CHAPTER 5

FOREST AND
WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT &
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
FOREST AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT & ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Objectives

At the end of the module, the students should be able to:

1. articulate what watershed management and forest management are?

2. Identify the different types of watershed management and forest management in the
country.
3. Distinguish the various natural disasters and calamities that have occurred in the country
as a result of poor watershed and forest management.
4. Recall the laws that protect and safeguard our watersheds and forests.
5. Consider how important it is to have natural resources and take care of them so that the
next generation can benefit from them.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS

A. REPUBLIC ACT 9003 ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000

The law intends to establish, in collaboration with stakeholders, a systematic, comprehensive,

and ecological solid waste management program that will preserve public health and the
environment. The law ensures proper waste segregation, collection, storage, treatment, and
disposal by formulating and adapting best-in-class eco-waste products.

Declaration of Policies
It is the State's policy to develop a systematic, all-inclusive, and ecological solid waste
management program that shall:

a) Ensure the protection of public health and environment;

b) Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable
resources and encourage resources conservation and recovery;
c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through
source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling,
reuse, recovery, green charcoal process, and others, before collection, treatment and
disposal in appropriate and environmentally-sound solid waste management facilities
in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;
d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal
of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental
practices in ecological waste management excluding incineration;
e) Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste
management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional
arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection,
separation and recovery;
f) Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;
g) Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local
government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national
government, other local government units, non-government organizations, and the
private sector;
h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the
application of market-based instruments;
i) Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national
and local integrated, comprehensive and ecological waste management programs;
and
j) Strengthen the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource
conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal
education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the
citizenry.

PENALTIES

Paragraph 1. Littering, throwing, dumping of waste matters in public places,

such as roads, sidewalks, canals, esteros or parks, and establishment, or causing or
permitting the same Payment in the amounts not less than Three hundred pesos
(P300.000) but not more than One thousand pesos (P1,000.00) or Rendering of
community service for not less than one (1) day to not more than fifteen (15) days to
an LGU where such prohibited acts are committed or both

Para 2. Undertaking activities or operating, collecting or transporting

equipment in violation of sanitation operation and other requirements or permits set
forth in or established pursuant to the Act
 Para 3. The open burning of solid waste Payment in the amounts not less than
Three hundred pesos (P300.000) but not more than One thousand pesos (P1,000.00)
or Imprisonment of not less than one (1) day to not more than fifteen (15) days or both

Para 4. Causing or permitting the collection of non-segregated or unsorted

waste

Para 5. Squatting in open dumps and landfills

Para 6. Open dumping, burying of biodegradable or noon-biodegradable

materials in flood-prone areas Para

7. Unauthorized removal of recyclable material intended for collection by

authorized persons Payment in the amounts not less than One thousand pesos
(P1,000.00) but not more than Three thousand pesos (P3,000.00) or Imprisonment of
not less than fifteen (15) day to not more than six (6) months or both

Para 8. The mixing of source-separated recyclable material with other solid waste in
any vehicle, box, container or receptacle used in solid waste collection or
disposal Para

9. Establishment or operation of open dumps as enjoined in the Act, or closure

of said dumps in violation of Sec. 37 of the Act Para

10. The manufacture, distribution or use of non-environmentally acceptable

packaging materials

Para 11. Importation of consumer products packaged in non-environmentally

acceptable materials For the first time, shall pay a fine of Five hundred thousand pesos
(P500,000.00) plus an amount not less than five percent (5%) but not more than ten
percent (10%) of his net annual income during the previous year The additional penalty
of imprisonment of a minimum period of one (1) year, but not to exceed three (3) years
at the discretion of the court, shall be imposed for second or subsequent violations of
Sec. 48 of the Act, paragraphs (9) and (10)

Para 12. Importation of toxic wastes misrepresented as "recyclable" or "with

recyclable content"

Para 13. Transport and dumping in bulk of collected domestic, industrial,

commercial and institutional wastes in areas other than centers of facilities prescribed
under the Act Payment in the amounts not less than Ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00)
but not more than Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00) or Imprisonment of not
less than thirty (30) days but not more than three (3) years, or both

Para 14. Site preparation, construction, expansion or operation of waste

management facilities without an Environmental Compliance Certificate required
pursuant to Presidential Decree No. 1586 and the Act and not conforming with the land
use plan of the LGU

Para 15. The construction of any establishment within two hundred (200)
meters from open dump or controlled dumps or sanitary landfills
 Para 16. The construction or operation of landfills or any waste disposal facility
on any aquifer, groundwater reservoir or watershed area and/or any portion thereof.

Payment in the amounts not less than One hundred thousand pesos
(P100,000.00) but not more than One million pesos (P1,000,000.00) or Imprisonment
of not less than one (1) year but not more than six (6) years, or both If the offense is
committed by a corporation, partnership, or other juridical entity duly organized in
accordance with law, the chief executive officer, president, general manager, managing
partner or such other officer-in-charge shall be liable for the commission of the offense
penalized under the Act. If the offender is an alien, he shall, after service of the sentence
prescribed above, be deported without further administrative proceedings. The fines
herein prescribed shall be increased by at least ten percent (10%) every three (3) years
to compensate for inflation and to maintain the deterrent function of such fines

“Environmental laws and Policies of the Philippines”

1987 Philippine constitution
Section 16, Article II
 The state shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful
ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature”

PD 1586: The Phil EIS system (1978)

Policy
 “To attain and maintain a rational and orderly balance between socio- economic growth
and environmental protection”

Section 4
“No person, Partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate any, or in part, such declared
Environmentally Critical Area (ECA) without first securing an environmental Compliance
Certificate. Shall be punished by the suspension or cancellation of his/it’s certificate or and /or a
fine in an amount not to exceed Fifty Thousand Pesos (Php 50,000,00) For every violation thereof,
at the discretion of the DENR”.
Category A; Environmentally Critical Projects (ECPs)
1.Heavy Industries
 Non-Ferrous metal industries
 Iron and steel mills Petroleum and Petro-chemical Industries
o Oil and gas
o Smelting plants

2.Infrastructure Project.
 Major roads and Bridges
 Major roads, new construction widening
 Major bridges
3.Infrastructure Projects
 Major dams
 Major Plants
 Fossil-fueled
  Nuclear-fueled
 Hydroelectric
 Geothermal
4.All golf course projects
Environmentally Critical Areas
 Are areas delineated as environmentally sensitive such that significant environmental
impacts are expected if certain types of proposed project or programs are located,
developed or implemented in it.
1. All areas declared by law
 National Parks
 Watershed Reserves
 Wildlife Preserves and sanctuaries
2. All area set aside as aesthetic potential tourist spots
3. Areas which constitute the habitat of any endangered or threatened species of
Philippine wildlife (Flora/Fauna)
 Flora- Flora is all the plant life present in a particular region or time, generally the naturally
occurring native plants. The corresponding term for animal life is fauna. Flora, fauna, and
other forms of life, such as fungi, are collectively referred to as biota.
 Fauna- Fauna is all of the animal life present in a particular region or time. The
corresponding term for plants is flora. Flora, fauna and other forms of life such as fungi
are collectively referred to as biota.
4. Areas of unique historic, archaeological or scientific interest
5. Areas which are traditionally occupied by cultural communities or tribes
6. Areas Frequently visited/ or hard hit by natural calamities
 Geological Hazards
 Floods
 Typhoons
 Volcanic activity
7. Areas with critical slope
8. Areas classified as prime agricultural lands
9. Recharged areas for aquifers
10. Water bodies characterized by the following conditions:
 Tapped for domestic purposes
 Within the controlled and/or protected areas declared by appropriates authorities
 Water bodies which support wildlife and fishery activities
Republic Act No. 6969
“Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act of 1990 and its IRR
(DAO 36)
REVISING DENR ADMINISTRATIVE ORDER NO. 36, SERIES 2004
To further Strengthen the Implementation of Republic, act 6969(Toxic substances, Hazardous
and Nuclear Wastes Control Act of 1990) and Prescribing the Use of the Procedural Manual

Priority Chemical List (PCL)

A list of existing and new chemicals that the DENR has determined to potentially pose
unreasonable risk to public health, workplace, and the environment.

Chemical substance
-Any organic or inorganic substances of particular molecular identity including any combination of
substances occurring in whole or in parts as a result of chemical reactions or occurring in the
nature and any element or uncombined chemical.
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
-substance which present either:
 Short-term acute hazard such as acute toxicity by ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption,
corrosivity or other skin or eye contact hazard or the risk of fire explosion, OR
 Long-term environmental hazard, including chronic toxicity upon repeated exposure,
resistance to detoxification process such as biodegradation, the potential to pollute
underground or surface waters, or aesthetically objectionable properties such as offensive
odors
Hazardous waste
-Substance that are without any safe commercial, industrial, agricultural or economic usage.
Nuclear wastes
-are hazardous wastes made radioactive by exposure to the radiation incidental to the production
or utilization of nuclear fuels but does not include nuclear fuel, or radioisotopes
Which have reached the final stage of fabrication so as to be usable for any scientific, medical,
agriculture, commercial, or industrial purpose

REPUBLIC ACT 9275

The Philippine Clean Water Act OF 2004
“An act providing for a comprehensive water quality management and for other purpose
Water Pollution
-Any alteration of Physical, chemical or biological or radiological properties of water body resulting
in the impairments of its purity or quality
SECTION 3
 Applies to water quality management in all water bodies
 Primarily applies to the abatement and control of pollution from land-based sources
 The water quality standards and regulations and the civil liability and penal provisions
under this act shall be enforced irrespective of source of pollution
SECTION 5: Management of water quality
 Management of water quality will either be based on water shed, river basin or water
resource region
 Designation of water quality management areas with similar hydrological, hydro
geological, meteorological or geographic conditions in which affect the reaction and
diffusion of pollutants in water bodies by the DENR-EMB in coordination

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8749(June 23,1999)

The Philippine Clean Air
“AN ACT PROVIDING FOR A COMPREHENSIVE AIR POLLUTION CONTROL POLICY AND
FOR OTHER PURPOSES”
 COVERAGE
o Mobile sources
o Refers to vehicle like cars, truck, buses, jeepneys, tricycles, motorcycles and vans

 POINT SOURCES
o Refer to stationary sources such as industrial Firms and the smokes stacks of
power plants, hotels and other establishments
  AREA SOURCES
o Refer to sources of emission other than mobile and point sources. These include
smoking, burning, of garbage, and dust from constructionistic.

 AIR POLLUTION
o Any alteration of the physical, chemical, and biological qualities of the atmosphere,
or any discharge of a liquid, gaseous, or solid substance into the atmosphere, that
will or is likely to render the air resources of the nation dangerous, detrimental, or
damaging to public health.
 AIR POLLUTANT
o Is there any substance in the atmosphere, other than oxygen, nitrogen, water
vapor, carbon dioxide, and inert gases, that is harmful to human health or the
environment in its natural or normal concentration?
 PRESIDENTIAL DECREE No. 1515
 VESTING THE JURISDICTION AND CONTROL OVER WATERSHED RESERVATIONS
IN THE MINISTRY OF ENERGY AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES
 WHEREAS, The Bureau of Forest Development is vested with authority and jurisdiction
over all forest properties, including watershed reservations, pursuant to Section 5 of
Presidential Decree No. 705;
 WHEREAS, Watershed regions are crucial and indispensable not just for the longevity of
hydroelectric dams and other government-funded water-related projects, but also for flood
control and other environmental or ecological activities;
 WHEREAS, in light of the aforementioned reasons, and in order to halt the ongoing
destruction, denudation, and appropriation of watershed areas by private parties, it is
imperative that their inalienable and non-disposable status be strengthened, and that
stricter measures be adopted for their better protection, development, management, and
rehabilitation.
 WHEREAS, The Ministry of Energy is tasked by Presidential Decree No. 1206 with
formulating and implementing the government's policies, plans, and programs regarding
the development of all energy resources; and
 WHEREAS, The Ministry of Energy will be in a stronger position to provide the needed
protection, development, administration, and rehabilitation of watershed regions as a
result of its foretasted powers.

LAWS THAT PROTECT WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

RA 9275 – The Philippine Clean Water Act

Why the need for the Clean Water Act?

As early as 1996, monitoring of the nation's rivers revealed that just 51% of the designated rivers
still matched the criteria for their most beneficial use. The remainder had been contaminated by
household, industrial, and agricultural sources.

The majority of research indicate that residential wastewater is the primary source of organic
contamination in our water bodies (at 48 percent). Despite this, just 3% of water supply and
sanitation spending went toward sanitation and sewage treatment.

A recent World Bank analysis revealed that Metro Manila had the second-fewest sewer
connections among Asia's major metropolitan areas, with less than 7 percent, compared to 20
percent for Katmandu, Nepal and 30 percent for Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Thirty-one percent (31%) of all illnesses in the country are attributable to water pollution. Clearly,
in order to ensure that all Filipinos have access to safe drinking water, the government needed to
develop a comprehensive strategy to protect water quality.

 What is the Clean Water Act?

The Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275) was enacted to safeguard the
country's water bodies against pollution caused by land-based sources (industries and
commercial entities, agriculture, and community/household activities). It establishes a
comprehensive and integrated strategy for pollution prevention and reduction that is multi-sectoral
and participatory in nature, involving all stakeholders.

GREPUBLIC ACT 8749 PHILIPPINE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1999

The law's objective is to attain and maintain clean air that complies with the National Air Quality
guideline values for criterion pollutants across the Philippines, while limiting potential economic
costs.

GREPUBLIC ACT 6969 TOXIC SUBSTANCES, HAZARDOUS AND NUCLEAR WASTE

CONTROL ACT OF 1990

The law's purpose is to control and prohibit the importation, manufacturing, processing, sale,
distribution, use, and disposal of chemical compounds and mixtures that pose an unreasonable
risk to human health. Additionally, it forbids the admission, even in transit, of hazardous and
nuclear wastes and their disposal within the Philippine territorial borders for any reason, as well
as the advancement and facilitation of harmful chemical research and studies.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE 1586 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT (EIS)

STATEMENT OF 1978

The Environment Impact Assessment System was initially established in 1978 by Presidential
Decree No. 1586 in order to promote the realization and maintenance of a sensible and orderly
balance between socioeconomic development and environmental protection. EIA is a planning
and management tool that assists government, decision makers, proponents, and the impacted
community in addressing adverse environmental repercussions or hazards. The method ensures
that environmentally friendly projects are implemented.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY

The Philippines consists of 7,110 islands and has an area of roughly 300,000 square
kilometers. The country's agricultural land area encompasses around 32% of the total land area,
or 96,000 square kilometers. These lands are cultivated with a variety of crops, including rice,
maize, fruit, trees, root crops, vegetables, coconut, and sugar cane.
The population of the Philippines was estimated at 86,2 million on July 1, 2004, and is expected
to reach 100 million in 14 years. The current rate of population increase is 2.71 percent, or three
births per minute. Existing settlement patterns indicate that 48.05 percent of the population lives
in urban zones, while the remainder dwells in rural regions.

There are around 85,000 manufacturing industries in the Philippines, with Metro Manila acting as
the most important industrial area. Approximately 52 percent of all manufacturing businesses are
There are thirty (30) basic industrial groupings used to categorize these businesses. The food
production industry employs the biggest number of Americans.

The quality of Philippine waterways has worsened as a result of rising population, urbanization,
and industrialisation, especially in densely populated regions and those with industrial and
agricultural activities. Domestic and industrial wastewater discharges, as well as agricultural
runoff, have resulted in extensive water contamination. This effluent may consist of untreated
sewage, detergents, fertilizer, heavy metals, chemical compounds, oils, and even solid waste.
Each of these toxins poses a unique threat to human health and the economy.

The projected annual cost of water pollution to the economy is PHP67 billion (more than US$1.3
billion). The government continues to combat worsening water pollution by establishing and
implementing environmental policies, regulations, and decrees that meet the rising need to
regulate water pollution. In recent years, the government has implemented economic measures
such as pollution penalties and environmental fees.

Access to adequate and clean water remains a seasonal concern in urban and coastal regions of
the Philippines. The National Capital Region (Metro Manila), Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog,
and Central Visayas are the four urban critical zones in terms of water quality and quantity.
According to official surveillance information,

A little more than one-third, or 36 percent, of the nation's river systems are categorized as public
water supply sources; up to 58 percent of measured groundwater is coliform-contaminated and
must be treated.
Approximately 31% of diseases recorded during a five-year period were caused by water-borne
causes, and during the dry season, many regions confront a water supply constraint.

Annually, the household (48%), agricultural (37%), and industrial (15%) sectors generate more
than 2,2 million metric tons of organic pollutants.

Domestic and industrial water pollution dominates the four water-critical zones. Untreated
wastewater has a detrimental effect on health by spreading disease-causing bacteria and viruses,
polluting drinking and recreational water, threatening biodiversity, and diminishing the quality of
life in general. Diseases such as gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera, dysentery, and
hepatitis have been linked to polluted water. Recent research has connected severe acute
respiratory syndrome to polluted water (SARS). According to news reports, the occurrence of
water-related health crises, including fatalities, is on the rise. However, comprehension of the
need for enhanced sanitation and water pollution management is significantly lacking, as shown
by a lack of willingness to pay and a lack of connection to a sewage system in places where these
services are easily accessible.

The estimated annual economic cost of water pollution is PHP67 billion ($1.3 billion). These
include investments of 3 billion pesos in health, 17 billion pesos in fishing production, and 47
billion pesos in tourism. Consequences of environmental deterioration caused by pollution.
Numerous water-related regulations exist in the Philippines, but their implementation is weak and
plagued with obstacles, such as inadequate resources, a defective database, and a lack of
coordination between different agencies and local government units (LGUs). Currently, Congress
is discussing the Clean Water Act. The government drastically underinvests in sanitation and
sewerage, demonstrating a low expenditure priority, despite sanitation and sewerage being
categorized as a high priority in the Philippines Agenda 21 of 1996. Only seven percent of the
country's population is linked to sewage systems, and only a few houses have acceptable effluent
from on-site sanitation facilities. According to projections, the Philippines would need to spend
Php250 billion (almost $1 billion) over a decade in physical infrastructure. Local governments are
constrained by high investment and operation costs, a low willingness to pay, and a lack of usable
land in low-income urban areas where sewage is disposed of carelessly. The 97 percent of the
government funding now dedicated to water distribution should be diverted to sewage and
sanitation. Individuals are not yet aware of these services or willing to pay for them. Therefore,
short-term government incentives are justifiable in light of wider community benefits.

Water Resources
The nation is blessed with vast natural resources, especially water, which are essential
for economic growth and the attainment of the government's Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs). The water resources of the Philippines consist of inland freshwater (rivers, lakes, and
groundwater) and marine water (bay, coastal, and oceanic waters). In general, there is adequate
water, although there is insufficient water in heavily inhabited locations, especially during the dry
season.

What is Watershed Management?

Watershed management is an adaptive, integrated, multi-resource management planning
process that aims to achieve a healthy equilibrium between ecological, economic, and
cultural/social conditions within a watershed. Watershed management seeks to integrate land and
water planning by addressing both ground and surface water flow and by identifying and planning
for the interaction of water, plants, animals, and human land use within the physical borders of a
watershed. Watershed management establishes a framework for integrated decision-making that
enables the following: assessment of the nature and status of the watershed; identification of
watershed issues; definition and reevaluation of short- and long-term objectives, actions, and
goals; and implementation and evaluation of actions. Adopting a watershed plan is predicated on
the understanding that Alberta's water resources must be managed within the capacity of distinct
watersheds and that all Albertans are aware of the limited amount of water. What happens on the
land and in the water within a watershed may affect the water supply of rivers. Despite the fact
that land and water are inextricably intertwined, they have been controlled separately in the past.
Concentrating efforts at the scale of the watershed provides a complete grasp of local
management requirements and fosters locally driven management choices.
River Basins

In the Philippines, 412 important river basins are organized

into 119 recognized watersheds. Nineteen are considered to be
significant river basins. The Cagayan River is Region II's longest river.
Other significant rivers in Luzon include the Agno and Pampanga,
which traverse the plains of Central Luzon; the Pasig, a commercially
significant artery that runs through the heart of Metro Manila and
serves as the primary drainage outlet for the majority of the
waterways; and the Bicol, the most significant river in Region V. Rio
Grande de Mindanao is the largest river in Mindanao, receiving water from the Pulangi and
Agusan. The Pasig River, which runs through the center of Metro Manila and serves as its primary
waterway, has deteriorated significantly in recent years. In the last five years, the Pasig River's
water quality has vastly improved thanks to the government's restoration efforts, which have
included the following:
• An increase in DO levels from 1998 to 2001 in almost all stations;

• An increasing number of stations are meeting standards for ambient WQ;

• Improvement in BOD levels at virtually all sites from 1998 to 2001;

• River odor is reduced; and

• BOD load (from household sewage, solid waste, commercial; and industrial liquid wastes) and
floating solid wastes have decreased, demonstrating the significance of solid waste as a source.

This is a list of rivers of the Philippines.

The Cagayan River, at 505 kilometers (314 miles) in length, is the longest in the nation,
followed by the Mindanao and Agusan rivers, which are 373 kilometers (232 miles) and 349
kilometers in length, respectively (217 mi). [1] The Cagayan River has the greatest drainage basin
with 27,753 square kilometers (10,715 square miles), followed by the Mindanao (23,169 square
kilometers or 8,946 square miles), Agusan (11,937 square kilometers or 4,715 square miles), and
Pampanga rivers (10,434 km2 or 4,029 sq. mi). In terms of watershed size, the Abra River, also
known as the Lagben River, is the fifth biggest river system in the Philippines. From its source in
the region of Mount Data in Benguet province, it has an estimated drainage area of 5,125 square
kilometers (1,979 square miles) and a length of 206 kilometers (128 miles).

Geography
The Abra originates at the southernmost top of Mount Data. As it descends westward to
Cervantes, Ilocos Sur, it passes through Abra province. It joins the Tineg River, which springs in
the Abra Highlands, near to the municipality of Dolores.
LUZON

Abulog
The Abulog River or Abulug River is the eighth biggest river system in the Philippines based on
watershed size. It has an estimated drainage area of 3,372 square kilometers (1,302 square
miles) and a length of 196 kilometers (122 miles) from its source in the highlands of Apayao in
the Cordillera Administrative Region. More than ninety percent of the river's drainage area is
located in the province of Apayao, while the rest, including the river's mouth, is located in the
province of Cagayan.
Typically, the Abulug River's upper portions, notably upstream of Kabugao, are known to as the
Apayao River.
Agno River
Agno River or Pangasinan River is a river on the island
of Luzon in the Philippines. It is one of the major river systems in
the nation, spanning the provinces of Benguet and Pangasinan
and draining 5,952 square kilometers (2,298 sq mi).
It originates in the Cordillera Mountains and drains through the
Lingayen Gulf into the South China Sea. The river's length of 248
kilometers (154 miles) makes it the sixth longest in the nation.
The Agno River Valley is home to around 2 million people and is
one of the Philippines' largest population concentrations. The
river is dammed by three hydroelectric generating facilities: the Ambuklao Dam in Bokod, the
Binga Dam in Itogon, and the San Roque Dam in San Manuel.
Angat River
Angat River (also known as Bulacan River) is a river in the
Philippine province of Bulacan. The mountain range of Sierra
Madre flows into Manila Bay. There are three dams called Angat,
Ipo, and Bustos along the river. The Angat Watershed Forest
Reserve comprises 1,085 square kilometers (419 square miles)
of the catchment or basin area of the river. The Angat River flows
through the municipalities of Doa Remedios Trinidad, Norzagaray,
Angat, Bustos, San Rafael, Baliwag, Plaridel, Pulilan, Calumpit,
Paombong, and Hagonoy. Calumpit is located at the confluence of the Bagbag and Pampanga
rivers.
Apayao River
Apayao River is a river on the island of Luzon in the Apayao province of the Philippines.
It flows from an extensive watershed in the western slopes of the province, flows past the town
of Kabugao and runs into the Pacific Ocean at the coastal town of Abulug. Together with
the Abulog River in Cagayan province, the river forms the Apayao-Abulug River Basin, the 9th
largest river system in the country.
The majority of the river's length is attractive, and it has a number of waterfalls and other
features as it flows through the heart of the province. The Isneg, or Apayao, populate the banks
and tributaries of the Apayao River.

Balili River
The Balili River, also known as the Naguilian River, flows through the province of Benguet
on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. It runs through Baguio, La Trinidad, and Sablan before
entering the province of La Union, where it is referred to as the Naguilian River.

Bay River
The Bay River (Tagalog: Ilog ng Bay), also known as
the Sapang River and the San Nicolas River, flows through
Bay, Laguna. It is one of the 21 main tributaries of Laguna de
Bay and the southernmost of two minor rivers that surround
the town of Bay.
The Calo River (Tagalog: Ilog Calo) to the north is another
tributary of Laguna de Bay. In terms of geology, these two
rivers constructed the bulk of Bay by depositing alluvial
sediments in the lowest half of the plain near Laguna de Bay
over the course of millennia. Over time, the original inhabitants of Bay picked that plain as the site
of their city because its proximity to the lake provided for convenient transportation and quick
access to water.

This location was hampered by regular floods. When the two rivers burst their banks, the
población and six more barangays were inundated. This currently happens seldom because to
an irrigation system consisting of canals and ditches that transfer water from these rivers to the
rice fields. Bay is separated from Calauan, Laguna, by the Bay River. On the other side of town,
the Maitem River (Tagalog: Ilog Maitem) separates Bay from Los Baos, Laguna.

Bicol River
 The Bicol River is the tenth biggest river in the
Philippines by drainage basin size, with an estimated
catchment area of 3,770 square kilometers (1,460 sq. mi).
The river runs through the province of Camarines Sur and
drains a substantial area of the southern Bicol Peninsula on
the island of Luzon. The river originates at Lake Bato, which
is 6 meters (20 feet) above sea level, and runs for 94
kilometers (58 mi) until it empties into San Miguel Bay. It goes
through Naga City, the alluvial and coastal plains of the vast
Bicol Valley, an elongated depression in the Bicol Region
extending in a northwesterly direction and including both alluvial and coastal plains. The average
slope of the river's drainage basin is 0.006 percent.
The total area of the basin, including its drainage basin, is 10,058 square kilometers (3,882 square
miles). It is between 13°0 and 14°North and 123°0 and 124°East. It is mostly a coastal floodplain.

Cagayan River
In terms of flow volume, the Cagayan River,
commonly known as the Rio Grande de Cagayan, is the
longest and largest river in the Philippines. It is around 505
kilometers (314 miles) in length and has a drainage basin of
27,755 square kilometers (10,715 sq. mi). It traverses the
Cagayan Valley area in the northeastern portion of Luzon
Island, passing through the provinces of Nueva Vizcaya,
Quirino, Isabela, and Cagayan.

Ifugao
Ifugao (Ilocano: Probinsia ti Ifugao; Tagalog:
Lalawigan ng Ifugao) is a province of the Philippines located
on the island of Luzon in the Cordillera Administrative Region.
It is flanked to the west by Benguet, to the north by Mountain
Province, to the east by Isabela, and to the south by Nueva
Vizcaya. Lagawe is the capital of the nation. Rice Terraces of
the Philippine Cordilleras and Banaue Rice Terraces are the
most visited tourist attractions in the province. Approximately
two thousand years ago, it is believed that these rice terraces
were hand-carved into the rocks. However, carbon dating suggests that they were created
considerably later in time. In 1995, UNESCO declared the Rice Terraces of the Philippine
Cordilleras as a World Heritage Site. In 2008 and 2015, respectively, the Hudhud chants of the
Ifugao and the Punnuk (Tugging ceremonies and games) were added to the UNESCO Intangible
Cultural Heritage Lists.
 VISAYAS

Abatan River
In the Philippines, the Abatan River runs through
eastern Bohol. Before reaching its outlet in Cortes, the river
passes through Catigbian, Antequera, Balilihan, and Maribijoc.
The river is navigable for 19 kilometers (12 miles) for vessels
with a draught of 4 feet, and for 25 kilometers (15.5 miles) for
rafts. [3] Its name stems from the Arabic word abad, which
means to meet or converge. At its mouth, the river expands into
an estuary consisting of a mangrove and nipa swamp. It boasts
32 mangrove species growing in its estuary, making it one of
the most diverse mangrove forests in the Philippines and the
third biggest riverine mangrove forest in Bohol; despite the
presence of endangered plant and animal species, there are no conservation or preservation
efforts. Prior to the development of highways, the river acted as a passageway for those going to
interior communities. In response to the popularity of the Loboc River excursions, the Abatan
River Visitor Center in Cortes provides river cruises to other upstream communities. Additionally
available are kayaking and stand-up paddleboarding. The tourist center sustained substantial
damage from the 2013 Bohol earthquake. During World War II, the United States Navy
commissioned the USS Abatan (AW-4), a Pasig-class distillation ship with the river's name.

Aklan River

The Aklan River is the largest river in the province of

Aklan, Philippines, and the third longest river on the island of
Panay, with a total length of 91 kilometers (57 miles). This is
the third biggest drainage basin in the Philippines. The river
originates in the Central Panay Mountain Range on Mount
Baloy in the western portion of Capiz, close to Tapaz. It runs
north through the steep western section of Jamindan, then
northeast to Aklan province's Libacao municipality. The river
flows through the municipalities of Madalag, Malinao, Banga,
Lezo, Numancia, and Kalibo before entering the Sibuyan Sea. The term akae, from which Aklan
is derived, means to boil or froth. Due to the swift velocity of the river, the water of the Aklan
seems to boil or froth. The definition of akean is thus "where there is boiling or foaming." Timbaban
River (Madalag River) and Dumalaylay River are two of its longest tributaries. The Aklan River
Watershed Forest Reserve protects a section of the basin of the river. This 23,185-hectare
(57,290-acre) reserve was established in 1990 by Proclamation No. 600 in the municipalities of
Madalag and Libacao for the purposes of protecting, maintaining, or enhancing the water yield
and providing a mechanism for restricting improper forest exploitation and disruptive land-use.
Banica River
The Banica River flows through Valencia and
Dumaguete City in the Philippine island of Negros. In Negros
Oriental, it runs south of the Okoy River, although it is not one
of its tributaries. This is a common misunderstanding, however
it is simple to confirm on Google Maps that the two rivers
(Banica and Okoy) are fully separate; the Banica runs entirely
south of the Okoy. The source of the Banica River lies in the
mountains above Valencia, and one of its tributaries flows
through the famous Casaroro Falls. Before draining into the
Bohol Sea, the river passes through the municipalities of
Valencia and Dumaguete.

Iloilo River
The Iloilo River is an estuary river in the province of
Iloilo in the Philippines' Western Visayas area. The river travels
through the Iloilo City neighborhoods of Lapuz, Lapaz,
Mandurriao, Molo, Arevalo, and City Proper before emptying
into the Iloilo Strait. As an estuary, the river level changes with
the tides. As a consequence of the nutrient-rich seawater that
flows into the Iloilo River, it serves as a nursery for fish such
as bangus and tilapia. 22 of the country's 35 mangrove
species, including the rare metapenaeus insolatus, inhabit the
riverbanks.

MINDANAO

Agus River
From Lanao Lake to Iligan Bay, the Agus River runs
about 36.5 kilometers (22.7 miles) in the Philippines. It
spans the provinces of Lanao del Sur and Lanao del Norte.
Along the river's banks are situated the cities of Marawi,
Linamon, and Iligan. As the river empties into Iligan Bay, it
splits into two channels, one of which goes over Maria
Cristina Falls and the other of which feeds Tinago Falls.
Before reaching the ocean, the river drops over 2,200 feet
(670 m) throughout its 21-mile journey from its source (34
km). In some areas, the river's depth is around 4 feet (1.2
meters). The Agus River's watershed encompasses roughly 11,320.00 hectares. In 1992,
National Power Corporation contributed to the reforestation of the Lake Lanao-Agus River basin
by planting around 1,500 hectares of Acacia mangium, Durio zizithius, and other native trees. It
has a discharge of around 10 cubic metres per second (350 cu ft/s) and runs over a basalt rock
formation near the lake's northern rim. The canyon created by the river reveals a short period of
erosion.
Agusan River
 The Agusan River basin is divided into three sub-
basins based on geographic features: the upper Agusan
River basin, the middle Agusan River basin, and the lower
Agusan River basin. The upper Agusan River basin extends
from the highlands of Davao de Oro to Santa Josefa, Agusan
del Sur, and Veruela, Agusan del Sur; the middle Agusan
River basin extends from Santa Josefa to Amparo, Agusan
del Sur; and the lower Agusan River basin extends from
Amparo to Butuan.

Sibagat River
The Sibagat River runs through the mountain barangays
of Bugsukan in Butuan City, Tabontabon, Afga, El Rio,
Mahayahay, and Poblacion in Sibagat municipality before
emptying into the larger Wawa River in Sitio Sabang. The major
river in the city and an affluent of the Agusan River is the Wawa
River.

Wawa River (Agusan del Sur)

The Wawa River in northern Mindanao, Caraga,
Philippines is a tributary of the larger Agusan River. It spans
the Agusan del Sur municipalities of Sibagat, Bayugan, and
Esperanza, as well as the Agusan del Norte municipality of Las
Nieves.
It passes through the waterfront barangays of Perez,
Banagbanag, Santa Cruz, Magsaysay, San Isidro I, Villangit,
Poblacion, Tag-uyango, San Vicente, Ilihan (all of municipality
of Sibagat), as well as barangays Del Carmen (Wawa), Taglibas, San Agustin, Mabuhay,
Tagubay, Canayugan, Montevista, Sagmone
Cagayan River (Mindanao)
The Cagayan River, commonly known as the Cagayan de
Oro River, is one of the rivers draining the island of Mindanao's
northern central section. The river originates from the Kalatungan
and Kitanglad mountain ranges in the central region of the
province of Bukidnon. It joins tributaries within the municipalities of
Talakag, Baungon, and Libona throughout its length. It empties
into Macajalar Bay near Cagayan de Oro in the province of
Misamis Oriental. The river serves as the natural border between
 the provinces of Bukidnon and Iligan and between Bukidnon and Cagayan de Oro, per an order
made by the now-defunct Department of Mindanao and Sulu during American colonialism of the
Philippines. It is the dividing line between the two congressional districts of Cagayan de Oro. The
Cagayan River is a notable whitewater rafting spot in the Philippines, and the Department of
Tourism has promoted it as Cagayan de Oro's principal tourist attraction.

A watershed is a precipitation collector

The majority of precipitation that falls within the drainage zone of a USGS monitoring site for a stream
collects in the stream and ultimately flows through the monitoring site. The amount of streamflow passing
through the monitoring station is determined by several factors, some of which are given below. Envision a
huge, robust plastic sheet covering the whole basin. Therefore, if it were to rain one inch, all of the
precipitation would drop on the plastic, wash downslope into gullies and small streams, and then drain into
the main stream. Using a 1-square-mile watershed as an example and disregarding evaporation and other
losses, all of the roughly 17,378,560 gallons of precipitation would ultimately flow through the watershed-
outflow point..

Not all precipitation that falls in a watershed flows out

It is an oversimplification and in no way indicative of a genuine watershed to envisage a watershed

as a plastic-covered land area that absorbs rainwater. One may develop a profession by modeling the water
budget of a watershed (correlating water coming into a watershed to water leaving a watershed). Several
variables influence the volume of water flowing in a stream (these factors are not exclusive to any one
stream): Precipitation: The quantity of precipitation that falls in the watershed is, by a significant margin, the
most important element affecting streamflow. Nevertheless, not all precipitation that falls within a watershed
drains away, and a stream will often continue to flow even if there is no direct runoff from recent precipitation.
When rain falls on dry land, a portion of the water infiltrates the soil. A portion of the water that infiltrates will
stay in the shallow soil layer, where it will flow progressively downhill through the soil until entering the
stream through seepage into the stream bank. Some of the water may go far deeper, recharging aquifers.
Before returning to the surface, water may travel large distances or be stored for many periods. Several
watershed factors influence the quantity of water that will be absorbed over time:

In Georgia, the clayey and rocky soils of the north absorb water more slowly than the sandy soils of the
coastal plain. Reduced soil water absorption promotes runoff into streams.

• Soil saturation: Similar to a wet sponge, soil that is already saturated due to previous precipitation cannot
•absorb
Terrainmuch
inclination: Water that
extra water, falls on
resulting a surface with
in increased a steep
surface slope drains more quickly than water that falls
runoff.
on a flat surface.
Certain landcovers have a substantial impact on infiltration and precipitation runoff. Parking lots, roads, and
developments
Through act as a
evaporation, "speed
the bulk oflane" for precipitation,
rainfall returns to thewhich rushes directly
atmosphere. into
The rate of storm drains is
evaporation and ultimately
affected by
into streams.solar
temperature, As impervious surface
radiation, wind, airarea grows,and
pressure, theother
frequency of floods
variables. increases.
Transpiration/Evapotranspiration: The
root systems of plants absorb various quantities of water from the surrounding soil during transpiration and
evapotranspiration. The bulk of this water is transpired via the plant's leaves. The same factors that drive
evaporation also influence transpiration, as well as the characteristics and density of plants. Vegetation
decreases runoff and enables soil water infiltration. Reservoirs hold water and increase the rates of
evaporation and infiltration. The accumulation and discharge of water in reservoirs may drastically affect the
streamflow patterns of the river below the dam. Streams may be utilized for a number of reasons, ranging
from a few individuals and businesses pumping little quantities of water to irrigate their lawns to large-scale
irrigation, industrial, and mining.
Source: https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/watersheds-anddrainage-basins
 EFFECTS OF WATER SHED IF NOT MANAGE PROPERLY

Flooding
Many diverse elements contribute to flood concerns. Hydrologic and hydraulic modeling
assists in analyzing the influence of land cover, floodplain geometry, and precipitation intensity.
Flooding Problem Scores
Scores for flooding represent dangers to public safety and property, in addition to the
intensity of flooding. For significant streams and waterway systems, flood risk scores for
structures and street crossings are determined. Models of floodplains forecast storm-related
flooding depths and flow velocities. For floods outside of the creek's floodplain, modeling and
citizen complaint data are utilized to identify and prioritize problem areas, the majority of which
are caused by inadequate or obsolete storm drain systems.

Erosion
Changes in land use circumstances that increase the volume and velocity of storm water
runoff can cause erosion problems. Stream channels respond to these alterations by widening
and deepening, which can result in creek bank failures, endanger Creekside structures, and affect
water quality. The inappropriate arrangement of buildings, parking lots, and utilities causes further
issues.
Erosion Problem Scores
Scores for erosion problems are based on the quantity, nature, and severity of the threat
to structures, infrastructure, and other valuable features along stream banks. The grading system
takes into account aspects such as resource proximity to the stream bank, bank stability,
vegetative cover, and meandering of the stream. Expect high problem severity scores in areas or
structures located near creek bends, steep slopes, high banks, and/or poor vegetative cover.
Check out the Alberta Water Portal, Water Footprint Network, the Water Footprint
Assessment Manual, and the Water Footprint of Modern Consumer Society to learn more about
your relationship with water and how you are tied to the health of your watershed.

Water Quality
Water quality issues are complicated and difficult to investigate and control. Increases in
runoff and destruction of aquatic and riparian habitats are major concerns. Environmental Integrity
Index is used to quantify problems (EII).

The Triple Benefits of a Healthy Watershed

Water is essential for human life. A healthy watershed has benefits for individual,
ecological, and economic health. The purpose of watershed management is to efficiently balance
and administer this resource.

1. Ecological Health
A healthy watershed functions as an integrated ecological system that supports the health
of all organisms and ecosystems within its bounds. A healthy, full watershed lowers the impacts
of floods and erosion and prevents sediments and contaminants from reaching our streams,
lakes, and groundwater.

2.Economic Health
 A plenty of clean water is crucial for a thriving economy. Effective operation of homes,
farms, communities, and companies requires an abundant supply of clean water. Clean water
enables governments, businesses, agricultural producers, and industries to operate more
efficiently and cost-effectively, thereby saving taxpayers and customers money. Rivers, lakes,
marshes, and natural areas that are in good health form the basis for recreation and tourism.

3.Human Health
Water is essential for existence. But water is much more than that: clean surface and
ground water are essential for maintaining our high quality of life and the social characteristics of
our communities. Clean rivers, lakes, and streams provide several opportunities for healthful
recreation, such as swimming, boating, and fishing.

FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Deforestation is a serious environmental problem in the Philippines, as it is in other Southeast

Asian countries. Over the course of the twentieth century, the nation's forest cover plummeted
from 70 percent to 20 percent. The Philippines lost an estimated 9.8 million hectares of forest
from 1934 to 1988, according to an examination of land use pattern maps and a road map. In
2010, the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) surveyed land cover
and calculated the Philippines' total forest cover to be 6,839,718 hectares (68,397.18 km2), or 23
percent of the country's total area of 30,000,000 hectares (300,000 km2).

History
By the end of the nineteenth century, substantial
areas of the Philippines' forest cover had been cleared for
agricultural purposes. In the Visayas, deforestation was
prevalent, particularly on the islands of Negros, Bohol, and
Cebu, where extensive forest cover had been eliminated.
Agriculture continued to expand throughout the 20th
century. The logging industry reached its peak under the
administration of Ferdinand Marcos in the 1960s and 1970s.
After declaring martial rule in 1972, Marcos offered vast land
concessions to his top military officials and cronies. The government boosted log shipments to
Japan in response to pressure to settle foreign debt. Forest resources were exploited by
established enterprises, and regeneration was unusual. During the 1970s and 1980s, an average
of 2.5% of Philippine forests were lost per year, which was three times the world rate. Despite
attempts to plant trees, deforestation remained rampant throughout the administrations of
Corazon Aquino and Fidel V. Ramos as a result of corruption and incompetence in the relevant
government agencies. Environmentalists assert that both legal and illicit logging activities are
decreasing the country's remaining forest cover. Rev. Peter Walpole, executive director of Ateneo
de Manila University's Environmentalist Science for social change, said that the Philippines is
undergoing a social transformation "The government relied on logging firms to remove trees and
maintain the forest. "However, they did a terrible job,' he grumbled, 'and here is where the situation
we now confront originated.' In an attempt to protect the nation's forests from unregulated illicit
logging, the government banned the export of lumber in 1989. After years of vociferous criticism,
the restriction was abolished and reinstated in secret. The Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR), which is in charge of the nation's natural resources and ecology, is
almost unable to stop widespread illegal logging. It has no weaponry, no radios, no boats, and
few troops to police the jungles, where armed rebels are a constant threat. National population
growth has also contributed to the problem. At least one-fourth of the population lives in
mountainous areas, where the bulk of trees are located. The majority used slash-and-burn
agriculture (Kaingin farming). "These migratory farmers occupy virgin forest territory to cultivate
the rich soil, which they quickly deplete," remarked Watson. Then, they continue their hunt for
more. There will one day be nothing.."

CAUSES OF FOREST DESTRUCTION

1.URBAN DESTRUCTION
Clearing woods to create place for the urban growth. Trees are cut down to provide the
timber used in building. The enormous impact of furniture and paper goods on forest biodiversity.
This results in significant forest loss and deforestation. Clearing woods to create place for the
urban growth. Trees are cut down to provide the timber used in building. The enormous impact of
furniture and paper goods on forest biodiversity. This results in significant forest loss and
deforestation.

2.Agriculture
Occasionally, forests are cleared to create place for
crop production, the construction of farms and ranches, and
other agricultural purposes.

3.Grazing land
For the purpose of creating grazing pasture for cattle, forests are chopped down. Massive
animal herds need food, thus forests must be cleared to make room for grazing area.

4.USE FOR FUEL

Trees are felled for firewood or charcoal, which are used for cooking and warmth.

5.Commercial Purposes
 In addition to forest removal for oil and mineral
extraction, deforestation may be induced by the building of
highways and roads, slash-and-burn farming techniques,
wildfires, and acid rain. The bulk of forest fires are caused
by purposeful attempts to devastate huge forests.
Although the destroyed land is often utilized for agriculture
and building, these forests may yet regenerate. This leads
in forest loss and the loss of habitat for native species.
6.Illegal logging
Typically, deforestation refers to the removal of
trees for agricultural or plantation reasons. Illegal
logging, in contrast, generally entails the selective felling
of rare and valuable trees for their wood. In some ways,
illegal loggers resemble "tree poachers."

EFFECTS ON WILDLIFE AND HUMAN SOCIETY

1.EROSION

Due to the loss of nutrients, soil exposed to the sun as a

consequence of deforestation becomes very dry and barren;
when it rains, the residual nutrients are washed into the
streams.

Replanting trees may not be a viable remedy for the problems

produced by deforestation. The soil will be devoid of all
nutrients by the time the trees reach maturity. Therefore, the land will become unusable and unfit
for cultivation. Large areas of land will be irreparably destroyed due to soil erosion.

2.DISRUPTION OF WATER CYCLE

In several ways, vegetation contributes to the
maintenance of the water cycle. They absorb water via
their roots, which is subsequently released into the
atmosphere. The bulk of water that passes through the
ecosystem of a rainforest, for instance, is retained by
the plants. The surrounding climate will become drier
after these trees are destroyed. The aquifers are
compromised and will soon run dry. The trees prevent
water from rushing and aid the soil in absorbing it.
When there are no trees, water just rushes away,
 leaving the ground water tables with little opportunities to absorb additional water, resulting in
a loss of water supplies.

3.LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
 There are eighty to ninety percent of the world's
species in tropical rainforests, which span just
around six percent of the planet's area. Due to
massive deforestation, between fifty and one
hundred species of animals go extinct daily. This
causes the widespread extinction of flora and
animals. In addition to losing their habitat and
protective cover, the animals are eliminated.

FLOODING AND DROUGHT

 When it rains severely, woods can quickly absorb and store
significant quantities of water. When forest trees are
chopped down, this regulation of water flow is disrupted,
resulting in alternating periods of floods and
drought in the affected region, hence raising the
danger for those who live there.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate Change defines our period, and we are at a

defining moment. From changing weather patterns
that threaten food production to rising sea levels that
raise the possibility of catastrophic floods, the extent
and scale of climate change's consequences are
unprecedented.

SOLUTION AND PREVENTION

1.FARMING
New technologies, such as high-yield hybrid crops,
greenhouse autonomous building gardens, and
hydroponic, are being developed for more intensive
farming.

REFORESTATION
 Reforestation (sometimes, Reforestation) is the natural or planned restocking of depleted
forests and woods (forestation) that have been depleted, typically by logging.

Reforestation can be used to reverse the effects of deforestation or improve the

quality of human life by absorbing pollution and dust from the air, restoring natural
habitats and ecosystems, mitigating global warming because forests facilitate bio
sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, and harvesting for resources,
primarily timber, but also non-timber forest products. At the beginning of the 21st
century, reforestation as one of the most effective ways for mitigating climate
change is receiving increased attention
. Source: https://mywoodenrings.com/blogs/wooden-ring/reforestation-in-theworld

To this end, the international community has created Sustainable Development Goal 15, which
seeks to implement sustainable forest management across all forest types, eliminate
deforestation, restore degraded forests, and increase afforestation and replanting. On the island
of Mindanao, on the slope of the Philippine volcano Mount Malindang, Trees for All and the local
people are restoring the forest. On the slopes, the remaining forest has an extraordinarily high
degree of biodiversity. By establishing a ring of new forest around the surviving old forest, the
existing biodiversity will be maintained and displaced species will find a new home. In 2004, the
government classified the upper slopes as "Natural Park," and reforestation financing could finally
begin. The initial scope of the venture was 50 hectares each year. However, the event has the
potential to spread to adjacent volcanoes.

The National Park includes about 53,000 hectares, only 33,000 of which are forested. Despite the
extraordinarily hard circumstances, over 4000 homes remain in the park. The deforestation that
happened in the 20th century has led to widespread erosion, floods, and cultivation on slopes.
The trees will be planted and will develop into a forest; the biodiversity will be restored; however,
the CO2 sequestration will not yet be validated. The certification process is quite expensive, and
we must adhere to financial limits.

FOREST PLANTATIONS

As recommended by the bookings and sedjo of forestry authors, high-yielding forest trees can
meet the world's wood need. 5% of the world's current forestland could supply all the wood
required for international commerce if it were planted with trees that produce 10 cubic meters
per hectare per year. In comparison, natural forests produce just one to two cubic meters per
hectare, necessitating five to ten times more forest land to satisfy demand.