34.What is OFDM?

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/orthogonal-frequency-division-multiplexing-
ofdm
35. How OFDM works?
https://www.grandmetric.com/2018/03/15/how-does-ofdm-work/

36. difference between FDM and OFDM.

S.NOFDM OFDM
FDM stands for Frequency Division OFDM stands for Orthogonal Frequency
1. Multiplexing. Division Multiplexing.

While in OFDM, Guard band is not

2. In FDM, Guard band is required. compulsory.

While the spectral efficiency of OFDM is

3. The spectral efficiency of FDM is low. high.

The effect of interference in FDM is face The effect of interference in OFDM is

4. down. trivial.

There is no relationship exist between the There is exist the relationship between the
5. carriers in FDM. carriers in OFDM.

In FDM, Bandwidth(B) is committed to the In OFDM, Single data source attaches all
6. different sources. the sub-channels.

7. FDM supports low data rate. While OFDM gives higher data rate.

Carriers in FDM are loosely arranged and Carriers in OFDM are densely arranged and
8. much aside from each other close to each other.

Applications of FDM are in radio and Applications of OFDM are in LTE

9. satellite communication. technologies and broadband internet.
37. What's the difference between OFDM and OFDMA?
OFDM (orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing) is an older, related technology for
increasing wireless capacity and efficiency. OFDM has been used in areas such as
cellular networking and broadcast media and in previous versions of Wi-Fi.
OFDMA is essentially a type of OFDM for multiple users. It allocates in both the time
domain and the frequency domain, allowing for multiple users—even those with widely
varying use patterns or data loads. By comparison, OFDM can allocate only
sequentially.
 

38. What problems does OFDMA solve?

Previous Wi-Fi standards were intended for web browsing and email in low-density
situations. Today's users aren't just greater in number; they're performing more data-
intensive functions in more settings than ever before.
Network congestion caused by simultaneous requests causes slowdowns, since clients
must form a queue to complete transmissions. OFDMA solves the congestion problem
by accommodating multiple users at the same time and allocating bandwidth more
efficiently.

39. How does OFDMA work?

One way to understand OFDMA is to use delivery trucks as an analogy.
With Wi-Fi 5, each "truck" could carry only a single user's cargo. But with Wi-Fi 6 and
OFDMA, the truck can be loaded with multiple users' cargo loads. Also, its drop-off
schedule can be optimized for speed and efficiency.
OFDMA divides a Wi-Fi channel into smaller frequency allocations, called resource
units (RUs). An access point can communicate with multiple clients by assigning them
to specific RUs.
Wi-Fi 5 divides channels into 64 312.5-kHz subcarriers, all of which are used to transmit
data to a single client. By spacing these carriers orthogonally, OFDMA allows Wi-Fi 6 to
divide channels into smaller units without interference.
The number of RUs assigned to each client is determined by factors such as device
constraints, quality-of-service (QoS) requirements, and packet size. The flexibility in
scheduling along with the parallel nature of OFDMA increases the productive Air Time
efficiency.
40. Explain FH-CDMA systems and DS-CDMA systems.
From book
Ans- Frequency hop-code division multiple-access systems- A Frequency Hop-Code Division Multiple
Access (FH-CDMA) system is a combined FDMA and TDMA scheme, where the available bandwidth is
divided into a number of narrow-band channels and the time is also divided into time slots. The user
transmits on one frequency during a time slot and on a different frequency during the next time slot.
Hence, the user hops from frequency to another according to a hopping sequence. Every user has a
unique code known at both the transmitter and the receiver. The receiver tracks the transmitter in every
time slot to recover the information. In general, one can distinguish between fast frequency hopping
and slow frequency hopping. A fast-hopping FH-CDMA system has a hopping rate greater or equal than
the user data rate, while a slow hopping FH-CDMA system has a hopping rate less than the user data
rate. An example of the latter is GSM, where an entire burst is transmitted on each frequency.

Direct sequence-code division multiple-access systems In Direct Sequence-Code Division Multiple Access
(DS-CDMA), users use different spreading waveforms allowing them to share the same carrier frequency
and transmit the spread signals simultaneously. There is no physical separation in time or in frequency
between signals from different users. Different from TDMA and FDMA, spread signals from different
users do interfere with each other unless the users are perfectly synchronized, orthogonal spreading
codes are employed and propagation channels are frequency-flat. DS-CDMA cellular systems employ
two-layered spreading codes. This spreading code allocation provides flexible system deployment and
operation. In fact, multiple spreading codes make it possible to provide near waveform orthogonality
among all users of the same cell while maintaining mutual randomness between users of different cells.
Orthogonality can be achieved through the channelization code layer, a set of orthogonal short
spreading codes such as the variable-length Walsh orthogonal sequence set [6], where each cell uses the
same set of orthogonal codes. A long scrambling code is employed as a second layer to reduce the
impact of external interference (inter-cell interference). A cell-specific scrambling code (common to all
users in that cell) is employed in the downlink and a user-specific code in the uplink. Hence, each
transmission is characterized by the combination of a channelization code and a scrambling code. The IS-
95 and WCDMA standards employ DS-CDMA.

41. What is NOMA?

Ans-
42. Discuss non orthogonal schemes for efficient multiple access in 5g
https://ieeeaccess.ieee.org/closed-special-sections/non-orthogonal-
multiple-access-5g-systems/
43.Explain the terms, MIMO, Beamforming, massive MIMO.
Terms beamforming and mMIMO are sometimes used
interchangeably. One way to put it is that beamforming is used in
mMIMO, or beamforming is a subset of mMIMO. In general,
beamforming uses multiple antennas to control the direction of a
wave-front by appropriately weighting the magnitude and phase of
individual antenna signals in an array of multiple antennas. That is,
the same signal is sent from multiple antennas that have sufficient
space between them (at least ½ wavelength). In any given location,
the receiver will thus receive multiple copies of the same signal.
Depending on the location of the receiver, the signals may be in
opposite phases, destructively averaging each other out, or
constructively sum up if the different copies are in the same phase, or
anything in between. Beamforming is further divided to
subcategories as explained in the following chapters.
 44. Differentiate between SU-MIMO vs MU-MIMO

Features SU-MIMO MU-MIMO

Full Form Single User MIMO Multi User MIMO

It is the mechanism in which information of single user is In MU-MIMO, data streams are distributed across multiple

transmitted simultaneously over more than one data stream by users on same time/frequency resources but dependent upon

Function BS (Base Station) in same time/frequency grid (i.e. resources). spatial separation.

It helps in increasing user/link data rate as it is function of It helps in increasing system capacity i.e. number of users

Major Objective bandwidth and power availability. supported by base station.

Performance impact

(Antenna Correlation) More susceptible Less susceptible

Performance Impact

(Source of Links supporting same cell and other MU-MIMO users, and

interference) Adjacent co-channel cells adjacent co-channel cells

Split between multiple layers to same user. Fixed per transmit Shared between multi-users and multiple layers. It can be

Power allocation antenna allocated per MU-MIMO user based on channel condition.

Varies upon implementation, TDD or FDD and reciprocity or

feedback based. Less susceptible on feedback granularity and Very dependent upon CSI for channel estimation accuracy.

CSI/Feedback process quality More susceptible on feedback granularity and quality

Greatly assisted by appropriate beamforming mechanisms

Varies upon implementation TDD or FDD and reciprocity or (spatial focusing) which maximizes gain towards the

Beamforming feedback based. Less susceptible on feedback granularity and intended users. More susceptible on feedback granularity

dependency quality and quality

45. What is the role of Coordinated Multi-Point (CoMP)?

Coordinated MultiPoint (CoMP) is based on transmission and/or reception at multiple

separated sites with dynamic coordination among them, to pro-actively manage the
interference for the users, with a particular emphasis on cell-edge users.

Some of the benefits of CoMP are:

-Makes better utilization of network: By providing connections to several base stations at

once, using CoMP, data can be passed through least loaded base stations for better
resource utilization.

-Provides enhanced reception performance:   Using several cell sites for each connection
means that overall reception will be improved.

-Interference reduction: By using specialized combining techniques it is possible to utilize

the interference constructively rather than destructively, thereby reducing interference
levels.

46. Discuss various classes of CoMP in 3GPP?

47. What is relay in wireless network
Relays have been introduced in Release 10 of the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) standard [5]. Relaying is
described through the concept of self-backhauling depicted in Figure 10.1(b). The relay, seen as a small-
cell BS, defines a so-called relay cell. It is linked to the macro BS by a backhaul link and to the MS by an
access link. Both in-band and out of-band relays are considered as well as half-duplex and full-duplex
relays. For in-band relays, the accent is set on interference avoidance between the access and backhaul
links, for which a solution is based on time-multiplexing of the two links

48. What is Cooperative diversity in context of relaying?

In cooperative diversity, depicted in Figure 10.1(a), both the BS and the relay cooperate to improve the
communication quality, meaning capacity or diversity. It targets a scenario where the direct link
between the BS and the MS is able to carry some information, excluding scenarios where the MS is out
of reach of the BS. The information to be sent from the BS to the MS passes through two paths: the
direct link and the link through the relay. At the MS, the information from the two paths is combined in
a coherent way. Although the communication through the relay still takes two time slots, cooperation
yields a better spectral efficiency compared to a single relayed link but also an increased diversity if the
two communication paths are independent.

49. Basic idea of multi-flow relaying, buffer aided relaying.

Multi-flow relaying: The principles behind wireless network coding have been extensively applied to the
two-way relaying scenario, where two devices exchange messages through a relay. Those principles can
be extended to more general scenarios involving multiple BSs, relays and MSs, where multiple
communication flows, downlink and uplink, are simultaneously scheduled so that the interference
created can be cancelled using side information. The main domain of applicability of multi-flow relaying
is foreseen in UDNs of small cells and nomadic nodes. UDNs, nomadic nodes and moving relay nodes are
elaborated in Chapter 11.

Non-orthogonal multiple access: When considering multiple TWR communication pairs aided by a
common relay, the question of medium access comes into play. In 4G, medium access is based on
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) and, thus, happens in an orthogonal manner.
For TWR that means each communication pair needs to be assigned dedicated resources for
transmission. However, for 5G, a massive rise in communicating nodes as well as a much higher demand
in flexibility is predicted. Under these assumptions, orthogonal channel access becomes prohibitive as it
introduces a large signaling overhead due to the scheduling and only offers limited flexibility in terms of
rate requirements and power constraints. To this end, nonorthogonal channel access is a very promising
candidate for the 5G air interface as discussed in Chapter 7. The combination of non-orthogonal access
with TWR or, more general, multi-flow communication, unleashes new possibilities for system design.

Buffer-aided relaying: If the relays are equipped with buffers, it is possible to do opportunistic
scheduling, which provides link selection diversity gains against channel fading. If, in addition, there are
several such relays available, instead of exploiting the additional diversity gains, it is possible to bypass
the half-duplex limitation, by letting one relay listen to the source, while another relay simultaneously
forwards buffered data to the destination, see Section 10.4

50. 5G Scenarios where role of relays and network coding can be foreseen:

The role of relays and network coding can be foreseen in the following technologies:

• Small cells with wireless backhaul: Small cells or more precisely UDNs of small cells promise to play a
central role in 5G as a powerful answer to network densification and the need for a massive increase in
area spectral efficiency or bit rate per unit area (cf. Chapter 7, Chapter 11 and [4][10][11]). One of the
key elements in the deployment of small cells is the backhaul that connects the smallcell BS to the
infrastructure. Traditionally, the backhaul is wired. However, a wireless backhaul is a preferred solution
when it comes to cost efficiency, flexible and rapid deployment, and increased connectivity. The key
observation is that using a wireless backhaul turns the small-cell BS into a relay. The advantage of in-
band backhauling compared to out-of-band backhauling (e.g. using microwave links) is that extra
spectrum is not required only for relaying. Relaying can reuse the same spectrum as a cellular system
without relays. Furthermore, the techniques that recover spectral efficiency, such as the techniques
based on wireless network coding, help bring forward in-band relaying as a viable solution for wireless
backhaul. In other words, the relays are not only an answer to coverage extension problems, but also a
key ingredient for network densification.

• Wireless backhauling for nomadic nodes: The main feature of a nomadic node is that its BS does not
have a fixed location [12]. For example, a parked vehicle may create a cell for the MSs in its proximity,
such that these MSs are connected to the Internet through a relaying node mounted on the vehicle. By
definition, a nomadic node cannot be connected to the fixed infrastructure through a wired backhaul.
Nomadic nodes are seen as important ingredients of the 5G system concept (cf. Chapter 2 and [13]). A
distinctive feature of the nomadic relays is that they make the wireless infrastructure highly dynamic:
their use should be opportunistic as it cannot be based on network planning, as for fixed relays. A car-
mounted device has Relaying and wireless network coding 281 a dual role. It can act as a BS for a
nomadic node, and can act as a MS for the fixed infrastructure. This puts forward in-band relaying as a
natural modus operandi for nomadic nodes.

• Device-to-Device (D2D) communication: D2D communication will be a vital part in 5G as these offer
many advantages ranging from reduced latency for the end nodes to traffic offloading from the core
network (cf. Chapter 5). In fact, D2D communications do not require any infrastructure nodes, and can
play a role in supporting D2D links and improving the network performance significantly. Ranging from
the support of multiple simultaneous D2D connections by a single relay to cooperation of multiple
parallel relays, the possibilities of relays in the D2D context are manifold.

• Millimeter wave communications: The large bandwidths available in the mmWave band come at the
expense of a significantly reduced coverage area, especially in indoor scenarios. Therefore, relays will be
even more essential for these frequency bands, to provide sufficient coverage. See Chapter 6 for more
details.

• Machine-Type Communications: Traffic aggregation using a relay, Machine-Type Communication

(MTC) or Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communication represents an emerging class of devices and
services that have vastly different requirements from the usual, human-centered traffic. One feature is
that a massive number of MTC devices (e.g. 100000) can be connected to the same BS. Although each
MTC device requires only a low data rate, the massive number creates problems for the access protocol.
In such a setting, a relaying node is useful to lessen the access burden put on the BS and deal with an
access problem of a lower scale, i.e. only the MTC devices in its proximity. The relay aggregates the
inputs from its associated MTC devices and relays it to the BS. Another feature of MTC is the ambitious
requirement for energy efficiency. A step in that direction is the use of relays, which brings the
infrastructure close to the MTC devices and thus allows them to decrease the transmit power. More
details on MTC can be found in Chapter 4

51.What does network coding mean?

52. Discuss on various Network Deployment types in 5g.

Network deployment types Telecommunication cellular networks have been used extensively for both
data and voice transmission over a long time and evolved into a complicated ecosystem following more
and more diverse and challenging expectations of end users.

11.1.1 Ultra-dense network or densification Network densification is an inevitable process that is

necessary to cater for the uptake of traffic expected toward 2020 and beyond. In fact, other major
technologies that may solve the challenge of the so-called x1000 traffic growth, such as utilization of
massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) or bandwidth extension, may be difficult to pursue in
some scenarios. In the context of network densification in 5G, the term Ultra-Dense Network (UDN) is
often used. UDN denotes a large number of small cells (i.e. low-power nodes with limited range, such as
micro pico and femto cells), that are deployed very close to each other, with inter-site distances of 10 m
or even lower. In this group, femto nodes, i.e. BSs designed for residential or small office usage that are
connected to Mobile Network Operator (MNO) networks using third party broadband connections,
require special attention due to their potentially uncoordinated deployment.

11.1.2 Moving networks Due to the increasing numbers of mobile users demanding high-speed Internet
access, public transportation vehicles like buses, trams and trains, as well as private cars, are becoming
natural hotspots of mobile data communication. Therefore, it is expected that 5G will witness the
introduction of MNs, which consist of: • Moving Relay Nodes (MRNs) having the purpose of better
serving in-vehicle users (see the concept of relaying and its main challenges for fixed deployments
captured in Chapter 10). If an MRN controls its own resources, it can create a moving cell for the in-
vehicle users. • Nomadic Nodes (NNs) having the purpose to serve out-of-vehicle users, as a
complement to fixed network nodes and in a best effort manner. Both solutions are integrated into
vehicles. In the case of MRNs, two sets of antennas implemented in the interior and exterior of the
vehicles can be used to circumvent the Vehicle Penetration Loss (VPL). Measurements have shown that
the VPL can be as high as 25 dB in a minivan at the frequency of 2.4 GHz [13]. Even higher VPLs are
foreseeable in the well-isolated vehicles of our interest, and in higher frequency bands. MRNs show
good potential to improve the network performance, in terms of improved spectral efficiency and
lowered outage probability, experienced by Vehicular Users (VUs) in noise-limited scenarios [14]. MRNs
also show good performance gains in limited cochannel interference scenarios [15]. In case of NNs, an
antenna set on top of vehicles is used to provide a backhaul connection and access link. This setup
allows providing efficient broadband connectivity exactly where it is needed, i.e. for users in the
proximity of vehicles. A key advantage of NNs is the provisioning of relaying functionality for
performance enhancement for the needed service time without a priori site leasing or site search.
Furthermore, there are larger spaces available for the antenna and transceiver designs for vehicle-
mounted NNs compared to conventional small cell BSs, allowing potential backhaul link enhancements
and advanced relaying implementation. NNs are Interference management, mobility management, and
dynamic reconfiguration 305 associated with some uncertainty about their availability, for instance,
caused by human behavior (drivers), i.e. an NN may or may not be available in the target service region.
Nevertheless, despite such uncertainty, a large number of NNs can be expected particularly in urban
areas. During low-mobility (e.g. traffic jam) or stationary operation (e.g. a parked car), physical MRNs
may be configured to serve also as NNs.

11.1.3 Heterogeneous networks As mentioned, contemporary cellular networks have already evolved
into a complicated ecosystem consisting of

• BSs operating with different output power and antenna location, hence of different cell size (i.e.
macro, micro, pico and femto).

• A variety of different access technologies e.g. standardized by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), including e.g. Wi-Fi.

This non-homogeneous environment is often referred to as a Heterogeneous Network (HetNet) and is

expected to further diversify in 5G, as one will potentially require different air-interface access solutions
for handling extreme mobile broadband (xMBB) or massive or ultra-reliable Machine-Type
Communications (mMTC or uMTC, cf. Chapter 4) [2]. This setup will be complemented by MNs, direct
communication between users including Vehicle-to-anything Communication (V2X), cf. Chapters 4 and
5, and BSs operating in different frequency regimes as for instance millimeter waves (mmW), cf. Chapter
6
53. What are the aspects that motivate new solutions for interference
and radio resource management in 5g.