TITLE PAGE

THE LANGUAGE OF GREETINGS: THE ROLE OF AGE IN HAUSA

LAND

BY

NUHU BALA

EDU/19/BA/01992

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH

LANGAUGE, SCHOOL OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDIES, JIGAWA
STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, GUMEL, IN AFFILIATION WITH
BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ARTS
EDUCATION B.A (Ed) ENGLISH.

JANUARY, 2023.

i
DECLARATION
I declare that the work in this project entitled “The Language of Greetings:
The Role of Age in Hausa Land” has been carried out by me in the Department
of English language Education under the supervision of Prof.. The information
derived from the literature has been duly acknowledged in the text and a list of
references provided. No part of this project has been previously presented for
another degree or diploma at this or any other institution.

_________________________ ______________________

Nuhu Bala Sign/Date

EDU/19/BA/01992

ii
APPROVAL PAGE
This project “The Language of Greetings: The Role of Age in Hausa
Land ” meets the regulations governing the award of B.A. Degree in Education in
Jigawa State College of Education, Gumel and is approved for its contributions to
knowledge and literary presentation.

___________________________ ________________
Supervisor Sign and Date
Prof. Abubakar Yusuf Maitama

___________________________ ________________
Head of Department Sign and Date
Mal. Magaji Bala Maijambo

___________________________ ________________

External Moderator Sign and Date

iii
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my parents in person of Bala Barde and Hasiya
Bala

iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My profound appreciation goes first to Almighty Allah for His infinite love,
mercy, kindness, blessing, guidance and Protection throughout the period of my
undergraduate programme. I am grateful to Allah (SWT) for giving me the
opportunity to complete this research.

I equally wish to express my sincere and profound gratitude to my able supervisor;

Prof. Abubakar Yusuf Maitama who tirelessly took his time to go through the
work and made necessary corrections, despite his valuable commitments. May
Almighty Allah reward him abundantly. My gratitude and appreciation also goes
to the entire lecturers of English Department for their assistance and contributions.
I want to express my gratitude to my parents, Mal. BALA Barde, Adamu Mohd
and my Mother, Hasiya Bala, for their endless love, support, prayers and their
efforts through my life. May Allah reward them with the best of His reward,
Ameen.

I wish to express un-quantified gratitude to all lecturers of the college especially

the Department of English

Lastly, I wish to express my special thanks to my brothers in persons of , among

others. I also want to express such thanks to my friends most especially Adamu
Yau, Abdurrahman Yau, Kamalu Malami, Nasiru Musa, Shafiu Baita, Ibrahim A.
Ado, Aliyu Bello and the rest.

v
TABLE OF CONTENT

Contents
TITLE PAGE...................................................................................................................... i
DECLARATION...............................................................................................................ii
APPROVAL PAGE..........................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION..................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENT....................................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................1
(INTRODUCTION)...........................................................................................................1
1.0 Preamble...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the Study..............................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study..................................................................................5
1.4 Research Questions......................................................................................................5
1.5 Significance of the Study.............................................................................................5
1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study............................................................................5
CHAPTER TWO...............................................................................................................7
LITERATURE REVIEW...................................................................................................7
2.0 Introduction..................................................................................................................7
2.1 History of Hausa Language..........................................................................................7
2.2 Hausa Greetings...........................................................................................................9
2.3 Previous Studies.........................................................................................................10
2.4 Role of Language Transfer in Second Language........................................................11
2.5 The behaviorist view..................................................................................................17

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2.6 The Cognitive view....................................................................................................18
2.7 The critical period hypothesis....................................................................................18
2.8 The natural order hypothesis......................................................................................19
2.9 Summary of the chapter.............................................................................................24
CHAPTER THREE..........................................................................................................25
METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................................25
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................25
3.2 Research Design.........................................................................................................25
3.3 Population of the Study..............................................................................................25
3.4 Sample Size................................................................................................................ 26
Sampling Techniques.......................................................................................................26
3.6 Data Collection Instrument........................................................................................26
3.7 Validity & Reliability of the Instrument.....................................................................27
3.8 Method of Data Collection.........................................................................................27
3.9 Method of Data Analysis............................................................................................27
CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................................29
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION........................................................................29
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................29
4.2 Answering Research Questions..................................................................................29
4.5 Discussion..................................................................................................................35
CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................................................................. 36
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................36
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................36
5.2 Summary....................................................................................................................36
5.3 Major findings............................................................................................................36
5.4 Conclusion.................................................................................................................36
5.5 Recommendations......................................................................................................37

vii
ABSTRACT
The work titled “The Language of Greetings: The Role of Age in Hausa Land”.

The research adopts descriptive survey, the researcher sample 200 out of total

population in Gumel. The findings shows that, most of Gumel people used to

say good morning with 63.5% while some used their mother tongue with

36.5%, this is due to western civilization. Finally the research recommended

that, Hausa people should neglect the English language greeting styles, parents

should teach their children the basic of greeting at home before school age,

parents should also teach their children the important of language greeting

style.

viii
 CHAPTER ONE

(INTRODUCTION)

1.0 Preamble

This chapter deals with the Background of the Study, Statement of the Research

Problem, Aim and Objectives of the Study, Research Questions, Significance of

the Study, and Scope and Delimitation of the Study.

1.1 Background to the Study

Age will be presented as a multifaceted variable of major significance for the study

of language use. So far sociolinguistics has mostly referred to age as a relatively

simple dimension describing speaker’s life stage as number of years from birth.

The variationist paradigm, aiming primarily at explaining the processes of

language change, has not quite disambiguated the relationship between age grading

and real change in language over time, which is necessary to legitimise the

apparent time methodology. (Labov,1972) Additionally, apparent time studies

assume stability of language use patterns throughout adulthood, which is contrary

to speakers’ intuitions and experience, and requires systematic research. Most

importantly, people’s conscious decisions to project their age identities are

implemented through linguistic and discursive strategies.

1
Sociolinguistics needs a theory which would take into account lifelong

development (not just socialisation) and conceptualise age as a flexible socio-

psychological dimension. Ultimately, sociolinguistic research must also address

the problem of ageism, for the benefit of all generations of speakers. (Eckert, 1980)

The etymological analysis of "culture" is quite uncontroversial. But in the field of

anthropology, the situation is much more complex. Definitions of culture abound

and range from very complex to very simple. For example, a complex definition

was proposed by Kroeber and Parsons (1958): "transmitted and created content and

patterns of values, ideas, and other symbolic- meaningful systems as factors in the

shaping of human behavior" (p. 583). An even less easily comprehensible

definition was provided by White (1959/2007): "By culture, we mean an

extrasomatic, temporal continuum of things and events dependent upon

symboling" (p. 3). Often cited is also a definition by Kluckhohn (1951): Culture

consists in patterned ways of thinking, feeling, and reacting, acquired and

transmitted mainly by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements

of human groups, including their search for whatever ecological, sociological, and

cultural variables might link with established variations in human behavior" (p.

154).

2
 It is in line with the above principles that this paper analysis the greetings of

Hausa speakers.

Greetings are one of the most important social phenomena. Every human

society has various forms and ways of greeting. Greeting regularises patterns of

reciprocal behaviour among group members. They are an integral part of the

interpersonal discourse and serve as a prelude to the establishment of social

relationships. They facilitate predictability and stability in interpersonal

relationships and, at the same time, minimize negative feelings or general

misunderstandings ( Akindele 1990:1). Greetings are considered an important

aspect in the life of each society or nation. There are many different ways of

greeting. In some European countries like Poland and Netherland, people greet

friends by kissing themselves on both cheeks; in the Middle East, people always

hug persons of the same sex when greeting each other, and in Africa, people greet

others by shaking hands or by words of mouth.

Greetings have been described as a significant aspect of human interactions. For

instance, Schlottman (1995:489) states that "greetings are the essential 'oil' of

encounters of all types and a reassuring confirmation of human sociability and

social order." Akindele (1990:2) describes greetings as the exchange of

expressions, pleasantries, or good wishes between two people interacting to fulfill

social obligations or establish interpersonal relationships.

3
 Hausa is the name by which the people of the ethnic group call themselves and

are understood as such by many other people, though, of course, different people

have different local names for them.

Hausa is also the name of the language of the people (Adamu 1974:1). Hausa

is a major world language, spoken as a mother tongue in by more than 30 million

people in Northern Nigeria and southern parts of Niger, in addition to the

Diaspora communities of traders, Muslim scholars and immigrants in urban areas

of west Africa (southern Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, and the Blue Nilo province of

Sudan).

Comment: you are to provide your sources, using the technique of in-text

references

1.2 Statement of the Problem

This research centers on the language of greeting: the role of age in Hausa land.

The study attempts to study the role of age plays in the way Hausa people greet

one another. The differences exist in the manner and ways in which males and

females greet one another in society. Many things have changed, therefore, this

research will explore the roles that age played in the language of greeting in the

Hausa society as well as examine the impact of Western Civilization on styles

adopted by Hausa people in their greetings.

4
1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study

This work aims to provide relevant information on the language of greeting: the

role of age in Hausa land. However, the objectives of the study are to;

1- To explore the role of age in the language of greeting in Hausa land.

2- To examine the impact of western civilization in the Hausa greetings style.

1.4 Research Questions

The study is expected to provide answers to the following research questions;

1. What is the role played by age in the language of greeting in Hausa society?

2. What is the impact of western civilization on the Hausa greeting style?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research attempts to explore the role of age in greetings among the Hausa

people. It examines the impact of western civilization on greetings adopted by the

people. Specifically, the research will be of great significance in its attempt to

showcase how Hausa people greet each other before and now. Finally, people will

be more aware of the impact of western civilization on the culture of the Hausas.

1.6 Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This research focuses on exploring the role of age in the language of greeting in

Hausa land as well as examining the impact of western civilization on the male and

5
female Hausa greeting style. The research, therefore, is limited to the only role of

age in the language of greeting style without including the other areas within the

Gumel zone. The delimitation of research, however, does not cover the other areas

of Hausa culture in other places of Hausa land.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The Hausas are one of Sub-Saharan Africa’s main cultural groups. A curious

fact about the Hausa people is they are a different kind of people with identical,

homogenous faiths and customs found exclusively amongst their people. This tribe

has its inhabitants in the northern part of Nigeria and other parts of Western

African countries such as Cameroon, Ghana, Chad, Togo, Senegal, Ivory Coast,

Sudan and Gabon.

2.1 History of Hausa Language

The Hausa land is an independent political entity founded by the Hausa

people and situated between the River Niger and Lake Chad. It was a political

entity with no central authority, isolated up until the mid-14th century. Regardless

of their setup, they had a common language, laws, and customs.

One of the beliefs of the origin of the Hausa culture states that the founder of this

ethnic group was Bayajidda. He formed the Hausa States, the first of which, Rano

and Gobir, appeared about 1000 (in the 11th century). Bayajidda was born in

Baghdad, moved to Bornu, and then to Hausaland. He got married to a princess in

Bornu but had to flee from there due to his differences with his father-in-law. He

7
later arrived in the city of Duara and received a present to marry the queen of

Daura due to his triumph over a snake that had been blocking people from drinking

from a well. A son named Bawo was born to him by the Queen of Daura. Bawo

later established Biram and had six sons who became rulers of other Hausa city-

states. The states are known as the Hausa bakwai (Hausa seven).

The Hausa people have distinct cultural values, which are evident in their way of

life. Their distinct cultural importance can be seen in their greetings, clothing,

traditional political structure, marriage customs, type of food they eat, etc.

Hausa is one of the largest and most widely spoken languages in West Africa. It is

characterized as a member of Chadic group of languages from the Afrosiatic

language families.

According to Yusuf (2012): The language is spoken in Northern Nigeria and

southern part of Niger Republic. There are large number of Hausa speaking

communities found in major cities and towns of West Africa particularly; Chad,

Cameroon, Togo, Benin Republic, Burkina Faso, Sudan, Niger, Libya, Mali, Egypt

and so on. Hausa is the first language of more than 15 million members of the

native speakers and also about 14 million non-natives having become lingua franca

(p.4). From the above estimation we understand that the Hausa language is been

use in the education system and their way of living. Hence, short stories are used in

8
broadening the skills of youth concerning various perspectives, their thought are

also enhanced on backgrounds concerning day-to-day activities. Even within

societies around the globe, short stories are one of the most important ways of

teaching language skills that have been documented in the literature. Thus, it is not

119 surprising to discover that a lot of literatures have been written on the role of

short stories in the teaching of language skills which this paper aids partly to

contributions of short stories in teaching Hausa language

2.2 Hausa Greetings

Greetings in Hausa culture are essential and, as a result, are simple to

understand by young people and even others who are not Hausa. They are crucial

in daily conversations, and one of them will almost certainly be used on any given

day. The Hausa people, when greeting their superiors or elders, bow their heads to

greet. Some of the simple greetings may include: 

ENGLISH                    HAUSA 

Good morning               Ina kwana

Good afternoon             Ina kwana

Good evening               Barka da yamma

Hello                               Sannu

9
How are you doing         Yaya kake

How is work                   Yaya aiki

How is school?                Ina makaranta?

2.3 Previous Studies

The development of the field of study ‘English for Specific Purposes’ (ESP) was as

a result of the acknowledgment of the importance of the purpose and needs of

language learners. There are many peculiarities found within the English language

that have led to a growing interest from researchers who strive to make it possible

to distinguish English for Tourism, English for Law and Business English among

others. Linguists have observed that since languages are constantly subjected to

change due to its flaccid state, one cannot exclusively claim that they speak perfect

English or any other language as of that (Choroleeva K, 2012). Even a native

speaker cannot be considered to perfectly know his/her mother tongue. The foreign

language of choice for most Albanian students is English. The students do not

solely want to understand how a language functions or merely know how it

compares stylistically with other learned languages. The learners are interested in

learning the functions of the language because it is an aspect of professional and

social acceptance and it also is a self-actualization aspect. However, even after

investing ample time and effort in learning a foreign language, it has been noted

10
that students usually have inhibitions when it comes to expressing themselves in

the foreign language. They still use their native language when speaking or

writing. This can be blamed on the methodology that most students use when

acquiring a foreign language. Instead of learning for oral communication, they

learn to gain reading proficiency in a foreign language or for the sake of being

scholarly (Dralo A, 2012).

2.4 Role of Language Transfer in Second Language

Acquisition Language transfer affects speakers or writers either positively or

negatively depending on the relevant unit structure of both their native and

acquired languages. Most learners apply knowledge from their native language to

the second language and this transfer can result in both positive and negative

transfer. Positive transfer occurs when the meaning of items that are transferred is

in line with the native speakers’ notion of acceptability. Negative transfer occurs

when the opposite happens resulting in errors. Negative transfer happens at a

greater scale when the difference between two languages is big. The similarities

and dissimilarities in word meanings and word forms affect how quickly a learner

can acquire a foreign language (Odlin T, 1989: 77).

The method used in teaching foreign languages in most educational

institutions is Grammar Translation. The major characteristics of Grammar

Translations are: The target language is taught in mother tongue and there is little

11
active use of the language Most of the vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated

lists of words Learners are given long elaborate explanations of the complexities of

grammar Difficult texts are learnt to be read early The exercise given to students is

mostly that of translating disconnected sentences from the target language into

mother tongue and viseversa. Little to no attention is given to how words should be

pronounced (Dralo A, 2012).

The importance of language transfer in learning a second language has over

the last few decades been revaluated severally. The foundation of ESP is not a

familiar subject-matter concepts and lexis. For learners to succeed, they need to be

proficient in reading and writing. Arguments, on how much one’s mother tongue

affects his/her acquisition of a new language, have risen and a divide has been

created between groups that are for monolingualism in the classroom and those

that are against it. Butzkamm (2003.5) as cited in Suntharesan V’s research paper

‘Role of Mother Tongue in Teaching English to Tamil Students’ remarked, “ The

international dominance of English native speakers who find absolution in the

dogma of monolingualism when they cannot understand the language of their

pupils, together with the cheaper mass production of strictly English-speaking in

the Anglo-American mother country, constitutes one of the reasons behind the

sanctification of, and the demand for, monolingualism in the classroom.” Here,

Butzkamm supports the use of first language in the classroom as it is a useful tool

12
which can be used to explain difficult grammar. L1 can also be used when giving

instructions which learners might not be able to understand in English, and for

checking understanding, especially when using complex contexts (Suntharesan V,

2012).

The use of the first language provides students with a sense of security that

enables them to learn with ease and in comfort. Mother tongue serves social and

cognitive functions in that students who work in groups will discuss in their native

language. This allows them to relate and have a sense of identity. Language

transfer or translation is an involuntary thing done by language learners. Using L1

in cases where students are incapable of activating vocabulary proves useful in

their learning, and gives them the comfort to read difficult texts in the second

language. With texts that require higher proficiency, learners are advised to first

read the text in their first language, then in the second language to better

understand the concept (Suntharesan V, 2012). The influence of a learner’s native

language in making the acquisition of a second language easy or difficult varies

depending on factors that will be analyzed in this study. Many learners need a

sense of security when learning a foreign language. It is challenging for them to

completely abandon their native tongue despite the communicative methods that

emphasize that a foreign language and learnt through the foreign language. The

idea of ceasing the usage of mother tongue in the language classroom was brought

13
by the odd phenomenon where after studying a foreign language (FL) for a long

time through grammar-translation; students were still unable to fluently speak in

the language.

In the 1970s and 1980s, challenges to assumptions about the importance of

transfer arose. This was due to claims made by Fries (1952) and Lado (1957) about

the existence of cross-linguistic differences. The two stated that the differences in

cross-linguistic differences in the acquisition of second language could be defined

by contrastive analysis (Torrijos R, 2009). Two different versions of the

contrastive analysis hypothesis (C.A) have since risen: C.A. a priori and C.A a

posteriori. The former is also known as the predictive or strong version while the

latter is known as the weak or explanatory version. C.A a priori is the point to

point analysis of syntactic, phonological, morphological and other subsystems of

both languages learnt. This hypothesis suggests that with the similarities between

both languages, a student will easily acquire a foreign language but with the

differences, acquiring it will be harder. C.A a posteriori concentrates more on error

analysis.

Most errors occur due to the strategies that students use to acquire a foreign

language thus linguists and teachers should pay more attention to what learners

actually do than concentrating on their assumptions of what the student will do

(Torrijos R, 2009). Most semantic errors made by learners occur due to

14
overgeneralization of the target language, strategies of learning the second

language, language transfer, transfer of training and strategies of second language

communication. Translation is important at the intermediate and advanced level,

and is also referred to as the fifth language skill alongside listening, speaking,

reading and writing which are the four basic skills. Translation from L1 to L2 and

L2 to L1 gives room for understanding between strangers and is an important

social skill. Teachers of foreign languages are aware of the importance of

translation in language classrooms since all students, whether good or bad at

comprehending reading or listening materials, mentally translate the material from

L2 to L1 and the other way around (Odlin T, 1989) It is difficult for students to

directly think in the foreign language while writing since translation from FL to L1

in their minds is inevitable. Learners of a second language rely on the structure of

their native language to produce utterances in the target language, and this can

either be helpful or contrary. Their use of mother tongue tends to influence their

learning of a foreign language both positively and negatively. The influence of a

student’s native language, on how easy or difficult acquiring a foreign language is,

all lies in the process through which learners of the foreign language go through

while learning. Some learners may acquire native-like proficiency in more than

one foreign language learnt, while others fail to achieve the same proficiency in a

foreign language as they do in their native language. Learners acquire a second

15
language by using the knowledge they already have of their native language. They

use general learning strategies and universal properties of language. These

universal properties enable them to internalize the second language.

The student is able to construct a transitional system that reflects to his/her

current knowledge (interlanguage) of the foreign language. Students also acquire a

foreign language through using existing knowledge that enables them to cope with

communication difficulties. Students draw on their background experiences and

prior knowledge of their native language to acquire a second language. They use

structures from their first language that are similar to the second language and

experiment with this new language. An inter-language, which consists of the

learner’s existing knowledge of the second language, is thus created. The learner is

in the end able to overcome communication breakdowns by using what they

already know (Garza).

However, it has also been viewed that as much as mother tongue can support

a learner’s use of a foreign language’s vocabulary, it can also fail to support or

hinder their ability especially when trying to construct complex words and

expressions. Languages differ in not only the forms used for meanings, but also in

the meanings themselves. For example, the alleged computer translation of “the

spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak” into Russian and back is “the vodka is all

right, but the meat is bad,” (Swan M, 2008).

16
 This shows that different languages have different meanings for certain

words. A word in a certain language may have several equivalents in another

language. However, a relative exact fit in meanings can be found in words relating

to concepts that are steadfastly grounded in physical reality. Japanese speakers

have different lexicon for talking about dressing unlike English speakers who use

only one lexicon ‘put on for’ dressing. In English, the verb ‘put on’ is used for all

clothing from headgear to shoes while in Japanese, different verbs are used for

upper body garments, lower body garments and even shoes (Clark, 1993). There

are a number of notions that try to explain how students acquire the second

language. They include the behaviorist view, the cognitive view, the critical period

hypothesis and the natural order hypothesis.

Theoretical Framework

2.5 The behaviorist view

This theory argues that foreign language learners imitate what they hear and

develop habits in the foreign language through routine practice. Learners relate

what they already know in their native language to the second language. A positive

transfer that occurs is due to the similarities between the first language and the

second language, but a negative transfer is also likely to occur due to differences

and difficulties in the languages. In real life situations, this type of imitation does

not help learners because they are constantly required to form sentences they have

17
not seen or used before other than just utter a word. In Language classes, the basic

structure of learning is a syllabus consisting of a finite pre-practiced number of

sentences. In reallife situations, these sentences are not enough to carry on

conversations (Tripod, 2001).

2.6 The Cognitive view

This theory suggests that foreign language learners creatively use their cognition

skills to figure out the foreign language individually. Leaners construct their own

rules according to the patterns they notice and make amendments where necessary.

This approach Journal of Education and Practice enables students to learn from

their mistakes since the role they are able to actively know first-hand how the

language works. Learning like this, however, becomes faulty because some of the

assumptions students make about the foreign language are based on their first

language.

2.7 The critical period hypothesis

This hypothesis argues that after a certain period in one’s life, acquiring a language

becomes almost impossible. One should learn the language during this period,

supposedly before puberty, because that is when the brain is still developing. After

puberty, the brain is already fully developed thus making learning the language a

difficult task. The evidence in favor of this theory is that of “Genie” who since the

age of two years, up until thirteen years, had received little language interaction.

18
After being rescued from the conditions of extreme neglect she was found living

in, she was able to learn some vocabulary. However, she was not able to grasp the

entire language. It has been argued that this though may just be due to her having

an overall low IQ even though; many people have been able to master a foreign

language even after puberty. The only thing they have not been able to overcome is

their accents.

2.8 The natural order hypothesis

This hypothesis asserts that the acquisition of a foreign language occurs in a

predictable universal order. Studies have shown learners of English as a second or

foreign language make the same mistakes regardless of their linguistic

backgrounds. These errors are related to those made by young children when

learning their first languages. This theory has been criticized by linguists even

though they only have general knowledge of a limited number of languages. Also,

the studies that have been made consist of only a few grammatical errors and with

all the languages that exist in the world, only a low percentage of them be studied

thoroughly (Tripod, 2001). Without the human capacity of understanding

language, reading would not be possible. Five basic components found across

languages have been identified. They include syntax, morphology, phonology,

pragmatics and semantics. The acquisition of language progresses across these

19
components with increasing capacity, refinement, usage and understanding. Each

of these components defines the development of one’s language skills.

Certain similarities and differences between languages influence grammar,

vocabulary and pronunciation acquisition based on the five components mentioned

above. Phonology deals with the structure of speech within a language. The

different variations in speech structure determine how a word is uttered. These

sounds that make up a language are known as phonemes. Knowing the morphology

of a language is critical to the development of vocabulary since ‘morphemes,’

which are the base words, reflect the smallest building blocks for understanding.

Syntax studies how basic meaningful units are combined to create a sentence.

Every language has its own syntax, the rules of its grammar, when grouping words

together for communication purposes. These rules allow for acceptable and non-

acceptable sentence structures. The ways in which a language expresses meanings

is known as semantics. Semantics enables one to understand that someone who is

“bubbly” is not made up of bubbles. This is because semantics goes beyond the

literal meaning thus making it differ in every language. It is culture-dependent and

therefore causes difficulties for people who are not native speakers or even native

speakers coming from a different culture. The ways in which members of a

community achieve their goals using language is referred to as pragmatics. How

one interacts with a child is different from how he interacts with an adult, and or

20
his parents. The formality in speech differs when one is interacting with an

employer and when having a conversation with friends. The essence of pragmatics

is to understand the style to use and when to use it. The stages through which

language learners progress through to acquire the language is the same; the only

thing that differs is the amount of time individual students spend at a particular

stage. There are five stages involved in acquiring a foreign language: The

preproduction stage, the early production stage, the speech emergence stage, the

intermediate fluency stage and the advanced fluency stage (Haynes J, 1998-2005).

The pre-production stage is also known as the silent period. This stage

consists of learners who may have up to 500 English words in their vocabulary, but

are not speaking yet. Other students, however, ‘parrot’ what they hear. Students at

this level listen attentively, can copy words, can respond to visuals and pictures

and can understand and repeat gestures and movements. Repetition of words at this

stage is necessary to allow comprehension. The early production stage is where

students develop a receptive and active finite vocabulary. Students are able to use

two-word phrases and can also use short memorized chunks that are not always

correct. The speech emergence stage is the period where students have developed

vocabulary of about 3,000 words and are able to form sentences and phrases for

communication. Here, learners are able to ask questions and initiate short

conversations in the foreign language. Intermediate fluency stage is the stage

21
where learners have vocabulary of active words and can use more complex

sentences when speaking and even writing. Opinions and thoughts can be shared,

and group discussions are held with much ease. This level allows learners to use

strategies from their first language to learn the contents in the foreign language.

Their writing has many errors as they try to master the complexity of the foreign

language’s grammar and structure. At the advanced fluency stage, students achieve

cognitive proficiency in the foreign language and are almost as fluent as natives.

Universal learning and second language learning implies that the foreign language

learner incorporates the principles of a first language grammar in judging whether

a sentence is grammatically correct. The learner might have acquired universal

grammar either directly or indirectly through their native language. When

cognitive and situational factors are ruled out, it is argued that learning a foreign

language is like learning the first language due to discrepancies that have been

caused either accidentally or necessarily in the different situations. The learner’s

mind (minus cognitive and situational factors) also makes learning a foreign

language the same as learning L1. This brings about the difference in the amount

of time taken by individual students in the same class to learn a language.

Adult foreign language learners can distinguish between grammatically

correct and incorrect sentences thus demonstrating that they had access to

Universal Grammar called the Right Roof Constraint. This principle shows that

22
elements moved in the sentence must not cross certain boundaries (Cook V, 1985).

However, Universal Grammar might be cut off from the L2 leaner.

As seen above, the Critical Theory Hypothesis, CPH, argues that the limits

for acquiring L1 is between ages two and twelve – when the child’s brain is too

immature and after it has become too inflexible. This means that, after a certain

age, a learner’s accessibility to the principles and parameters of Universal

Grammar are limited or not directly accessible. CPH is concerned with cognitive

and physical maturation, which acquisition does not take into account, thus making

it hard to draw a clear line between CPH and how it affects L2 learning. Mother

tongue, which is a mediator, allows for the easy acquisition of a foreign language.

Chomsky (1969) has queried the importance of L1 as a mediator though

stating that although the acquisition of another language is relatively easy in the

presence of some available language, a serious problem is entrenched in it. If the

values of parameters were the same in the first and foreign languages, then

mediation would be successful (Chomsky, 1969). The acquisition of L2 is affected

by individual differences, which are a learner’s level of achievement, and his/her

rate of development. Certain aspects such as variables relating to cognitive

thinking and social human characteristics also hinder the acquisition of a second

language. It is important for learners to interact and converse with native speakers

in L2 in order to be able to successfully master the language. A great deal of how

23
mother tongue influences grammar can be seen in translated abstracts. A study

conducted by Benavides M and Adolfo G. found that during correction and

drafting of texts translated into English from 80 Spanish abstracts, relevant

mistakes that affected the meaning of the content in the writings were found.

Negative transfers from mother tongue were found to interfere in nonprofessional

translations. Different points of view have been used when analyzing mother

tongue interference in writing English. Without knowledge of key differences

between languages, then learners erroneously use words and sentences. These

errors are highly influenced by their mother tongue (Benavides M and Adolfo G).

2.9 Summary of the chapter

The chapter review the history of Hausa land, Hausa language, Hausa

greeting, Role of Language Transfer in Second Language, previous studies,

Theoretical framework and finally the summary of the chapter.

24
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter focused on the methodology employed by the study. It

specifically presents the research design, population involved, it also highlight the

sample size and sampling technique adopted and the instrument used in the

collection of data from the respondents. Method of data collection and analysis

were also highlighted in this chapter.

3.2 Research Design

Research design is a plan or framework of the research; it shows how data

related to the population should be collected and analyzed. For the purpose of this

research work, survey approach will be employed because the study will obtain

data through the aid of questionnaire administration to a cross-section of the

population to determine the role of age: the language of greeting in Hausa land.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population as described by (Osuagwu, 2002) consists of all conceivable

elements, subjects or observation relating to a particular phenomenon of interest to

25
a researcher. For the purpose of this research, the population consists of all habitant

of Gumel local government which stipulate up to 508,839 (2006 census.)

3.4 Sample Size

In the course of this research, it is not possible to study the whole population some

members of the population will be selected as representative that will constitute the

sample size. The sample size is usually a compromise between what is described

and what is feasible. Out of 127,956 people, 200 respondents were selected to

represent the entire population using Cohen and Manion 2002 sample size

determination table.

Sampling Techniques

The study adopt simple random sampling techniques to choose respondents from

each different wards in Gumel, where each and every member of the population

has equal chance of been chosen.

3.6 Data Collection Instrument

The researcher adopted questionnaire as instrument for collection of data, a

rich items questionnaire was constructed under the guidance of supervisor, which

contains sections A which ask for personal data of the respondents (excluding

traceable information), and B for items questions guided to collect data tends to

answer questions that will be analyzed to reach objective of the study as stated in

26
chapter one. 200 copies of questionnaires was constructed for distributed to all the

respondents.

3.7 Validity & Reliability of the Instrument

The study will use structured questionnaire because it will allow the

respondents to reply to the same questions and the choice of their answer picked

from the same set of alternative. And different answer will be a true variation in

the respondents’ individual characteristics. Thus, this will enable the researcher to

analyze the data easily.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

A questionnaire was constructed under the guidance of supervisor,

which contains sections A which ask for personal data of the respondents

(excluding traceable information), and B for items questions guided to collect data

tends to answer questions that will be analyzed to reach objective of the study as

stated in chapter one. 200 copies of questionnaires were distributed to all the

respondents, which they were later filled and returned back to the researcher, total

of 200 questionnaires were returned and taken for further analysis.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and or logical

procedure to evaluate, describe, and illustrate condense data. For the purpose of

27
this research, frequency and simple percentage were used in the analysis of the

data collected from the different respondents via questionnaire. The percentage

formula can be illustrated below as:-

Number of response 100

Percentage (%) Total number of respondents X 1

28
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The chapter discussed the presentation and analysis of data collected from

the respondents. The chapter discussed the: data presentation, data analysis, and

discussion of the major findings.

4.2 Answering Research Questions

The various research questions raised for this study were answered using mean

scores while the standard deviation was used to determine how close or otherwise

the student's mean scores from each other.

Research question one: What is the role played by age in the language of greeting

in Hausa society?

Table 4.1 Indicating the role of age in the language of greeting

Language of greeting Mode of greeting in the Respondents Percentage

morning

English good morning 127 63.5

Hausa Ina kwana 73 36.5

29
Total 200 100

The table above revealed that 127 of the respondents greet their elders in the

English language by saying "good morning" 63.5% while 73 among them use to

say "in kwana" in the morning 36.5%. this is in line with Yusuf (1973, 1979) has

examined how various degrees of politeness and intimacy are expressed in Hausa's

social life. He has found that while some deferential terms of address are

obligatory, such as when children address their parents baba (father) and mamma

(mother), others are less rigid, indicating degrees of formality or intimacy between

the persons involved. For example, when proper names are exchanged freely,

Yusuf claims that "it is always assumed that they (the parties involved) either have

similar social backgrounds or else lead similar styles of life" (1973:227).

Yusuf also has found that age, seniority, or status are indicated with deference. The

junior, or what some call the "inferior," participant will address the "superior" with

the appropriate term according to the circumstances. In this respect, Yusuf remarks

that the terms may gida (the male, literally, owner of the house, or the head of the

household), gida (literally, the mother of the household), and Alhaji/Hajiya (he/she

30
who has performed the pilgrimage to Mecca) are applied to people who are

responsible and dependable.

Furthermore, the terms Alhaji and Hajiya convey the notions that the person

referred to has sophisticated commercial skills and has traveled widely. However,

in contemporary usage, the term may gida is usually confined to rural areas. In

urban centers, this form of address is used if it is suspected that the addressee is

from a rural setting. Mallam/Mallama (the Muslim learned man/woman) also

connotes Islamic piety and supernatural feats as opposed to rank ya da'de or ranki

ya da'de (may God give you a long life, for a man and a woman, respectively),

which signifies a "detached secular and sacred authority" (Yusuf 1973:229).

According to Yusuf, this secular title of authority was originally associated with

the preIslamic rulers of the Hausaland.

Honorifics, respect, and other semiotic signs are used here to carry out an

interpretation of social texts. Some of these honorifics, however, have gone

through a transition with the introduction of Islam that Yusuf does not indicate. For

example, the honorific ranka ya da 'de underwent a transformation that has given

birth to the expressions Allah ya biya (literally, may God pay (you), meaning may

God grant your wishes) and Allah ya ba ka nasara (may God give you victory).

The Muslim Allah has replaced the traditional rulers who in many instances

incarnated the traditional beliefs or religions. The transformation of the honorific,

31
therefore, clearly indicates the influence of the new religion as well as the decline

of the old beliefs and traditional authority. Thus in the region of Maradi, the new

expression has become Allah ya biya Maradi (may God grant Maradi (a royal title)

his wishes); local legend says that Maradi is the name of the founder of the city

Maradi which has become an official title in the King's Palace.

Research Question 2: What is the impact of western civilization on the Hausa

greeting style?

Table 4.2 Indicating the impact of western civilization on the Hausa greeting

style

Impact Respondents Percentage

Very high 142 71

Very low 58 29

Total 200 100

The table revealed that western civilization has a positive impact on the Hausa

greeting style with a high percentage out of two hundred, only 58 among the

respondents against the statement with 29% respectively.

These findings are in line with Salmond, (2009) who found that, In terms of social

semiotics, handshaking is a very important social text for the analysis of Hausa

32
greetings. However, it may be misleading depending on the context, region, or

education of those involved. In rural areas, handshaking, as a form of greeting,

occurs mostly among people of equal rank or age. People living in small villages

or communities hardly shake hands as a form of greeting. The only exception is

when they meet at mosques after prayers; at this time, handshaking is made as a

gesture of togetherness or brotherhood by the Islamic ideal of peace. It also

happens in ceremonial circumstances, for example, after a naming ceremony.

With these exceptions excluded, many villagers behave or greet each other in a

way similar to the American hi or hello. In the Hausa language, such greetings

translate as sannu or barka. Yet to express concern for the health of the family or

something else, the greeting in Hausa society may be extended, taking a longer

time, and giving a higher dose of human warmth and concern. Thus instead of just

sannu, one may add ina kwana (how was the night-sleep or good morning). The

latter can also be expressed as Barka da asuba. It is important to note that greetings

occurring in rural areas tend to take a longer time than they normally do in urban

settings, except when urbanites use them to keep conversations going.

It follows that when men finally shake their hands in rural areas, it is almost

certain that one of the parties involved is a "stranger," someone from another

village who has the same status or age. When age or status differs, it is more likely

that the one who is younger or "lower" in rank will squat or bow to greet the other.

33
This also applies to women except that they do not shake hands among themselves

or with men because of Islamic and local traditions.

In urban areas, the situation is different in many respects. Most noticeably,

squatting occurs less frequently. Instead, people shake hands, sometimes despite

age or gender. This is where education becomes a determinant factor. Those who

have Western schooling, even if in addition to an Islamic or other traditional

education, are likely to shake hands. This may occur between women and men,

and between old and young regardless of age differences.

However, the case is not that simple because of Islam's influence which is more

marked in some regions than in others. As a result, in most cases where Islamic

values are predominant, married women do not shake hands with men except,

occasionally, at their workplaces. Yet handshaking is very frequent among

unmarried people of all ages and sexes. Now the question is how can one

understand, from a semiotic point of view, who respects whom and how? How can

a photograph of this social text explain the complexity of the situation to someone

in America, for example? In other words, how can seeing become understanding or

believing in this complex situation?

One further complication is that whether in cities or villages, these formalities are

less applied in households. It is true that in villages sons and daughters are

34
expected to greet their parents if they live in the same compound. The morning

greeting is usually the most practiced. In some village contexts, even wives are

expected to greet their husbands in the morning in conformity with Islamic

tradition.

4.5 Discussion

Based on the data collected from the respondents, the following findings are

discussed:

The result indicated that western civilization has a great impact on the

language of the Hausa greeting style.

The result from Tables 4.1 and 4.2, revealed that the Hausa native speakers use to

say god morning instead of Ina kwana in the morning. This result is in line with

Salmond (2009) and Yusuf (1973)

35
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the summary, conclusion and recommendations.

5.2 Summary

The research was carried out to investigate the language of greeting: the role

of age in Hausa land. Two research questions were formulated. A total of 200

respondents were selected. The data for this study were gathered using

questionnaire conducted before and after the treatment or instruction given to the

respondents for a period of time.

Statistical tools used to analyse the result. Based on the analysis of the results, the

following are the major findings of the study

5.3 Major findings

The result indicated that, the language of greeting in hausa land is English

language and western civilization has great impact in the language of Hausa

greeting style.

36
5.4 Conclusion

Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that, age play a vital role

in term of greeting and also western civilization influence Hausa greeting style.

5.5 Recommendations

Based on the results obtained from the study, the following

recommendations were made:-

a. Hausa people should neglect the English language greeting style

b. Parents should teach their children the basic of greeting at home before

school age

c. Parents should also teach their children the important of language greeting

style

d. Children should be set on the right path to polite language use in interaction

even in later years in life.

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