-r

h 3. F; bev o pli cs.

-? INT}IODUCTICIN

a
: In I870.iolur 1'yndall. ir Britjslr phvsicist
curue of,a stleam of water. Ouring to
Cenrunstrated iiral iighl can bt"- guirled along the
total interasl reflections liglrt gers conjinrd to the rlill€r
stream and the strea,fi] appears lirmiuous. r\ liimjnr:us vvater strealn is the pre.:ursor of arr
erptical fibre. ]:i rlre 1950's. thc irr.::smissinrr ol irrrrgts tlu-r.trgh opticill fibres rras rr::iiizr:d
:b in pmcrjce. I{opkins and Kapany developed the flexible fibresca;pe. u,hich rvas r.tstd bl the

-fu medical world in rerrore iliumi;rarion and vicrvitrg the intodor of [iuirrat body. li q,ru Kaparry
who coiled ilre reriu fibre optics. By t960, ir had been esta.blished tirat light c:ould be gpided
-iil) by a gla-ss fibre, in 1966 Charles Kao and Get>rge Hockhain proposed dre transtnission of
infarmation o\rer glass bre. but tlie fibres av.ailahle at that trrrs l'iqar/ily altenualed ljshi
Ia. l

I
propagatii:g througb theni. It I970 Coriting Glass llbrhr prodnced lorv-lass glass fibrcs. The
inveution of solid state lasers iu l9?0 uradc riptical coitillrinicatiots practiurble . Cot:rr:rercial
comrnunication systsnl\ ba.sed on oprieel fibrers made their appearflltce by I !)77 Apart {ltilm
tr
h.
f'
the use as comnlunicational chanuel. optir:lrl lihres are tvideiy usetl ilt tlther ateas. }iLrro-scopes
tt qnade of optical fibres irre wicleiy used in a i,arieY ol ironns in meCjt:al diagnostir":s. Sensors
Er r detectilg electrjcal, nrscha:rica}, thennal enetgies ;rre marJe using i>ptical fibres.
tg Fihre oTttics is tt tstlnrr.*togv itt v,hicli sigrutls at's c(Dt\rerled -rtom elecirk:*l into oStiico/
sr.gnals. tt,an,ynti$eci ihrougit tt thin g/a.rs./ll:ie itr,i recoz-,vtrii:cl inio el,t:ctt"it*l .s;,g;.:ii
t!-
-r
Et OPTICAL FffiILE

-a
tt?
L.,
-!-

F
i--.
,ti (ai {b)
i- Fig" : llluslration o{ a iransparent fibre guicling light alotlg iis {ength by iola} inle!'nal ralieciiott.
a:i
fa
5r
DeJinitiorr: iltt gltiit:ulJil;e rs * c:.v,{iw.lt,ir:itl tuirtvt: guitle matit o.f'!t,rots1;a;'r'r?I I'tiaiii.rrit:. iglols
or tlegr pla.rl,ii.i, *,ilic:ft .tuidss ligltt tr,sttt:5 ulong itt lengih bY t.o/ttl iilt€t't.,<l! reflec'tittrr.It is as

h
g

ffi
r=,
r_h
5.
? "'/
r*,=
n-..-a
 E{
F;
J
;.J
trfi:rt,H',xl*T,'#;JI
(Note that a thin strand of a metal
is called a wire and a thin strand
JJ
of dielectric materiais is called a

ii3,,.,g"*id;3,:;*j
principle of total
is based on the
internal reflection. When light
ffiW -
ffif;ffiffiffi
Fig. 10"1(c): A raserbeam repeatedrybouncesoff the
surface of the rod (by totat inieinal refl|ction) as it
-J
5-
entefS one end of the fi.bre, it
internal
undergoes successjye.total
its way around the plastic spiral and emer$es out at the
other: end. Tlre whole coil appears to glow red due to I
e-
:.i , -

reflections fr.m sirlewalls and scattering of light by the plastic. However, the path of li
is seen clearly in the coil.
lic<
-.
doyrn the length of
travels the
fibre alcrng az,igzag path, as shown in Fig. 10.1 (a), A small fraction of lieht may esca
!s-
:ii
=--

q.,
through sidewalls but a nrajor fraction emerges out from the exit end of the fibre, as shown
Fig. 10.1 (b). Light can travel through fibre even if it is bent [Fig. 10.1(c)].
Structure z

Buffer

Cladding

Core

Fig. 10.2: Side view and cross sectional view of a typical opticalfibre
A practical optical fibre is cylindr.cal in shape (Fig. 10.2a) and has in general
coaxial regions (Fig. i0.2b).
(l) The innermost cyliqdrical region is the light guiding region known as the core,
general, the diameter of the core is of the order of 8.5 pm to 62.5 pm.
(rD It is surrounded by a coaxial middle region known as the cladding. The di
of the cladding is of Jhe-ordeJ of 125 pm. The refractive index of cladding (n2)
always lower than that of the core (rz1). Light launched into the core and striki
the core-to-cladding interface at an angle greater than critical angle will be refl
back into the core. Since the angles of incidence and reflection are equal, the li
will continue to rebound and propagate through the fibre.
(i;l) The outermost region is called the sheath or a protective buffer coating. It is
plastic coating given to the cladding for extra protection. This coating is appli
during the manufacturing process to provide physical and environmental protect
for the fiber. The buffer is elastic in nature and prevents abrasions. The coating
vary in size from 250 ptm or 900 pm.
To sum up
. Core is the inner light'carrying member.
. Cladding is the middle layer, which serves to confine the light to the core.
",:ffi,T:T;A
Hffi5t&3ilffiX
tt

s
'.\
ifxQuired'Theiiss\bI;rstlrcnIrtt.:J\r,rtirillacorrtqlrtedllurnttiittitr:ltt'ath'rvhiclt

+ acts ai'a-:bi..tu. n oc,'*\ni'lt""l"*"'

it \'i"a rr'r:t lire\trp'
-, ToTAL INTERNAT REFTECTION - Prvo,\ciph " .-^^.,i,. while a
iridex is saicl to rt* *^litijally rut-er
rnedium
A medium haviog a li:rver refiactive when a
inrier is kntrvn as ail '*pticall-y rlr:'nser nredirtrn'
:.i5
fr
fr
medirun irarrirrg a higher refmcti'e
ray of Light passes from a iie,lser medium to a iilrrr iledium' it is ben{
int}terarernrediurnt,*"8;e.t0.5a).Srlel},slaul.ortltiscastnrayLrewrinenas

Lo"v index
Fletracied ray
a*'ay l'rot'n the norrnal

-+, (air)

a
lilhJ
(glass)

lncidenl raY '

Parllal intelnal
relleciion

ib) {c}
:i (a)
re{lection
-qa Flg" 1'0"5: Plrenomenc* of total internal

f\
a- of
{ r,,'l ^
sin0,=1,'lslitUl
\n: /
light lay in tlrt denser nre6inm ad 0-
/ln rr
rrv'r'

is the angle trf

0, the angle of incidEnce
-r whire is
refraction irr the rarer rneel.iuni'
AI.so l?l > }7-' wt,*n tlre atrgle of
irrcj.lence' 0, in the denser
ol"gj"' Ll- inr:r0aseS anrl the ret'raCted rlvs
henrl m')-f$
;-, tnedium is lrrcretseti- the transtlission ray glicles along
?a ard nrore arvn,y
the bounrjary
frotr: tlre nonnal.
:
i\t soml- particular ulg-t.?.'the rtfi'acte:tl
surfaee.so thet sl 90.. uo **,.,
irr Fig' ro-s R.)t.At arrgl+s gleater
tlran fi-' t]rere-
the rle.,scr rriedju,r as trr.uglr tlrey
ar are l1o refracted rays at
The rali( .trL- reilecr.r:d t,a'ck int >
a]1.

m
--\

+-*.
l ti-5 t'.)- Tlrns,
;;;;;";;;"J o spe"ula,: re rlectirg surr'ace^{Fig. t:redirtm
. If Bt < 0"- ihe ray refracts into the rirrer
.If0l:0-"tirerayjustg"razestheintertirceoi,rarer-trr-d*nsernler]il

fa
f-t
' If 0l > 0,-' the ray is reflected back
Tlre pltenrlnlen,on irr rl,lrich light
boundary is knoq,]] as total
into the denser rnedittrrl'
is totally refleql.e<l lionr a rlenser-to.rarer intenral
i:riertr.al rt{lection, The,lay: tlret
l her-efole' the critical anglt
experience IoIa]
rned.iuur

c'irn be tletermincd iiom

reflecrion obey thr ln*= ot' reflccti'rn'
*t Snell's larv.

*a \tr{ren
Therr:fore. liotil equ.
ri:0 "(''
( 10" 1). u'e get
:
Fl^=90'.
:

xrsin 90" : lr"

tra ir,sin 0.

sin 0.' : -:D'.

(10.2)

il=, When the rater mcrlirtt-n is

llt
air' ri- :. 1 and .rrntin g t-11 = u, rve obtattt
t=b sir 0- =
I { 10.3)

h=, t1

TIIROUGH AN OPTT.CAL FIBRI

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
F= -
i* very sma11 and as such we canDot
use bigger light sources

ffi
Fi\
T]:e diarneter of al optic'il fibre
for la,*cturrg
S
iight treanr into it. Light t'''t'i"g diodtt (LEDs) a:rd
c.Ls ut r-d 6,r-L ,.f. be Y oph cs '
otta
la-<e.Jjoiies are thr"- optical

ffi
ru
E+*
 'L-
:89 t
H',.-
..Fi
' \:"'
\' 'r'{ :'EI b
..4. -i'g =-.-
j.-:
i.-: '-...
'-. .. t.'"'..
.l t.';'
"* !
- €f f.{
,.#
"sx I

Acceptance Angle *i t..

'lrtl r
as iH
Let us again consider a step index optical fibre into which light is launched at one end, as .''g l-ts
shown in Fig. 10.8. Let the."reftactive,index of the core be n, and the refractive index of EiEt i

cladding be n, (n2
the claddirglU. Refracted I
Rerracted Normat ;H
;:El ---
-<
i the rav \ ; :iiil <
refractiveindexoftheLaunchingffi-ii"ti|ii;ffiily-.1.l)i..5.g:
refractive index of- th9 Launchins ,. --
medium from which zone_no__
zone_q__1
r_V gxis or,r.,. H \.-
V Axis
light is launched iotg -7-q7[-t-----la
_--r_W__ _lI ].i:
L __r_W__ _ ]-l: _\gflrjl_"gj1y_
_\grlr:l_"gj1y_
_ _ r_
\=-----7--\Finre
___
,JE
or rhe
I

the fibre. Assume that a ,,/\ / I __9ojgl,__V ) Bl .l

light ray enters the fibre 4.o'
ul uo angle 0, to the tl; n, .H
ctaddins n,
Cladding
;ffi -
The
F

axis of thc fibre.

Fig. Geometry
:i'dl
for the calculation of acceptance angle of the tiore. ."-$l
.<
-g+
ray refracts at an angle "
0,'and strikes the coie-cladding interface at an angle O-If O is greater than critical angle O, ffi -rl
the ray undergoes total internal reflection at the interface, since n
i > nr. As long as the angle 0 rl$3i
_i-J.
is greater than Qr, the light will stay within the fibre. ,ffi| 'r =
Applying snell's law to tnrrrT rnt"*rl"* of the fibre' we get
*q :; ,, ^ _, .ii,#l'6
(10'i)
iffi';
If 0, is increased beyond a limit, $ will drop below the critical value $" and the ray escapes 1ilffil .j
from the sidewalls bTthe fibre. The largest value of 0, occurs when $ : 0r.
-From the AI"ABC, it is seen that
ffi ...4.
,#il'r-a
:
sin 0, sin (90" - $) : cos $ (10.8)
iffi>f
using equation (10.8) r,,.:;T::,[::; obtain
:
ffi
When 0:0,, sin[e* ) ?cos Q" (10.9)

'
no
ffi5
But sin Qr: 2 'ffil{
.:fr], (roro) ],&iil5
Substiruting the expression rro.rol ,r,;fu we get
ffi
sin[o,(max)] :*# (1o.ll),fffi
Quite often the incident ray is launched from air medium, for which ,o= 1.. ..ffiffi
Designating 0, (max) :
00,equation (10.11) may be simplified to .ffi
sine^: ^R-i, ;ffi
*-)".
*.
^
uor,"
rrv qu6rv v0 is
0o rr ca*ed,+. -...;:-.If At,,,pr:on,", *gi,,n,,r:r,[o y: ffi
pfrhe-fure- and propagatzdotrttKe.fibre.
grySk
thql4i7lLrq!_cgn hq9 ry.lq[ve lo frqqis
 ' t-
'
R ' "":
-- rr1^^ aL-^ *^r,i-a-.r,*:'#
^-^loc recc rrren
**:;. " J:ffJ i:# ; il, ffi i il'.,'*,:il';# ffilT i H I I
tf
: : "#,?r,r il
angles make it easier to launch light into the fibre.
rur?..i,un.e
a lncident Light Bay Acceptance cone Core Cladding

a I

uvllnottudt /'\^tr
J -:--------
t
-'\

aumericalAperture=Siflon
a ful1 angle 20, a-re
1*
- tn three dimensions, the light rays contained within the cone -having
ouo.*itted alonf the fibre (see Fig, 1Q.9). Therefore, the cone is called
the
S-=,..#J.od
rcceptatrcc t-uut.
s and the corresponding
-\ Light incident at an angle beyond 0^ refracts through the cladding
w
i -o' is lost'
rptical energy
, co,lrulate the numerical apefiure and acceptance angle of an optical fibre
-;l;ilil
--f
\;'o'n
thefollotvi':r-o?'i;
n^/rtnrlrtinc,) : r 50
n,ftore) : nnr:t n2ftladdinl1.5o
1.55 and
"f..: sorution: NA:
DUIIILIUII. 1r^ Y "l WA
"z =
.,ffi7- iJ'' = JoLs: : 0.391.
't. -

i5
t r Acceptance angle 00
: sin-' -tl G- n;zt s:io-,tjr;t- ,.oz 1 :23.02"
l".lti ): tL I
- -t:--t r:1--.^ ;^Lt^.,,i+L
cable with a^ clad index of
1j
-
Example .t What is the numerical aperture of" an optical fbre
n*ll 1 378 and a core index of I '546?
"
tr*,tr* Jo,el :0'70
*a NA: ^W -A = ^'F'*6\'ur;
=
acceptance angle of 30" and a core index of refraction of
|a-J
_ Erample
Urampte i: AJlDre has utt
uuute ltu)
Afibre cable an uuLePLut'wo L

3a* 1.4. Calculate the refractive index of the rlgyg

sotution: ' sin o^: l"l - nl
1{
ts - sin2g^:n(-ni
rI!

I ? ) ?. sin2 0o :
ni=tri- 0.4)z - sin230' : 1.96 - a.25

-_
ft ,,.: ,.r0,
rbre' ir the rerractive
ffi Exampre" ;:
;' ?:t:::','f cladding are 1.563 anl 1.498 respectively'
indicei of the core ancl the-'!,"^]!,{!:I','i':,'::;,!;r,::::"?i"';:t
f{ J : fr-7r: @2 :g.a46l
E, sorution: sinoo

P J
T.
oo:sin-l(0.4461):26'49"

l{ FRtcqqryryINDExcHA.icE
and lEe cltdding ts-;
K rhe fractionai difference A behveen the refracaive indices of th-e corE
;;-" .;f"rctional refractive irtdex chartge.It is expressed as
i'

t
,.

L-
t
f,. 1
 J

t'h - t'lo
0
l-lL (lo.l3)
flrI
This parameter is always positive because nl must be larger than n, for the total internal
reflection condition; [n order to guide light rays effectively through a fibre, A << 1. Typiially,
A is of the order of 0.01.

NI,TMERICAI APERTURE :ll

The main function of an optical fibre is to accept and hansmit as much light from,the source ,-<
?r€
as possible. The light gathering ability of a fibre depends on two factors, namely core size .-
and the nurnerical aperhue. The acceptauce angle and the fractional refractive index ohange $
determine the numerical aperture of fibre.
The numerical apeyture NA) * defiterl us tlrc sine of the acceptance angle. Thus,
NA: sin 0o
where 0o is the acceptance angle.
But sin 0o :
NA: IAl (r0.14) :

o? -n?. - (n1+n2)(ry-nz) :I,ff)ltry^

Approxim $,,,g.1:2
2
= ftt ,we can express the above rekitio-n ur (rf - r?) = zn? A . h
gives
NA : tlzni n
NA : \,12L (10.15)

l.{umerioal aperture detennines the light gathering ability of the fibro. It is a measure of'
the amount of light that can be accepted by a fibrc. It is seeu flour equ. (10.14) that NA is
dopendent only on the refractive indices of the core and cladding matorials and does not depend'
DI
on the physical dimension:i of the 5_
fibre. The value of NA ratrges
from 0.13 to 0.50. A large NA
implies that a flbre will accept
large amount of light from the Flg. 10.10: lllustration of the propagation ol light through -
low and high numerical aperture fibres,
source (see Fig. 10.10).
Example . : Colculate thefractional index changefor a given opticalfibre f the refractive
tndices of the core and the cladding are 1.563 and 1.49.8 respectively.
nt-nz 1'563-1'498 o'09: :0.0415
solution: Fractional index change 6:
r\ - 1.563 =
1.563
'

Example ' ,z Calculate the refractive indices of the core and the cladding material of o,
fib er from the foll owing data :
Numerical operture NA) : 0.22 and L,: 0.012
I

t
where L, is the fractional refraclive index change.

Solution: NA : ,rJZt
a.22 : ryJz*UAn:0.155 r,.
R
{
+ _ _ iit-ti.t lr: ,.
---.--_-:----:-;0.0]2
I- . llt "
il,: r.42 * r.42 x o.o rz = r.403
-\ '_ .: Firtrl rhe
fi'actiooot ,rrr.orrive
f.T.ll:
fbre n'ith ref'aclive indices of core an)
ciotltli*g
iniie:t t?i,iJ t?Ltmet.ir:si aper,ltre
lor an opticai
H\ d,s
-l
._s anct 1 .49 res,pectivellt

u- Solutionl =\-it'7 -i-5:1.49

ttj -- L5 : u.ou67
.1
{t
N,! - n,^,Ei = t.:JixO.OOO; :
-\ {).174

-
TYPES oF vIoDES: MODES oF PRoPoGA'fIoN
-\
\ 1.1'pes of rlodes:
,;n[H,'ffi
5il.:11,ff iiilJ-ffi IIT:;[elt'f il:#:1',11.-J;1:'ff n*';,fn
(i.e., lower ttran the critical propagarion angle) ars l0lYer
Ft t}a* the critical angle
rngles lar.ger
' '). hi ca-se *f lower order modes, the fieids are concentrated near
l- oriu, ,r,oi*r (see Fig. .
uoi,l: Iu ease or trrigher {:rder ttr- are crisn ibtrted more rr-rrvards

S '-:f;."'};
:il: edg: of tir: :::"'
F r1,, tend
tend
Low :'j:- Hish
;\rvavc-guide and
f5rvavc-guide nz
rla crcjer
crcjer .i.Je,
.i.de
se,f,
F- io.
t = into the cladding. / >< ; Y- / Y
]i*h:,:,-,::Y _=*---:-r._.*
prrrrs yn(r8y rust -\{--
tb ---- -. order-
)r.'
t - r.rrrler mocles ltal,e to ..
E-iraverse
i.rcrrr:rca patirs th
lr-rr1 .rPf nrlhc
longer "?
{a) - {b)
- hence take ia.rger
FouO Fig. (a) Low and Hish-order rav paths in a muilimode ribre.
-.
LJ,in,* ;;; i;;;;
rrran
ib) Axial ray in a single moce fibre
b - order modes to cover
, a,given lelgth of the fibie. Thus, the higher order mocles arrive at the output end olthe fiber
I\ later thnn the lower order modes.
;=

-
 TYpes oF RFrys
A Textbook of Engineering PhYsics
fr
tu;
-

tL
through tle fibre undergoing total internal
L Meridional ray: A ray that propagates of the fibre *,
-
I"t passes through the rongifudinal axis
reflection is calred rn.iidiorur ray. TM or
(Fig. a). The propagation of meridional rays is possible only in the
core
TE modes.
2. Skerv ray: The ray that
describes angular helical' Path F,-
E
along the fibre is called a skew
ray (see Fig. b)' These
rays do not Pass through the (a) 41f,', j
ts
ts
-i- i-t
axis of the core. These raYs *
are proPagated in either hYbrid
EH or IIE modqs. Some of
-- f'
\ l--':.-r2
>.-f) r-
,*
these modes Produce losscs f---::-"- F
(b)
,t
tluough leakage of radiation' f=
In real situations, the skew raYs F
constihtte a substantial Portton c+ qf
to propagate olly in the annular rlgion
of the total number of guideo tuvt. They tend
Ef"

not fully utilize the core as the TtdjY; *

near the outer surface of the core and-do 'fl*
,the meridionai rays and increase the light
However, they are complementary to t*
-\
}e
CI,ASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBRES
optical fibres are classified as follows into various
-- r-^-r.. - on
typ_es basing
):cc^-^^ parameters.
^- different '
# ^
-
.+
f+E
*.
j4
L-'
#
e-
.<
ffi
inddxl I Grin.fibre

\+)--

A,]Ctrtincation baiing on refractive index profile:

:'*#;;;;;;;;;;;*";i;, optical fibie is a plot of refractive index drawn:":'::f
from tng
distance ffom
and the dtstanCe
axes andthg
the aXgS axis (llawu
core aXiS
the COfe on the
rlrawn ulr other q^ro
Lrru uLrrwr axis (see r rt)'
\ovv Fig' )'). Optical
-r----
on the basis of refractive index profile'
fibres are classifled into the foilowing two categories
Step index fibre\ and 2. Graded index (GRI}!
fibres'
i.
index of the core is constant along the
Step index reiers to t[e tact that the refractive
at the cladding and core boundary (soo
radial direction and abrupily rutts to a lower value
iiiue^ ui iris tt'o is not constal:J] Y+:re* s]:-
Fig.' . a).in
Fig. a). in case of Cni{
Lii<ji'] ilbres' refractive ind"-x:1the
the reiiactiYv
fibres, fiie core t:,*t':."--^:-":^::''*'
:::.t_:
(rl ltl! luru \Jvw r rf _tr
if--{
 the outer edge of the core.
At the core-cladcling interface the
gradually towards The rqfractive
:ecreases
the core matches with itr. ,"n'urtive index of the cladding'
,iir. ina.i of
of the cladding is constant'
of light propagation:
Li*tfi.rrion basing on the modes classified into two
of thg modes of light propagation' optical fibres are
On ths basis
:qONES AS

mode fibres (SMF) and-)'

Nlultimode fibres (ilrN{F)'
iH;
A single mode fibre (SMF) has ,a
ouly
and can support,
.it., .or. diameter
the other hand,
I, *"a. "f propagatioo' Ol
i.rultimoOe- fibre
(MMF) has a larger core
of modes'
,,n.*a and supports a number
fibres are
Thus, on the whole, the optical
,ssified into tluee tYPes:
fibre
' Single mode steP-index
lF (a)
t-t'
h[,
[-?!) . fSM? fibre (M]VIF)
siep.index fihre
^r^.*ar.-i-,rpv
Muitimode
rMMF)
(murtimode) nbre
(a)
(b)

fi
Fa
:dffirl,a"*
classification basrng o' rrzrL'
rarr.
5ln*,,,.i[ili3,'$ift:l:B[1fl%H,,:iif,x
are classified into three
of materials used for core and cladding' optical fibres
On.the basis
tt tt't'iltl,.rr/grass
fibres (glass core with glass
iraddingl
il-t
il\r! ,. i*,t.ipiastic fibres (plastic core with plastic cladding)
3 PCS flbres (polvmer clad silica)
fr1
THE THREE-TYPES OF FIBRES
E- *: characteristics of the three types of optical fibres,
u..i],.l St1}cture and
:*1] .n"
trt 11.-]

F= single Mode steP rndex Fibre

f :iructure
# .\ single mode step tndex Prolile TypicalDimensions

Hii*i:tirJ:,: [:i:. (ffi j

made I
E- :\,. It is usuallY doped
of germanium ,ono,ooe steP-index
Monomocle fiber
step-index iiber
=il'"i
-T
(c)
f$1,
It- riliit". n. "o" it ; (a) (o)
(b)
(c)
a,thic-k Fig. R.l. profile (b) ray paths
t* rr".rrd.Jty
cl1ddi1s
' ''' ,: Single mode step index fibre {a)
" tvpicar dimensions
f;= ,:l-_.'o[':
jh;'-*ffi
ffi f .,.u iffi*ffi
;&g'i1:*ry_yry.-hphosphorousoxide.rheexternaldrameter q e pr ot e cti v e

o th e
#;;rr*-n ;fr brri
'r" rsur+ sun ded-bv ao -a p a u

th

_.t
E
 r
A Textbook'of Engineering Physics

sheath. The refractive index of the fibre changes abruptly at the core-cladding boundary
as

shown in Fig. (a). The variation of the refractive index of a step index fibre'as a function
.:
of radial distance can be mathematically represented as
n(r) = n, lr < ainside core)
: n" lr ) o in claddingl (10.1 e)

Propagation of light in SMF

Light travels in SMF along a single path that is along the axis (Fig. b). Obviously, it is
the zero order mode that is supported by a SMF. Both A and NA are very small for single mode
fibres. This relativeiy small value is obtarned by reducing the fibre radius and by making A,
the reiative refractive index change, to be small. The low NA means a 1ow acceptance angle.
Therefore, light coupling into the flbre becomes difficult. Costly laser diodes are needed to
lauuch light into the SMF.

Multimode SteP Index Fibre

Structure
A multirnode step index fibre is very much similar to the single mode step index fibre except
that its ccre A I rzs-qoo,,,
is of larger -l "n,
i (claddingj

diameter.ir,. 1il tffi;---V lso-zoop,

core diameter J --t-- \t[- >=---: \ I
(core)

of 50 to ?.00 ----J riho.r

n-inrrpv fiber
Multimode step'index
-T
pm, which (a) {o) (c)
is very large
compared to Murtimode step index fibre (a) R.l. Profile (b) Ray paths (c)Typical
dimensions
the wavelen$h
of light. The external diameter of cladding is abou t lgffio $fuVm (Fig. c)'
Propagation of light in NIMF
Multimode step index fibres allow finite number of guided modes. The direction of
polarization, alignment of electric and magnetic fields will be different in rays of .differelt
mod.s. ln other words, many zigzagpaths of propagation are permiued in a MMF The palh
length along the axis of the fibre is shorteiwhile the other zigzag paths are longer. Because
of tt is difference, the lower order modes reach the end of the fibre earlier while the high order
modes reach after some time delay (Fig. b).

Gradec[ Index (GRIN) Fibre

A graded
I 125-140 pm
inda'. fibre is' (cladding)
a multimode ---F 50-100 pm
fibre with a I (core)
Y
core consisting
of concentric _T
layers of Multimode graded-index fiber
(b) (c) j'
different (a)
refractive
Fig. GRIN libre (a) R.l. Profile (b) Ray paths (c) Typical dimensions
indices.
 r,vith distance from the fibre axis. it has a
efore, the refractive index of the core varies
value at the centre and falls of rvrth increasln-g radial distance from
the axis. A'typical
profile are shorvn in Fig' (a). Such a profile causes a periodic
-'-nrre and itd index
ing of light propagating through the fibre. The size of the graded iudex
tibre is about
Nl
the core with radius
,r*.-u. the step index fibre. The variation of the refractive index of
lured from the center is given bY

r<0 r"rrl
n(r) : ' ['^(;l] inside
(10.20)

r>o in ctadding I

). n, is maximum refractive index at the core axis, a the core radius, and cr the grading
:
rle index number which varies from 1 to m. When cr 2, the index profile is
parabotric and

:efened for different applications.

)pagation of light in GRIN fibre
yA.s a light ray goes from a region of higher refractive index to a
region of lower refractive
It iJUeniaway from the nor:nal. The process continues till the condition for total
I reflection is met. Then the ray travels back towards the core axis, again'ueing
coniinu-
refracted (Fig. Total internal reflection

a).' The turning r Refraction

|-.-1f,rd may take Place

E{r{r before reaching the
h. 1-cladding interface.
i}lr, conrlnuous
I
Cladding
ra-r:rction is followed bY
FIg.: (a) An expanded ray diagram showing refraction at

i=' :
IiL;fct
asain continuous the various high to low index interfaces within graded indexgraded
-*^.:^I-
towards rla giving
action +^.,,atAo the
nivino an nr"rjll
^n orerall
curved ray
rav paih. (b) Liqht
Light
index fib;e.
transmission in a
fibre,
grade'

il* -, l, In
I the graded index
in a region
frt=,' \:, rays making larger angles with the axis traverse longer path but they havel
v"---r.r-l^r,-^+:^-f\^--^^"^-+lrrollrarrc
-o*.i refractivre index and hence at a higher speed of propagation. Consequently, all rays
f=:x ;ling tkough the fibre, irrespective of their modes of travel, will have almost the
.ut iatn fengtfr and reach the output end of the flbre at the same time
(see Fig'
-'
same
b)'
F_*5:: rn .are of GRiN fibres, the acceptance angle and numerical aperhre decrease
with radial

#,; |ro.. from the axis. The numerical aperture of a graded index fibre is given by
F-
H\ NA: (10.21)

h=
E-\
za[r -
t';l I
#d

Ft-b
 c'
filr
c.q
T-
i},'1.$}:l} ON }{A.[-t']ltlAl,S tjs['t]
iF-
, CI,ASSIFICIAI'I(}l'\ {}I'F-li}l'tES ?
Optical fihres are labri';atcii ti-onr glas: i)r l-rlrislrr ii hich ars trilnspar-e Irt t'") ilp1 tL:al lrcquencies
Stcp in6e x fibres arr proriuced in three c(.)nrrron ftrrrrts - ( ii e glass co re c iadtlet.l r,t itii a glass having
a slightiy ltlver re iiactive inilex. (ri) a silica gli:ss core ciadded nrth !rlaslic arrd (iii) a plastic corr i>
clarlded rvilh anothcrr plastic Generaliy'. the relractivtr iirde.r -.:top is lhc srlailest lor all glass fibres,
a little llrrger lbr the plasric clad silica (PCS) Ilbres ancl the larg,esl ftrr all pilstic conslntclion. *.=
The ba-sic rnareriri fbr fcbrication of'optical fit,res i: silica (Si(),) lt lias a reliactive in,Jer s-.
of 1.4-58at 7-1 =8504771 ir4atcriaishavingslighlii.'diffelcrnrti'rrtliu,iilrdc-\.;rrc,r'oteinetii:ydi:ping
thc basic siiica malerial rvitir sr:it:llqrrantitics of viu'ioirs oxiries. !i'ihe trasic i;ilica ntalurial is doptd q-
*rilh gerrnani;r i(ieL)"i rr phrisphcrrous pentoriids (P,0.i. lhe rekartivt iirder tif'lltc nriltt:rial increa.ses.
i-
Such rtaterials are useri as cLlro rniltrrials and pure silica ts used as cladrJing matc.rial in tltese cases.
When pure silica is dopeC witir Lrcria (B,Or) or flur-irLri'., i1s retiaclivc indcr dr'cre,rsqs
'lh11e illatsrials
are trsed tbr cladding rvhcn purc sllica is used as torr rnalerial. L-)xamples of fiber cr:n:posiliolts are
" Sii:):l corc .- tl"O..SiO- claclcling
GtO..SiO, core Si(). cladding
ri:'
"
'l-lrc'glirss optir:nl fibres exhibit veT. lou' lo-sscs atrd itr* rtsed in long distance comnrunicationrc.
\:
irr these f'ibres, perspex (Pi\4lvlA) und prrlysteltnc are r:setl ior cort.-i'iteir t'efuactive irldiccs \:
a,re 1,49 and 1.5, respcctivei)i. A flur-rrocarbnrr polynrer or il siljcone resin is used as a claddine *
material, Ahigh reftaciil'r-' indcx dill'erence is achieveil bc1u,e[n the core and the cladding malerials, -i-he
There fore. plastic i;brcs h*ve large NA of tire order ol'0.6 and latge acceptanci] angles up to 70", *
main advanfages of thc plastic fibres art lorv cosl aucihigher nrcchartical flexihilifi.'I-he mechanical
il.exibility alior+:s th.c plastic fib,res to have large core.s, oldianr':ters ranging lionr 1100 to 1400 pm.
r.J'
sl'
-Al

llorvever, they arc tcmli$rature sensitive alrd exhibrit very high loss. 'l'herefbre, they are used in lorv
*ost upplications anij at orriinary temperaturcs (belorv 80"). I:.,xarnptes of plastic l'itrercomposilions
are
,l.60
l-
. Ptrlystertr)e cc)r's /tr = N;\ ",.0.60
*
' h'l*iirr,i Bu:lhacrylatt clariding n. " 1.4!j
f
" :Pol-vmethyl nrethariylate' cr:r'c
- claddillg made

PCS fibre-s
of its
nr=1.49
copoi.rtticr ir. = 1.40
ItA=050
rq.
The plastic clad silica (PCS) Ilbres are ccmposerJ ol'silica corcs surrounded by a low
refracriye incJex transpar€nl polyrncr as cladding. The core is matle from high purily quarta T'he
.F
cladding is made of a silicone rcsin having a re fractive intlex of I .405 or oiperflur:r-onated ethylcnt C+'
ptopylene (Teflon) having a refructive index of 1.318- Plastic ctaddings are ttsed lor step-index
fibres only. The IrCS fibres are less expensive but have high losses. Thereflcrre. they ere rnain]y used
in short rlistance afplications.
r
s-
s::r
C:='
;3r
r|
t
#.
r-h
F:i5
Different tvpes ttrut",Tddinq
- ./ctodding
I-tr
r+' @,-coreVcore=
r+
r+ Co re

r-s orr
T.-
t;-it
l-r r-)
H
r-\
q:*,
q-5
v

,
lF. (i) Multimode step (ii) Multi mode (iii) Single mode step
ar index fiber 'Graded index fiber
F_-t, j
Fig. 1.18: Different types of f ibers.
Lndex
/f iber
rb
q"i\
Based on the refractive index profile, we have trvo types of fibers:
(i) Step index fiber, (ii) Graded index fiber
Step index Fiber Graded index. Fiber
The refractive index of the core i. a.ie
q_:5 I

uniform throu.ghout and under goes an to vary in the parabolic rnanner

I
such
abrupt (or) step change at the cladding that the maximum refr:active index is
+b
C!,:-t ,
boundary ,
I

present at the centre of the core.

I

The diameter oi'the core is atiout SO - ZOO The diameter of the core,,/ is-about 50
p m in the ca^se o1' multimode fiber and 10 p m in the case ol' rnultimode fioer.
I

a+.t p m in the ca-se oi'single mode fiber

|

I
,/

ht J. The light rays propagating through it The light rays propagating ihrough it
arc in the fornr oi' meridional rays are in the form ol' skew ;rays (r.rr)
I

H.b I

rvhich rvill cross the fiber axis duringl helical rays which will not 'cross the
F.t cvery reilection at the core-cladding fiber axis at any time iand are
I

bounclary and iirc propagating in , propagating around the fiber-axis in a

F:
I

z\g-zag lnann.l'. helical (or) spiral manner. :

I
'

h:
c.*"b
Ft,
 F
I

i-r
(<
s.rr
Step-naex Fiber - ..----.---.---:
s?ritCI:jtl::'t':T.':f:l
tf@
4 Dlgnar
#;j;;;;iiu".
(ltJL9l urvrr ro "'*'"----- --- I
the rays reflected l."o {""Tyg effect- Here the lig}rt rnvs
at high angies"ir,"n
or the higher orrli6rltravel at.rlifferentspeedsjn dj{ferentpaihs
FI
;#';r;;j- " grort", distance than i of rire fiber becau-se the refractivo indtx
rhe rays rellected at ]ow angles or the lvaries urro'uglrout
lower order m0des, to reach the exitlroy" nu*
end of the trber. So high angle rays iu-,o tigrrt
the
rays
*o
outer
near
edge
tle
* ::*t]:sl
P*:travel
centre
fast€rthan
ol.dru *:
arc continuously
r
{-
arrive later thaD tf"re low angle rays. lln efi'ect, light ravs c]-orvn * Oy"*
I Elence tire sigual pul."" are broadened lrelocusscd iis thcy trave]
i-r
I ;;' ,il;;.";; aud distortion .takes lPa"o:'],*":J" reach thc *,xit end of rlre
-=
place. But this.distorbion does noi t'o" luY 1 :l: ,:II:3:--i:":
';i;;; in singto':riode step inclex
fiher. lpath ef the light pmpngation'
,Bascdonthen.,,,beroimodesprop.@er,tlterearenruiti
*u heHcal
fil
lprrp tiUo, ancl single nrode liber:
r
t

Single m c fiber Multirnode fiber +.-

mlr onlt-bne
nrode timode allows a large number
In singJe mode
for the light raYs
(HErf mode) can propagate thtough the of paths or modes *
travelling through it.
fiber
&,lft. condition for tire !, \-
operation it pI"l,.by :he :.rll:"t:lt""q .." '- "^'.' r-ir
tire tiber
t'iber rvhich is delrned
defined 'as -',1:",;
,I.A
Itf,u 1"1* = 4.9 f d f where d is the *
such tlrat vs2'405'lai"rn.t}
.-lu=7"',"iit ofnrru loru ortlre fiber and
" lHuru a is the radius of the cor.e of thu-[l it llie wavelength of the light rays
i'itib".. Thus Lhe diumeter of the ".":",ofiLravelliug through the fibcr.
.lr.
.''. ithe sinSle^ fiber should bci c-.
i
; ifj:.;I*"*,'"
.mode
u"/b 't v)rere n.a = ,rt{ZT =
or rhe iiber i

3. lThe single mode fiber has smaller core lGeneraUy in multimode fiber the core
t
b_+
-t
I

ldirm"tu. and thq. difference betweenIdianreter and the relative refractive

l*to refractive inilices of the core andlirrtl"x diffelrence are larger than the rt+ $

Ithe ctadding i.s very small f

single mode fiber. n

;,r.4.,.' lJ.A", pfaptj eP r.tltexe,,is.r*lo,^d ispor sion cug&utthoru- virssrs€t f* fiygus s,i,lt g, D-t
l{i.e, no degradacion of sigrral eluring effect there is signb! dogradaf,ion due -t
Er
Itravellirrg through the fibor) to, rhultimode-.dispeniion qnd'.rnaterial

5. Since the informabion f,ransmission Due to

dispersion.
'large
dispersion and ;?
capacity in optical fiber is inversely atteng.ation of the signal. the rnulti
proportional Lo dispersion, the single mode fi\ers are less suilable 1'or
ul# I

modc fibers are more suitable for commi:nication.

communication.
C-
6. Launching of light into single mo:le
fibers and jointing of trvo fibers are
Launching of light into fiber and
jointing of two fibers are easy in these f,.
7.
very difiicult
Fabrication is very dilficult aid so the
fibers.
Fabrication is less difficult aad. so
r.a
t
fiber is so costlY the fiber is not costly.
-T
 {---
tr- ,a

\ most ilnportant application

of the coherent bundles is in djaglostic field as an optical i'I
*
endoscope is
T optical instrument whjch facilitates visual inspection ..''t
':$ilr*';ililh'i#;il"":1'J:iffi"l'0il*:.l"ff
L-:r::10:.
1Tffi J:'Jif #i,,'o:ffi ; !{I
!i5:s fo:r.,q a bundle of I mm diameter and it can resolve objects with a rt
r lu-m' Bv allowing direct vierving of what was formerly hidden, o fib.ror.op.separation
dr, ;;;;;;
of
i;:'(
diagnostic tfol for i"il.hy and medicine, The broncho-dberoscope,
\-r gashointestinal 'i9
etc are the endoscopes used in mectical.diagnosis.
i St.t..:::]:Toscope
Eyepiece

Prism

F*<{
H,'M
\
\{}/ /:Y/
sPritter
fl#nx';#r",,,n

h
r- -1 source
\\\)
--Light I\
\]
-i J lnnerimaging
rt- fiber bundle
l r . Fig._
tne scnematlc
h=;lY,r, snows cuagram ot a flexible
endoscope. The endoscopes art:
low quality, large diameter and short silica fibres. There are two fiber bundles
*.q+.O.using
-{ d endoscope. One of them is used to illuminate the interior of the body and the otneris
collect.the reflected light from the illtrminated area. e teles.ope
fr :. system is added ,n

f!.:.ct end, there is an.assembiy of objelctive lens uoa pr:r* ;ht;; Jr* t.pt in a haosparent
- ,t {'ns the viewing eng, there is an eye lens. The input ena or trrc
::r^.:::1
a powerful" light source. The light rays are eooosrop,
focused and eoupled to the illumj;tixg
l\qbundle. The light rays are finally incidenl on the surface rf rhr.;j;ct under srudy. The

r-:;:'1fi 3trfi,mff :fl xilfxff [t'trff i"'tm3i#:*u*:.t*g:*

F i{ .,piece reconstructs the image of the object and one can view the ilrg;';ir#;#;;
_ -i object. Endoscope pictures can be recorded on a videotape recorder.
;h
Fn"t

ffi
 O1''ttc ConflUN\Ltst'tot'l sYSlEn t<
d
l ',}RE \rq.V, much S;rni\o', 1" G.,,
A .Jlt r Og)^ tt ..,a1,
ophz cornmunic'ahr'n\c12')Lro-o- compononts. B ffqvsm:r--
<ira&it.orr^\ Csmrnunica.iron4 sYs4enr crnd A iextbook of Engineering PhYsiu
Ccmver'ls glac,t'oc-\ g,grra\ 4- L'61
a! the other
signals, an optical fibre transmits the signals and a receiyer captures the signals
end of the fibre and converts them to elecfrical signals'
Tra-nsmilter Optica Recoivor
I signal

Photodetector Output

-:----- ----topticalfibre
tt.)j,i'i:"

lllustration of a typical fibre optic communication link.

The block diagram. illustrates a typieal communications system. The transmitter

consists:, of a light source supported by necessary drive circuits. A transducer converts a
non-electrical missage into an,elechical signal and is fgtl ]o a light source, The fight source is
a miniature source, rith6 a light emitting diode or a semiconductor laser. In either case, light
is emitted in the IR range with a wavslength of 850 nm (0.85 pm), 1300 nm (1.3 pm) or 1550
nn (1.55 pm).The light wayes are modulated with the signal. By varying the intonsity of the
light beam from the laser diode or LED, analog modulation is achieved. By flashing the laser
diode or LED on and off at an extremely fast rate, digital modulation is achieved. A pulse
of light represents the number 1 and the absence of light at a specif,ed time represents zero.
A mesrugr .uo be transmitted by a particular sequence of thcse ls or 0s. If the receiver is
:. pro$aruned,to recogni2e sueh digitat pattems, it cau reconstruot the original'message.-Though
iU. digital modulation requires more complicated equipment such as encoders and decoders
and also more bandwidth than analog modulation, it allows greater transmission distancs with
the same power. This is a great advantage and hence digital modulation has become popular
and widely used nowadays. The hansmitter feeds the analog or digitally modulated light wave
to the transmission channel, namely optical fibre link. The optical signal kavelling through
the fibre will get attenuated progressively and distorted due to dispersion effects. Therefore,
repeaters are to be used at specific intervals to regenerate the signal. At the end of the fibre'
an output coupler directs the light from the fibre onto a semiconductor photodiode, which
converts the light signals to electrical signals. The photodetector converts the light waves into
electrical signats which are then amplified and decoded to obtain the message. The output'is
fed to a suitable kansducer to convert it into an audio or video form.
Applications
Optical fibre commr nications systems can be broadly classifled into two groups: (i) local
ar6dtetmeUiatetratipe''.WstffirWhere the"distances involved are small and'(ii) long-haul
systems where cables span large distances.
(i) Local area nefworks: The local area network (LAl.l) is a computer oriented communi-
cation system. LAN operates over short distances of about I to 2 km. It is multiuser oriented
system. ln LAN, a number of computer terminals are interconnected over a common channel
allowing each computer to use data and programs from any other. An optical data bus offers a
great riuction in cost and increases enormously the information handling capacity.
(ii) Long-haul communication: One of the most important applications of fibre optic
communication is long-haul cornmunication. Long-haul communication systems aro used for
long distances, l0 km or more. Telephone cables connecting various countries come under this
category A rather sophisticated long-haul network is the NSFNET which links six supercom-
puter centres tiuoughoui ij.S.a
 =+++-
7ptical Fibres

MERTTS OF OPTICAL FIBRES

tt ddi.. not found in conducting wires- Some
0ptical fibres have many advantageous featurer
of tht important advantages are
givett here' '

1. Cheaper: optical"fibr., ui. made from silica

(sio2) which oo.t the most abundant
T 3f
materials on the earth. The overall cost
of a fibre optic communication is lower than that of an
equivalent cable communication system'
The cross section of an optical
2. Smaller in size, lighter in weight, flexible^yet strong:
the fibres are less bullcy. $pically, a RG-194J
fibre is about a few nunarea microns."H.n..,
a pcS fibre cable weighs 6 kg/on only'
coaxial cable weighs about 1100 kg/km whereas
Optical fibres are quite flexible and sfrong
short circuit high
3. Not hazardous: A wire .o***i.ation link could accidentally
\ voltase lines and the sparking occurring thereby
could ignite cor'nbustibJe ga:.es in the area
: ,',",d; ;;';;; dr-;;;. ffih accidents cannot occur with fibre links since fibres are made
\ 5. Immune to EMI and RFI: In optical fio-res, information ii cqrried,'by,
pU"Aro*-*Jectricatiy neutral and cannot !3 distr'rb.ei b1hieh,11olt4ge'fields#
etc. Therefore, fibres are immune to externatiy
causeo uaciigf.o
,i.rU-o*ugretic interference (EIV[I) and radiofrequenoy inle-rfeien'ee':Eryi' .,..',, r;

o., J. Jl,l,till
"in
J iil;.'^,d ; ; ;; 1
ishi
;
6. .No cross talk: The light waves propagating along'ther'opfical'r--fitlrc
;:; ffi }i,.ffi 9i
minimized ",
r.,:
when
a9c1p1
-* -1i*$$
optical tiure:i
,ia.r. to view of these features, possibility of cross talk is ="pr
used.Thdrefore,transmissionismoreSecureand.pri,;ate.l..
7. Wider bandwidth: optical fibres have ability to caffy
large amog::f ,ryo.rn:luiin
10,000 calls, a 1@
While a telephone cable composed of 900 pairs of wire can handle
optical fibre can transmit 50,000 calls. :

8. Low loss per unit length: The transmission loss

per unit lt1gft..:f a1^oPtical *O-1t::
) firrr.ror., loige, cable-runs between repeaters are feasible. If copper cables
^uout:iagfi;. at intervals of about 2 lffn. ln case of opticai fibros, 1!e
:;. rr,a;ffi;;;;;i;;r"spu..a
interval can be as large as 100 km and above'