING FIELD EVALUATION OR

SAMPLING METHODOLOGIES AND ANALYSIS USED
The main types of information needed to implement the three interim
measures suggested by the participants of the CITES Implementation
Workshop are: a) for minimum export size a Party could choose to
implement the current recommendation of 10 cm height, or obtain
specific information on size at maturity for their seahorses populations
in order to implement population specific size limits; b) for protecting
seahorse habitats information on the location of seahorse habitats,
or preferably areas of seahorse occupancy, in a Parties waters, and the
proportion of these habitats/locations that are currently protected;
and c) for enforcing existing laws information on whether trawlers
are fishing in restricted waters, and whether these trawlers are a sour-
ce of seahorses for export.

4. EVALUATION OF DATA QUANTITY AND QUALITY FOR THE ASSESSMENT

It is imperative that Parties do not feel restricted by the quantity and
quality of the information currently available to form NDFs for their
exported seahorses. Instead, interim NDFs, based on the best available
information, should be implemented immediately. Then, in the spirit
of adaptive management, Parties can begin to collect information
needed to develop more accurate measures for forming their NDFs.

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.11

5. MAIN PROBLEMS, CHALLENGES OR DIFFICULTIES FOUND
ON THE ELABORATION OF NDF
These are unknown to us at this time. We are hoping this workshop
will uncover some of the problems, challenges or difficulties Parties
are encountering when attempting to make NDFs for their seahorses.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS

Five Key Points to Remember

1. Parties are at liberty to do what they want to make NDFs under

CITES the following are recommendations of interim measures
where Parties lack other options/opportunities:

a) Minimum export size a 10 cm minimum size limit for specimens of

all Hippocampus species in trade is one component of an adaptive
management plan, and a simple precautionary means of making
initial non-detriment findings.

b) Protect seahorse habitats protecting seahorse habitats should

help to protect seahorse populations, at least until more informa-
tion is obtained and more accurate spatial management measures
can be developed and implemented.

c) Enforce existing laws seahorses sourced from trawlers fishing in

areas closed to trawling violate CITES provisions for legal acquisi-
tion, and should not be traded.

d) Collect information to increase understanding species and popu-

lation specific information are needed in order to identity potential
alternative management tools which could supplement or replace
the suggested interim measures. We wish to emphasise that even
basic types of data are useful, as long as they are presented with a
corresponding metric of effort.

There are, at present, two levels of NDF recommendations for seahor-

ses: 1) immediate measures, which should be implementable based on
existing information and understanding, and 2) measures that will be
feasible once information on individual seahorse populations, exploi-
tation levels, and trade are made available. By considering immediate
measures now, and then developing more accurate measures based on
new information later, Parties will be managing their seahorse trade
according to the principles of adaptive management. Applying the

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.12

principles of adaptive management to NDFs is emphasised in the IUCN
guidelines for making NDFs for Appendix II species (Rosser & Haywood
2002).
What follows are: 1) recommendations of immediate measures for
making NDFs for wild seahorses; 2) lists of data that are needed to
make more accurate recommendations for NDFs by species, popula-
tion and fishery; and 3) NDF recommendations for aquaculture and
other captive breeding operations. Included under each section are
the relevant summary recommendations of the CITES Implementation
Workshop, and supporting information from the reports of Working
Groups 1 and 3 (Bruckner et al. 2005). Finally, section 4) presents
Hippocampus Info, a web based tool being developed by Project
Seahorse for assisting Parties to undertake NDFs for the Hippocampus
genus.

1. Immediate measures
CITES Parties have recognised the challenges of setting quotas or
undertaking many other management measures given the dearth of
information on the state of existing wild populations and seahorse
trade levels, and the considerable similarity in physical appearance of
many species. There are, however, possible way Parties could overco-
me the immediate difficulties of making early NDFs as required by the
Convention a) minimum size limits, b) habitat protection, and c) the
enforcement of existing laws. These measures are expressed in
Recommendations 1, 3 and 4 of the CITES Implementation Workshop.

a) Minimum Size Limit

Recommendation 1: Minimum export size is a voluntary interim mea-
sure that could be used for making non-detriment findings.
Complementary auxiliary and voluntary measures include a quota on
the export levels at or below current levels, and a cap on the issuance
of new licenses
Decision 12.54 of the CITES Animal Committee suggests a universal
minimum size limit for specimens of all Hippocampus species in trade
as one component of an adaptive management plan, and as a simple
precautionary means of making initial non-detriment findings in
accordance with Article IV of the Convention. The currently recom-
mended minimum height is 10 cm. Basis for this recommendation can
be found in Foster & Vincent 2005. The Animal Committee suggests
that this size limit be reviewed at a later date on the basis of further
research.
A single minimum permissible height for all seahorse species in
international trade appears to be both biologically appropriate and

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.13

socially acceptable as a means of making interim NDFs for seahorses,
until Parties are able to define management tools more specifically.
Currently, the number of juvenile seahorses in trade bodes poorly for
population recovery from overexploitation. Project Seahorse consulta-
tion with multiple stakeholders and managers has revealed that most
favour minimum permissible size limits as a means of regulating sea-
horse fisheries.
A 10 cm minimum size limit would permit both reproduction and
continued trade in most species that are currently exported. It serves
as an initial approach to making NDFs while Parties assess internatio-
nal trade levels, impacts on domestic species, and potential alternati-
ve management tools which could supplement or replace the mini-
mum size limit. A minimum size limit of 10 cm should be sufficient to
permit reproduction in most species, including all six of the species at
which the CITES listing was primarily directed (H. barbouri, H. comes,
H. erectus, H. ingens, H. reidi and H. spinosissimus). This minimum size
limit is slightly above the currently inferred maximum size at onset of
sexual maturity for most species, so should allow reproduction to
occur.
There is concern that implementation of this recommendation
could lead to undersized seahorses being ground down before export
(for inclusion in medicines), thereby hiding detrimental trade. The
source and volume of seahorses consumed in pre-packaged, patent
medicines remains an unknown. However, Project Seahorse trade sur-
veys do suggest that all primary exports are of whole animals with
processing for medicines occurring in the import countries (e.g. China).
Should this change, and source countries begin processing seahorses
before export, then monitoring the size of seahorses entering trade
will have to move down the supply chain to the processing plants,
primary buyers, and/or catches.

b) Seahorse Habitat and Population Protection

Recommendation 3: Countries should evaluate the extent of seahor-
se habitat that is currently closed to non-selective harvest and identify
new areas as appropriate to protect vulnerable life stages. Comparing
the extent of protected versus non-protected habitat will also enable
CITES Scientific Authorities to gauge relative amount of seahorse refu-
gia and the potential impact of exporting a given amount of seahor-
ses taken as bycatch.
The premise behind this recommendation is that protecting seahor-
se habitat will help protect seahorse populations. If Parties can con-
firm that a decent proportion of seahorse habitats are closed to non-
selective fishing practices, then this may be useful in making NDFs in

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.14

the short term. This recommendation should be particularly useful
where the majority of seahorses are caught by non-selective fishing
practices, such as trawling. By closing a percentage of seahorse habi-
tats to these types of fishing, Parties may be creating seahorse refugia.
To this end, Working Group 1 recommended that maps illustrating,
to the extent possible, the distribution of habitat types, seahorse
populations and fishing areas, be used to as tools to implement spatial
management approaches (e.g. zoning of fishing grounds). As a first
step, existing maps at the available resolution (e.g. WCMC World Atlas
of Seagrasses, Mangroves and Coral Reef maps at a 4 km scale) can be
used, but should be refined to the highest level of detail possible once
more information becomes available.
For recommendation on what proportion of habitats to protect,
Parties should first look the guidelines/goals set by their own countries
(if such guidelines exist). Alternatively, they could look to the recom-
mendations set by global organisations. The UN Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) suggests that 10% of all marine and coastal
ecological regions be conserved in MPAs by 2012. More ambitiously,
The World Parks Congress set a target of a global system of MPA net-
works by 2012, which would include "strictly protected areas" amoun-
ting to at least 20-30% of each habitat.
Should a Party wish to formulate more specific NDFs for seahorses
caught as bycatch, then research into the life history and ecology of
seahorse populations is required. For example, a Party could imple-
ment seasonal closures of the trawl fishery based on reproductive
peaks, or implement bycatch quotas based on an understanding of
population size and intrinsic rates of population increase. Where the
bycatch consists of more than one seahorse species, changes to fishing
techniques could be used to formulate NDFs. For example, nets could
be brought up more frequently thereby increasing the chances that
individuals are landed live and undamaged, and small ones could be
returned to the water. Indeed, this could be beneficial for many
bycatch species other than seahorses. It would be useful to have a
focused discussion about how to make NDFs for trawl caught seahor-
ses at the workshop.

c) Enforcement of existing laws

Recommendation 4: " Enforcement of existing laws (e.g., trawling
bans in specific areas) is needed to improve the conservation of sea-
horses".
Parties should consider existing bans on non-selective fisheries/gear
when assessing sources of seahorse specimens destined for export. The
majority of dried seahorses in international trade come from the

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.15

bycatch of shrimp trawl fisheries. Many countries currently ban tra-
wling in coastal waters, but have little or no enforcement of these
bans. Seahorses collected from these illegal fisheries should not be
exported under CITES provisions for legal acquisition. Implementing
this recommendation will require close collaboration between natio-
nal Management Authorities, Scientific Authorities, and law enforce-
ment agencies to enforce trawling bans in real time and upon permit
issuance.

d) Information needed to identify potential alternative management

tools which could supplement or replace the suggested interim mea-
sures
Recommendation 2: Countries with export fisheries should strive to
obtain and make available certain minimum data sets to assist in vali-
dating adaptive management measures and making non-detriment
findings. This includes improved documentation of catch and effort
data along with basic information on population status and trends
obtained via fishery-independent programs, or by sub-sampling com-
mercial landings.
Recommendation 7: Support is needed for publication of an upda-
ted Project Seahorse trade report, along with detailed individual
country reports, as these documents could provide the baseline data
needed by individual countries to identify fisheries of concern, deter-
mine the appropriate initial management options for their particular
situation, and identify gaps in information and management needs.
The previous suggestions, a minimum size limit, protecting habitat,
and enforcing existing laws, are possible way Parties could overcome
the immediate difficulties of making early non-detriment findings as
required by the Convention. They are not, however, long term solu-
tions. More accurate measures for making NDFs on species and popu-
lation specific levels are needed.
The collection of basic data is required before Parties can identity
potential alternative management tools for making species and popu-
lation specific NDFs. Working Group 3 outlined the types of data
necessary for defensible and adaptive management of wild seahorse
populations. With these types of data available, NDFs such as quotas,
population specific minimum size limits, and zoning of fishing grounds
may be possible. Long-term monitoring of these data will also provide
an indication of population health important as an assessment of
trade must be put in context of all other threats faced by a
species/population.
It was agreed that two different types of data must be collected: a)
population data and b) fisheries data. Project Seahorse has available a

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.16

number of Technical Reports for Research and Management, which
will prove useful for Parties who want to develop and implement data
collection and population monitoring programs (http://seahorse.fishe-
ries.ubc.ca/tech-reports.html).
Population data can be collected via fishery-independent pro-
grams, or by sub-sampling commercial landings:
Species composition (fisheries are often dealing with multiple spe-
cies and Parties have to segregate information by species to meet
obligations)
Presence/absence
Densities/abundance indices
Sex ratio (males, females, juveniles)
Size structure
Reproductive status (males pregnant/not pregnant)
Habitats/depth of collection
Variation in seahorse distribution in time and space

In addition to these population data, the following types of fisheries

data should be collected in order to understand the effects of fishing
on wild populations:
fishing locations
catches (including discards)
fishing effort (number of boats, number of trips, etc)

The latter is perhaps the most important fisheries information, as most

population data is useless unless accompanied by a measure of effort.
Also, we here wish to re-emphasise that any data is better than no
data. Parties should not feel overwhelmed by the length of these data
wish lists, but rather use them as starting points for which to design
pragmatic programs for monitoring their populations, fisheries and
trades.
Based on these data, it was greed that a Scientific Authority could
recognize the signs of detrimental or unsustainable trade based on an
unexpected change in any of the following parameters:
Species composition
Presence/absence
Relative abundance
Size/age structure
Sex ratio
Frequency of male brood pouch
Catch rates (per unit effort)
Trade rates (per unit effort)
Habitat quality/quantity

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.17

Such indications of unsustainable populations/fisheries/trade would
only be visible after longer-term monitoring. It is suggested that
Parties set up specific sentinel or indicator fisheries that can be tar-
geted to test and evaluate various management measures through an
adaptive management process.

Recommendations for seahorse aquaculture operations

The CITES Implementation Workshop resulted in specific recommenda-
tions for making NDFs for seahorse aquaculture operations. These are
summarised in Recommendation 6: Seahorse aquaculture operations
should be inventoried and assessed to determine their production
capabilities, degree of reliance on wild populations, and environmen-
tal concerns. Operations should be encouraged to develop marking
systems to distinguish aquacultured seahorses from wild-caught speci-
mens. Until marking systems are refined for aquacultured seahorses,
national CITES authorities should rely on thorough paper documenta-
tion to distinguish between wild and aquacultured specimens. There is
no need to impose a standard minimum export size for aquacultured
seahorses produced in non-detrimental facilities.

Hippocampus Info
Hippocampus Info (www.hippocampusinfo.org) is a web-based tool to
assist countries in preparing scientifically sound and defensible NDFs
for seahorses. Hippocampus Info provides a central repository for sea-
horse data, generic resources and technical tools to support seahorse
conservation by CITES Authorities and other interested parties. It was
developed by Project Seahorse (www.projectseahorse.org), an organi-
zation with immense global experience in seahorse conservation and
biology with original financial support from the Whitley Fund for
Nature (www.whitley-award.org) and additional support from other
partners, donors, and sponsors of Project Seahorse.
With CITES Notification No. 2006/069, the Secretariat invited Parties
to support this Project Seahorse initiative, which could become a
model for providing species-specific information and capacity-building
resources.
The website currently provides simple and intuitive access to the
following information:
Seahorse identification using a highly visual and interactive iden-
tification key.
Seahorse trade statistics though a relational database containing
all official trade records, by country, for seahorses before and after
2004 (year of CITES listing implementation)
Resources about seahorse distribution, biology and trade.

WG 8 CASE STUDY 4 p.18

 Generic resources about marine conservation issues and solutions
such as fisheries, bycatch and trade monitoring, biological popula-
tion assessment and marine protected areas.
Country-specific information on all aspects of seahorses for most
major seahorse trading countries (Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Mexico, Philippines, Thailand, Viet Nam, and the major trading hub,
Hong Kong SAR).
Interim suggestions to Parties for making NDFs for seahorses
Suggestion of the types of information and data needed to formu-
late more specific NDFs for seahorses

The site will grow in the future to host more information and tools,
such as:

Advisory tools incorporating seahorse information and appropriate

levels of uncertainty and risk.
Expansion to include seahorse information for additional countries
identified as emerging or growing participants in the international
seahorse trade.

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FOSTER, S. J., and A. C. J. Vincent. 2004. Life history and ecology of seahorses: implications
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