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Modelling and Simulation of Powertrain System for Electric Car Open Access

Article · January 2018

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 Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers Malaysia
Volume 2, Issue 1, pp 23-34, January 2018
e-ISSN 2550-2239

Modelling and Simulation of Powertrain System for

Electric Car
S. M. E. Fadul1, I. B. Aris*1, N. Misron1, I. A. Halin1 and A. K. M. Iqbal2
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Mechanical, College of Engineering Universiti Tenaga Nasional Malaysia,
43400 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

ORIGINAL ARTICLE Open Access

Article History: Abstract – It is widely believed that electric cars hold the key toward a
greener mode of transport in the wake of an increased global energy
Received consumption and greenhouse gas emission. However, on the downside,
22 Jun 2017 electric vehicles suffer from limited drive range and insufficient battery
pack energy. Due to limited energy storage, effective power utility and
Received in energy efficiency are regarded as important for battery powered
revised form
automobiles. To increase energy saving and provide better electric motor
18 Nov 2017
efficiency of an electric car, control algorithms such as field-oriented
Accepted control strategy and space vector modulation can be used. This paper
5 Dec 2017 presents a study using Matlab/Simulink on vehicle parameters based on
modelling and simulation of an electric car dynamics when integrated with
Available online an induction motor powered by Li-ion battery. It shall also describe a
1 Jan 2018 modelling of the electric powertrain leading to an analysis of on-board-to-
wheel energy conversion. To achieve the model goals, the vehicle
powertrain was simulated and the results further confirmed that both
vehicle torque and speed correlate with an electric car acceleration index.

Keywords: Electric car, powertrain, induction motor, field oriented control

Copyright © 2018 Society of Automotive Engineers Malaysia - All rights reserved.

Journal homepage: www.journal.saemalaysia.org.my

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The growing demand for motorised vehicles to suit today’s travelling needs has unfortunately
led to the transportation sector being blamed for an increase in global energy consumption and
greenhouse gas emission. In order to mitigate the effects of powered road vehicles for public
and private use, improvement of energy efficiency is required. According to Kushnir and
Sandén (2011), the energy economy presented by electric powertrain is about 80 % greater than
that of an internal combustion engine (ICE), which stands at 25% of the total energy input
during operation.

As such, Electric Vehicles (EVs) are currently being touted as a greener mode of
transport in the wake of an increased global energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission.
Due to this reason, vehicle manufacturers are looking at vehicle electrification and alternative

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forms of propulsion to enhance energy efficiency and saving of electric vehicle drivetrain to
meet market demands, in an effort to reduce the impact of transportation for private and public
cars. Campanari et al. (2009) and Sciarretta et al. (2015), on the other hand, suggested that on-
board-to-wheel energy conversion hold the key toward energy efficiency of private cars.

Energy conversion (i.e. on-board-to-wheel) is the process where energy is transformed

– by the drive system to mechanical form via transmission – down to the wheels. Hence, such
mechanical energy is converted into potential and kinetic energy necessary for motion.
However, this energy transformation process results in significant energy loss as on-board to
wheel energy is affected by vehicle resistance parameters including Rolling Resistance (RR),
Aerodynamic Drag Resistance (ADR), Grading Resistance (GR), vehicle total weight, aside
from road topology and terrain (drive cycle) used by the vehicle. In order to enhance on-board
to wheel energy conversion efficiency, both low level abstraction upgrade of the components
used and the entire integrated system need to be carried out.

To evaluate power consumption due to vehicle load conditions, simulation tools can be
used to investigate and analyse EV powertrain parameters. It has been noted that simulation
serves as the backbone for the rapid advancement of EV technology. Simulation helps to
decrease the cost and length of EV model cycle. It does so by assessing the design and energy
management techniques before prototype construction begins (Mohd et al., 2015a). To
understand the behaviour of EV, some studies have underlined the benefits of modelling
different peripherals (Fadul et al., 2017). The EV model involved depends on the objectives of
simulation (Marmaras et al., 2017).

This paper focuses on a study to determine the effects of vehicle dynamic parameters and
its powertrain based on a simulation and model of an Electric Vehicle (EV) dynamics when
integrated with an induction motor (Mohd et al., 2015b). Analysing energy efficiency is
important for battery powered electric vehicles due to the limited stored energy. Consequently,
the study uses field oriented control to achieve enhancement in energy saving and better
efficiency for induction motor within an electric vehicle. A modest EV model will be
implemented to accomplish powertrain objectives in the drive system.

The paper is arranged into various sections. Section One shall discuss the key
components of the EV powertrain along with the induction of motor control strategy (FOC)
used in the aforementioned study. Section Two presents the model development parts for
vehicle design and a general description of vehicle movement. The third section shall address
a case study of the vehicle through simulation in Matlab/Simulink while Section Four reveals
the results obtained from the simulation. Finally, the paper shall present a conclusion based on
the research findings.

2.0 THE KEY COMPONENTS OF EV POWERTRAIN

The current global energy crisis coupled with the thinning of our ozone layer has resulted in
the invention of powered road vehicles being considered the most popular field of science.
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) and foremost, Electric Vehicles (EVs) are presumed to be a
lasting solution to limit the tremendous emission of hazardous gasses into the environment
caused by tailpipe vehicles. The EV comprises a battery pack, electric motor, both AC-DC and
DC-DC power converters, vehicle interface and power management/control unit which
monitors the power flow as depicted in Figure 1. An accelerator pedal is attached to the

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Electronic Control Unit (ECU) to decide how much power from the battery pack is to be
supplied to the electric motor in order to overcome the actual vehicle load in different
situations. Therefore, in the EV application, a powertrain can generate power and deliver it to
the road surface. This section briefly introduces the EV electric powertrain, which consists of
the following components:

 Electrical Machines (EM);

 Power Electronic Converters;
 Electric Energy Storage System (EESS); and
 Energy Management System (EMS) and Control.

Power Management Control Strategy Mechanical Power Flow

Electrical Power Flow
Pedal Control Signal Flow
AC/DC
Onboard
Charger
Battery Pack

DC/AC Electric
Inverter Transmission
Motor

SMEF

DC/DC Aux.
Converter Battery

Figure 1: Structure of general EV based on the energy point of view

2.1 Electrical Machines

Because of their particular torque-speed characteristics, electric machines can provide a high
starting torque. The determined rated speed and maximum speed of the drive motor must
conform with requirements of the torque-speed characteristics of the motor.

As soon as the car begins to move, the electric motor acceleration is minimal and will
operate in the constant torque condition, as long as velocity is larger compared to the rated
speed it operates in the continuous power status as represented in Figure 2-A. AC motor is
generally used for high-performance EV as it can perform in the four quadrants. These
operating quadrants demonstrate four combinations of polarities of the torque and speed as
highlighted in Figure 2-B. Induction Motor (IM) drives will continue to be implemented in
EVs due to its reliable operation, high efficiency, ruggedness, and low maintenance
requirements. Nevertheless, a precise and accurate control of the induction motor is not easily
realizable due to its complexity, non-linearity and the inability to directly access and measure
rotor variables. Hence, controlling the induction motor becomes a monotonous process and a
critical issue, especially for EV applications where both fast transient and stable steady state
responses of the speed and torque performances are required. Therefore, one of the techniques
used to address these issues require controlling the electric motor through Field Oriented
Control (FOC). Application of FOC to induction motor is performed mainly based on the motor
model fixed in dq-axis to the stationary reference frame. As shown in Figure 3, FOC control
along with space vector modulation are used to determine precise pulses fed to power inverter
to supply the IM with three phase currents. The operating quadrants illustrate four
combinations of polarities of torque and speed.

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Figure 2: (A) Typical traction electric motor characteristics; (B) Operating quadrants in
the (ωm, Tm) plane

2.2 Power Electronic Converters

This sub-section shall provide explanation of the inverter, DC-DC converter and rectifier.

2.2.1 Inverter

In an electric vehicle, inverters convert DC power, typically from a battery pack voltage, to
alternating phases of power to drive electric motors. The two key performance measures are
power capabilities and efficiency. Typical motor control functions include driving
IGBT/relevant power stages, sensing the motor speed/position accurately and diagnosing and
driving the system safely to avoid any malfunction to the inverter. DC/DC converters increase
or decrease battery voltages.

2.2.2 DC-DC Converter

The DC-DC converter is used in EV as an interface circuit between battery pack and DC link
Bus. It allows power flow from the high voltage to low voltage when acting as a buck converter
while the power flow from the low voltage to high voltage requires the converter to act as a
booster. As a result, the use of bidirectional DC-DC converter allows the use of multiple energy
storage, and offers advantage of flexible DC-link voltages which can enhance system efficiency
and reduce component sizing. However, the converter must be highly efficient, reliable, cost
effective and simple to control to be used in EV.

2.2.3 Rectifier

The rectifier converts AC from electric grid to DC to charge on-board battery pack (Pan &
Zhang, 2016). Also during regenerative stage in EV, when braking or slowing the vehicle
down, a considerable amount of energy is generated which needs to be stored in the battery
pack. Currently, the converter acts as a rectifier to recharge the battery.

2.3 Energy Storage System

Fulfilling the demand of mileage endurance requirements necessitates an understanding of the

parameters that control the battery operation (Affanni et al., 2005; Schmalstieg et al., 2014).
Many battery manufacturers for HEV and EV such as NiMH and Li-ion determine the battery
voltage and capacity. For EV propulsion, the battery pack must supply voltage and current
according to the vehicle’s motor requirements and peak power requirement in the typical

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driving cycle (Kroeze & Krein, 2008; Tremblay & Dessaint, 2009). These parameters are
defined below as:

 Energy density and specific energy; theses parameters determine at what voltage can
the battery deliver current over time per volume and weight respectively.
 Maximum sustainable discharge rate; this determines the ability of the battery to
deliver power in watt continuously without damage.
 Life cycle; determines the number of time for charging and discharging before the
battery loses a specific amount of its capabilities.
 Operating temperature; as the battery is charged and discharged, it will change its
temperature. Battery performance will vary substantially.
 Capacity and State of Charge (SOC); determines the current that the battery can
deliver to the load. SOC also determines a remaining of battery capacity depending
on the battery operating conditions such as load current and temperature.

2.4 Energy Management System and Control

The energy management system and control unit apply both software and hardware controls to
maximize energy efficiency and drivability. The powerful variable speed control of three-phase
induction motors needs to balance three-phase set of voltage variables from DC voltage with
variable frequency using power-semiconductor devices such as IGBT or MOSFET. As the AC
three-phase voltage is generated when using one of the modulation techniques, voltage and
frequency of the generated waveform can be controlled by the control algorithm. This
algorithm can also control the torque or speed; with an open or closed loop. Many algorithms
are used to control the IMs such as volts per hertz, slip control, vector control, sensorless vector
control and field orientation. In this particular study, FOC and SVM are used to control the IM
drive system. FOC not only can control the torque but also can mitigate electric drive losses.
Hence, FOC combined with the space vector modulation can provide an optimal approach to
control the EV traction motor.

Applying FOC technique requires measuring two instantaneous currents using current
sensors, before using the Clarke and Park transformation to convert them into variant and
invariant systems, respectively. The main loop for FOC is executed as the interrupt service
routine. This loop must be able to measure and convert the current, read and calculate the speed
of the rotor, supervise the PI controllers, calculate the slip and check the modulation strategy,
as well as search and check for any fault. Figure 3 shows a loop of vector control that executes
the interrupt service routine program for every predetermined time.

A response of electric torque Te of vector controlled IM drive is stated in Equation 1. The

𝑒 𝑒
current 𝑖𝑞𝑠 is torque component and 𝑖𝑑𝑠 is flux component. For requiring high speed of IM, the
direct current component via the IM has to be controlled. For achieving good torque response,
the flux component must be constant and the torque component must be varied. This means
idref is constant while iqref is the desired variable torque signal as illustrated in Figure 3.

3 𝑃 𝐿2𝑚 𝑒 𝑒
𝑇𝑒 = 2 2 𝑖 𝑖 (1)
𝐿𝑟 𝑞𝑠 𝑑𝑠

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FOC Algorithm and SV

ωref iqref Inv.Park T Vα

A/D PI PI dq
Vq
SV- 3-phase
idref PWM inverter
Flux αβ
Vβ
Cont. PI
Vd ia ib ic Battery
θr Pack

θr iq dq iα αβ
Calcula Induction EV
-tion Motor
id iβ Dynamic
αβ abc

ωm Park T Clarke T
Mechanical Speed of rotor
Speed sensor

Figure 3: A block diagram of FOC

3.0 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF VEHICLE MOVEMENT

The vehicle dynamics represent the motion influence on the overall system. As mentioned
earlier, the energy transformed to the vehicle wheel is converted once more to energy for
displacement. The tires dynamics represent the force applied to the ground. Accordingly, the
overall consumed energy at the tire can be obtained from the time integral of the power as:
𝑡
𝐸𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = ∫0 𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (2)

For the electric powertrain that transmits the instantaneous tractive power to the wheels,
Pwheel, in order to sustain a certain speed level, road grade and acceleration along with
displacement is determined by the tractive force and vehicle speed as:
𝑡
𝑃𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 = ∫0 𝑣(𝑡) 𝐹𝑡 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (3)

where v is the vehicle’s speed and 𝐹𝑡 is transited traction force by the powertrain to the wheels.
Hence, during regenerative braking if the Fwheel is negative, pwheel will also be negative, and
therefore, the total consumed energy over time will be reduced.

On the other hand, as shown in Figure 4, the description of vehicle movement can be
entirely determined by analysing the resistive forces acting on it in the direction of movement.
When the vehicle moves, it encounters resistive force that tries to retard motion. The resistive
forces include:

• Rolling resistance;
• Aerodynamic drag; and
• Grade resistance.

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Ft

α
sin
F ad M vg h F rr

co sα
M vg
Mvg hd f
F rr
α hd r L

Figure 4: Forces acting during vehicle movement

The equation of movement along the electric vehicle’s longitudinal axis is represented
by the following equation (Eshani et al., 2010):

𝐹𝑡 = 𝐹𝑟𝑟 + 𝐹𝑎𝑑 + 𝐹ℎ𝑐 + 𝐹𝑎𝑐 (4)

where Ft, Frr, Fae, Fhc, Fac and Fwa represent total tractive force, road rolling resistance,
aerodynamic resistance, grading resistance, and acceleration resistance, respectively. The
details are given in the following section.

3.1 Rolling Resistance

The rolling resistance Frr is produced by friction of the vehicle tyre at the roadway contact
surface during rolling. The repeated deflection can affect the tire producing a hysteresis within
the tire material. Rolling resistance also depends on vehicle speed, tyre pressure and type and
road surface characteristic, which makes estimation of rolling resistance through analytical
modelling very difficult.

Therefore, the rolling resistance force, Frr acting on a vehicle in the longitudinal direction,
is usually expressed as the effective normal load of the vehicle multiplied by the dimensionless
rolling resistance coefficient. Rolling resistance can be stated as:

𝐹𝑟𝑟 = 𝐶𝑟𝑟 𝑀𝑣 . 𝑔. cos(∝) (5)

where Crr: Tire rolling resistance coefficient, g is acceleration constant [m/s2] and α is road
angle [radians]

3.2 Aerodynamic Drag Resistance

Fad occurs as air flows over the vehicle. The force is a function of the frontal area, the shape,
etc. This drag resistance can be written as:
1
𝐹𝑎𝑑 = 2 𝑝𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑑 𝐴𝑓 (𝑣𝑣 + 𝑣𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 )2 (6)

where ρa is air density; Cad aerodynamic drag coefficient; Af is vehicle frontal area; vv is vehicle
speed, and vw is headwind velocity.

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3.3 Grading Resistance

Grading resistance is the required force to drive a vehicle up a slope when the vehicle weight
component acts along the slope. This grading resistance force Fhc opposes the forward motion
uphill and helps downward motion. It can be written as:

𝐹ℎ𝑐 = 𝑀𝑣 . 𝑔. sin(∝) (7)

where α (rad/s) is the angle between the level road and the horizontal plane as in

α = arctan (rise ⁄ run) = arctan ((%grade) ⁄ 100) (8)

3.4 Acceleration Resistance

An additional force is required when the speed of the vehicle varies. This force will provide
the linear acceleration of the vehicle.

𝐹𝑎𝑐 = 𝑀𝑣 𝑎 (9)

where a: vehicle acceleration.

Using the Newton's second law of movement, the fundamentals of vehicle design include
basic principles of physics. The dynamic equation of the vehicle movement along the
longitudinal direction is specified by vehicle acceleration that can be stated as:
𝑑𝑣 𝐹𝑡 −(𝐹𝑟𝑟 +𝐹𝑎𝑑 +𝐹ℎ𝑐 )
=𝑎= (10)
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑣

The traction force that can overcome the vehicle resistive forces which act on the vehicle
can be expressed as:
60𝑁𝑔 𝜂𝑔 𝑃𝑚
𝐹𝑡 = 2𝜋𝑛 [𝑁] (11)
𝑚,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑑

where ηg is gear efficiency, Ng is gear ratio and rd is the wheel radius, nm,max is the maximum
rpm of the motor and Pm is electric motor power.

To calculate the total traction force, Table 1 is used to provide dynamic parameters for
the electric car, which leads to the definition of motor size and power needed to propel the EV.

Table 1: Vehicle basis dynamic parameters

Parameter Value
Vehicle mass (kg) 1300
Aerodynamic drag 0.25
Wheel rolling resistance 0.01
Wheel radius (m) 0.25

4.0 A CASE STUDY OF ELECTRIC CAR

Providing the specification for electric powertrain of EV is the main step in developing a
process to analyse the powertrain efficiency. Both modelling and simulation methods have

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been used in this study. Upon considering the vehicle performance criteria, power sizing of the
electric motor and developed model are simulated in Matlab/Simulink.

Figure 5 shows the EV Simulink model comprising a lithium ion battery pack of 156V
with 200Ah. The control system design consists of the energy management, control unit and
other connected interfaces. In addition to that, the EV model consists of other blocks namely;
three phase Induction Motor (IM), power converters and vehicle dynamics load. A lithium-ion
battery pack which acts as the main power source to the EV supplies the three-phase induction
motor which propels the vehicle. In order to supply a stable three phase currents for the IM, an
inverter was used to invert DC voltage from the battery into three phase AC voltage.

Figure 5: Model of electric vehicle drivetrain in Matlab/Simulink

To distribute power from the storage energy accurately, the energy management and
control unit block performs a variety of tasks. First it controls the DC-DC converter which
regulates the DC link voltage and current. Because the block contains FOC algorithm, it can
determine the reference signals to govern the gates of power inverter which control the motor
dynamics.

This study reveals a multi-domain simulation of a battery EV powertrain based on

SimPowerSystems and SimDriveline. Figure 6 shows the pedal position (A), battery state of
charge (B), battery power (C) and battery current (D). In Figure 6-A, an accelerator pedal
represents a reference signal to energy management and control unit during the 16-sec interval.

During that time, the battery state-of-charge should be maintained between 85% and
40% to prevent voltage collapse. This was done by controlling the power required from the
battery. Accordingly, the battery depletion rate was at 0.05%. Moreover, the simulation showed
the operating mode of the battery over predetermined time during the accelerating mode. It can
be seen that a battery power and battery current started at zero and reached about 26 kW and
100A respectively.

On the other hand, drive torque and drive power reached an average of 60Nm and 75kW,
respectively in order to propel the car from its starting point, as can be seen in Figure 7-E and
7-F. In addition, motor supplied power was approximately 30kW while the supplied three phase
current was 250 amperes (Figure 7-G and 7-H). The drive power and torque resulted in IM
speed to reach the base speed of 4000 rpm (Figure 8-I). This allowed the speed of the car to
reach around 80km/h during the 16-sec cycle (Figure 8-K).

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Figure 6: (A) pedal position; (B) Battery state of charge; (C) Battery power; (D) Battery current

Figure 7: (E) Drive torque; (F) Drive power; (G) IM power; (H) IM three phase voltages

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Figure 8: (I) Speed of the IM motor rotor; (K) Speed of the electric car

5.0 CONCLUSION

Overall, this paper has highlighted the key components of EV powertrain along with FOC
approach. Moreover, the results of simulation indicated that the vehicle model had good
dynamic performance. This modelled powertrain shows that the vehicle reached about 70km/h
during a 10-second acceleration time. Such result confirmed that the car speed fulfilled the
acceleration index for powered road vehicles.

Although the study focuses on analysing effective power and efficient energy for battery
powered electric automobiles through modelling and simulations, the findings may have a
bearing on the presence of thermal effect on car performance for more energy saving. Taken
together, such results suggest that further work is required to establish the viability of a
complex EV powertrain that includes the thermal effect on its performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to thank Universiti Putra Malaysia for providing internal research grant to carry out
this project.

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