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Installing, Configuring, and
Troubleshooting Storage Devices

Installing, Configuring, and Troubleshooting Storage
Devices
• Install System Memory
• Install and Configure Mass Storage Devices
• Install and Configure Removable Storage
• Configure RAID * important *
• Troubleshoot Storage Devices
Copyright (c) 2018 CompTIA Properties, LLC. All Rights Reserved. | CompTIA.org 2
System Memory (Slide 1 of 2)
System memory: The main storage area for programs and
data when the computer is running.
RAM: (random access memory) The principal storage space for
computer data and program instructions. processor order RAM to bring path
Volatile: A type of memory where data cannot be stored
without power being supplied.
Virtual memory: An area on the hard disk allocated to contain
pages of memory.
RAM : first n first out
System Memory (Slide 2 of 2)
RAM Types
DRAM: A type of volatile memory that stores each bit of data as
a charge within a single transistor.
SDRAM: A variant on the DRAM chip designed to run at the
speed of the system clock, thus accelerating the periodic refresh
cycle times.
• DRAM: dynamic ram
• Stores each data bit as an electrical charge within a single bit cell.
• Bit cell composed of a capacitor and a transistor.
• Charge dissipates, causing memory to lose information.
• Dynamic memory has to be refreshed to keep the information.
• SDRAM: synchronous dynamic ram
• Older technology.
• Synchronized to the system clock.
DDR SDRAM
DDR SDRAM: Standard for SDRAM where data is transferred

twice per clock cycle.
RAM Type Memory Clock Bus Clock Data Rate Transfer Rate
(MHz) (MHz) (MT/s) (Gbps)
DDR-200/PC-1600 100 100 200 1.6
DDR-266/PC-2100 133 133 266 2.1
DDR-333/PC-2700 167 167 333 2.7
DDR-400/PC-3200 200 200 400 3.2
DDR2/DDR3/DDR4 SDRAM (Slide 1 of 3)
RAM Type Memory Clock Bus Clock Data Rate Transfer Rate
(MHz) (MHz) (MT/s) (Gbps)
DDR2old ended in 2012 100 to 266 200 to 533 400 to 1066 3.2 to 8.533
DDR3 100 to 266 400 to 1066 800 to 2133 6.4 to 17.066
DDR4 200 to 400 800 to 1600 1600 to 3200 12.8 to 25.6
Examples of DDR Standards:

• DDR2 – 1066/PC28500:
• Memory works at 266 MHz, bus works at 533 MHz.
• Double data rate gives 1066 MT/s.
• Nominal transfer rate of 8.533 GBps.
• DDR3 – 1600/PC321800:
Examples of DDR Standards (continued):

• DDR4 – 1600/PC4-12800:
• Lower voltage, so less power consumption than DDR3.
• DDR4 – 2400/PC4-19200: 2014
• Faster than any DDR3.
Memory Modules (Slide 1 of 3)
Memory module: A printed circuit board that holds a group of
memory chips that act as a single unit.
DIMM: (Dual Inline Memory Module) Standard packaging for
system memory. There are different pin configurations for
different RAM types.
• Located in slots on motherboard.

• Removable and replaceable. RAM
• Defined by their design and by the number and type
of chips contained.
RAM Type Pins Voltage
DDR 184 2.5 to 2.6 V
DDR2 240 1.8 to 1.9 V
DDR3 240 1.35 to 1.5 V
DDR4 288 1.2 V
SODIMM: Memory that is half the size of DIMMs, is available in
32- or 64-bit data paths, and is commonly found in laptops and
iMac systems.
• Laptop RAM.
• DDR and DDR2 have the same number of pins, but the key position is
different.
• Typically fits into slots that pop up at a
45º angle to allow the chips to be inserted or removed.
• Pins: laptop however computer 90°
• DDR 200 pin packages.
• DDR2 200 pin packages.
Dual-Channel Memory (Slide 1 of 2)
Single-channel memory: Memory with one 64-bit bus between
the CPU and RAM.
Dual-channel memory: Memory controller with two pathways
to the CPU, enabling 128 bits of data transferred per transaction.
• Effectively two pathways through the bus to the CPU.
• 128 bits of data can be transferred per transaction.
• Installed memory modules should be identical in terms of:
• Speed
• Capacity
• Chip number
• Density
• Location
• Refer to documentation for which slots to insert memory into.
Dual-Channel Memory (Slide 2 of 2)
not close cause of heat
Parity and ECC RAM
Parity checking: An error-checking method where each byte of
data in memory is accompanied by a ninth bit used to check for
corrupted data.
Nonparity: System memory that does not perform error
checking.
ECC memory: RAM with built-in error correction security.
• Parity checking:
• Uses 8 bits for memory and 1 bit to check parity.
• Old technology rarely if ever used now.
• Most desktops now use non-parity memory.
• Systems that require a high level of reliability use ECC memory. server
• ECC memory has an extra chip and a 72-bit data bus.
• Motherboard must support the use of ECC memory modules.
• Cannot mix ECC and non-ECC modules.
Memory Installation and Upgrade
• If the motherboard supports an upgrade but the system is not configured

to use it, enable a dual-channel configuration.
• Increasing the bus speed requires purchasing a new motherboard and
memory modules (and possibly CPU).
Memory Compatibility Issues (Slide 1 of 2)
• The DIMM format must match the motherboard. has 2 bus speed
• Different capacity modules can be installed.
• Most vendors recommend installing the largest module in the lowest numbered
slot.
• Modules from different vendors can be mixed.
• This may cause problems with multi-channel configurations.
• For best performance, the modules should be the same speed as the
motherboard.
• Different speeds can be mixed.
• The system will only operate at the best speed supported by all installed.
Memory Compatibility Issues (Slide 2 of 2)
• For best performance and reliability, configure multi-channel systems with

identical memory modules for each channel.
• ECC memory cannot be mixed with non-parity memory and must be
supported by the motherboard. Read manual to know no parity or ecc
• Registered memory cannot be mixed with unbuffered modules and must
be supported by the motherboard.
Activity
Discussing System Memory Installation
Activity
Upgrading Memory
Storage Devices
Mass storage devices: Non-volatile storage devices that are

able to hold data when the system is powered off. Internal or removable
disk
• Hold data when system is powered off.
• Can be internal or removable.
• To store data, it uses one of these methods: (3 types of DISK)
• Magnetic
• Optical
• Solid state
Hard Disk Drives (Slide 1 of 2)
HDD: (hard disk drive) A device that provides persistent mass

storage for a PC.
• Primary persistent storage method.

primary storage
• On workstations, typically stores: up to 8 tera Byte
• OS files.
• Application program files.
• Drivers.
• User data.
• On servers, typically stores:
• OS files.
• Individual user files.
• Shared information sources such as databases.
Hard Disk Drives (Slide 2 of 2)
Tracks: Data written as concentric rings on a disk drive.
Cylinders: The aggregate of all tracks that reside in the same
location on every disk surface.
• HDD up to 8 TB.
• Data is stored on metal or glass platters coated with magnetic substance.
• Each platter has:
• Top and bottom read/write heads.
• Heads that float above platters.
• Form factors include 3.5” and 2.5”. (had disk size)
• Height varies: 15 mm , 9.5 mm, 7 mm, and 5 mm. gathering/grouping
sector
HDD Performance Factors (Slide 1 of 2)
Access time: Speed at which memory or a disk drive can be

addressed and utilized.
Internal transfer rate: Measure of how fast read/write
operations are performed on the disk platters.
External transfer rate: Measure of how fast data can be
transferred to the CPU across the bus.
Early-life Failure Rate: A method of calculating how quickly a
device will fail through accelerated testing. (EXTREME TEST)
HDD Performance Factors (Slide 2 of 2)
MBTF: (mean time between failures) The rating on a device or

component that predicts the expected time between failures.
Life expectancy: The length of time for which a device can be
expected to remain reliable. SMART TOOL SOFTWARE
S.M.A.R.T.: Technology designed to alert the user to possible
hard disk failures before the disk becomes unusable.
AVERAGE 5 YEARS FOR HDD FAILIER
Storage Adapters and Cables
HBA: (host bus adapter) A component that allows storage
devices to exchange data with a computer system by using a
particular interface.
CONNECT WITH CABLE
Drive controller: The circuitry in the disk unit that allows it to
put data on the bus, which the HBA shuttles to the CPU or RAM.
• Connection point for internal mass storage devices.
• Interface between drive, HBA, rest of the system is a type of bus.
• Old technology included PATA and SCSI.
• Most systems now use SATA.
SATA (Slide 1 of 3)
SATA: A widely used hard disk interface using a 7-pin data

connector and a 15-pin power connector. up to 1m / hot swap
• Transfers data in serial format.

• Cables can be up to 1 m and are thin and flexible.
• Cables terminate with 7-pin connectors.
• Each host adapter port supports a single device.
• Drives are hot swappable.
• SATA speeds:
• Original SATA: up to 1.5 Gbps.
• SATA 2: up to 3 Gbps.
• SATA 3: up to 6 Gbps.
SATA (Slide 2 of 3)
SATA (Slide 3 of 3)
Solid State Drives
SSD: (solid state drive) A personal computer storage device that

stores data in non-volatile special memory instead of on disks or
tape. non heat, fast loading, wont lose power
• Advantages:
• No moving parts.
• Quieter and more power efficient than HDD.
• Less prone to failure due to shock.
• Better read times:
• Seek time is faster.
• File fragmentation is eliminated.
• Less likely to lose data due to power failures.
• Disadvantage:
• High cost.
SSD Interfaces and Form Factors (Slide 1 of 2)
old works SATA
AHCI: (Advanced Host Controller Interface) A logical interface
used by SATA drives to communicate with the bus.
NVMHCI: (Non-Volatile Memory Host Controller Interface
Specification) A logical interface used by PCIe-based SSD drives
to communicate with the bus. PCI , laptops
NVMe: (NVM Express) An interface for connecting flash memory
devices, such as SSDs, directly to a PCI Express bus.
Lanes: In PCIe, two wire pairs (four wires in total) using low
voltage differential signaling, with one pair used to transmit and
the other pair to receive (bi-directional). 4 pair pin
SSD Interfaces and Form Factors (Slide 2 of 2)
• Often used for the OS and applications.
• HDD used for user data files.
• Some SDDs are connected using SATA interface.
• 6 Gbps capacity can be a bottleneck over AHCI logical interface.
• SDDs often communicate directly to the PCIe bus using NVMe. dual LAN faster
• PCIe-based SSD:
• Can be implemented as regular PCIe adapter card or AiC.
• Uses the M.2 adapter interface.
• M.2 adapters:
• Are not hot-swappable or hot-pluggable. need to switch off power to swap
• Are smaller than a PCIe adapter.
• Supply the power over the bus.
• Can use up to 4 PCIe lanes.
SSD Performance Factors (Slide 1 of 2)
• SSD usually outperforms HDD.

• Serving large files, HDD usually performs better.
• Compare different types of data transfer:
• Read performance.
• Write performance.
• Sequential access.
• Random access. different location SSD faster
• Transferring lots of small files.
• Data throughput.
• Latency.
• IOPS. write data on disk input, load output
input output per seconds
SSD Performance Factors (Slide 2 of 2)
Wear leveling: Routines used by flash drives to prevent any

single storage location from being overused and to optimize
the life of the device.
• Flash chips are susceptible to degradation.
• Use wear leveling:
• Prevents any single location from being overused.less life time
• Wear leveling helps optimize life of the drive.
Hybrid Drives
Hybrid drive: A drive that contains an SSD portion, which
functions as a large cache, containing frequently accessed data;
and a magnetic disk portion, which is spun up only when non-
cached data is accessed. part of mechanical and chip base, little commands
has direct control Host-hinted mode: A SATA standard (version 3.2) that defines a
set of commands to allow the host computer to specify how the
cache should be used.
• SATA 3.2 standard allows host to specify how to use the cache.
• Drive firmware can run self-optimizing routines.
• User does not have direct control over which files are stored in cache.
Dual-Drive Configurations
• Install separate SSD and HDD devices.

• System chipset and storage drivers make caching decisions.
• Often uses Intel SRT. smart response technology
• User does not have control over use of the SSD cache.
Legacy Storage Technologies (Slide 1 of 8)
old
PATA: Older drive technology that supported two devices per
channel: master and slave. Also referred to as IDE or EIDE.
Channels: Paths between PATA drives and motherboard, called
IDE1 and IDE2 or primary (PRI IDE) and secondary (SEC IDE).
• Uses parallel data transfers, with 6 bits transferred per clock tick.
• Motherboards supporting PATA include 1 or 2 host adapters (“channels”).
• IDE1 or PRI IDE and IDE2 or SEC IDE
• Each PATA channel supports 2 devices.
• 0 and 1.
• Master and slave.
• PATA drives use 40-pin port and 80-wire shielded cables.

• Required for UDMA4 or better transfer modes.
• PATA cable can be up to 18” long and has 3 connectors.
• One for motherboard.
• One for each device (master and slave).
• Most cables are Cable Select.
• Drives are identified as master or slave based on position of the connector.
• Pin 1 on cable must be oriented to pin 1 on the connector.
• Identified on cable with a red stripe.
• Keyed to prevent improper insertion.
Interface Standard DMA Mode Max Transfer Special Features

Rate (MBps)
ATA/ATAPI-4 UDMA 2 (Ultra ATA/33) obsulet 33 Ultra DMA, 80-conductor cable,
and cyclic redundancy checking
ATA/ATAPI-5 UDMA 4 (Ultra ATA/66) 66
ATA/ATAPI-6 UDMA 5 (Ultra ATA/100) 100 48-bit LBA expansion, and disk
noise reduction
ATA/ATAPI-7 UDMA 6 (Ultra ATA/133) 133 Multimedia streaming
SCSI: (Small Computer Systems Interface) An older personal
computer connection standard that provides high-performance
data transfer between the SCSI device and the other
components of the computer. servers still works with it
• One SCSI HBA can control multiple devices.

• Attach with internal ribbon or external SCSI cables.
• SCSI command language allows HBA to identify:
• Which devices are connected.
• How they are accessed.
• Typically used to connect storage devices.
• Older devices such as scanners could also be connected through SCSI.
• SCSI port is denoted with the symbol
Interface Standard Bandwidth Bus Width (bits) Max. Cable
Protocol (MBps) Length
(meters)
SCSI-1 7 + scsi =8 SCSI-1 5 8 • SE: 6 ingle enable
• LVD: NA low voltage
• HVD: 25high voltage
Fast SCSI SCSI-2 10 8 • SE: 3
• LVD: NA
• HVD: 25
Fast-Wide SCSI SCSI-2 20 16 • SE: 3
• LVD: NA
• HVD: 25
Ultra SCSI SCSI-3 20 8 • SE: 1.5
• LVD: NA
• HVD: 25
Ultra Wide SCSI SCSI-3 40 16 bus channel • SE: NA
• LVD: NA
Copyright (c) 2018 CompTIA Properties, LLC. All• RightsHVD:
Reserved. 25
| CompTIA.org 42
Interface Standard Bandwidth Bus Width (bits) Max. Cable

Protocol (MBps) Length
(meters)
Ultra2 SCSI SCSI-3 40 8 • SE: NA
• LVD: 12
• HVD: 25
Ultra2 Wide SCSI SCSI-3 80 16 • SE: NA
• LVD: 12
• HVD: 25
Ultra3 SCSI SCSI-3 160 16 • SE: 1.5
(Ultra160 SCSI) • LVD: NA
• HVD: 25
Ultra 320 SCSI SCSI-3 320 16 • SE: NA
• LVD: 12
• HVD: NA
Term Description
SCSI Host adapter • Must be installed and recognized for devices to be detected.
• May require third-party driver to be installed.
Bus width • Originally supported 8 devices.
• Wide SCSI supports up to 16 devices.
• HBA is counted as a device.
Signaling • Most buses and devices use LVD.
• SE devices can be added to an LVD bus.
• HVD is incompatible with LVD and SE devices.
Termination • Bus must be terminated at both ends.
• Termination can be enabled on the device by a switch or by connecting a
terminator pack to the device or HBA.
ID • Each device is allocated a unique ID from 0 to 7 (to 15 for Wide SCSI).
• Can be automatically allocated or set using jumpers or click-wheel on the
device.
• Priority goes 7 to 0, then 15 to 8.
Guidelines for Installing Mass Storage Devices
• Does the computer have existing internal storage devices?

• Does the device need additional drivers installed?
• Does the computer have an available power supply cable to supply power
to the device?
• Does the computer have an available drive bay for the storage device?
• Do you have the necessary data cables to connect the storage device to the
controller?
• Does the placement of the device interrupt the air flow of the case?
Activity
Discussing Mass Storage Device Installation and Configuration
Activity
Installing Storage Devices
Removable Storage
Removable storage: A storage device that can be removed

from the computer, or the removable media that can be
inserted in a drive, to store portable data.
• Refers to either:
• Storage devices that can be removed.
• Storage media that can be removed.
• Can be attached or inserted in different computers to move
or copy files.
• Can be used to create a backup.
Optical Media (Slide 1 of 9)
CD: (compact disc) An optical storage technology that can hold

700 MB of data or 80 minutes of audio data.
DVD: (digital versatile disc) An optical storage technology that
can hold 4.7 GB per layer.
• CD has 700 MB capacity.
• Capable of delivering most software applications.
• DVD has about 17 GB capacity.
• Often used for:
• Software installs.
• Games.
• Multimedia.
Pits: In optical storage media, recessed areas on the disk.

Lands: In optical storage media, raised areas on the disk.
CD-R: Compact disks containing a layer with photosensitive dye
in which a laser transforms the dye to mimic the pits and lands
of a premastered CD.
Burning: In optical disks, the process of using a special laser
used to transform the dye to mimic the pits and lands of a
premastered CD.
CD-RW: Compact disks containing a heat sensitive compound
whose properties can be changed between crystalline and
amorphous by a special laser.
• CDs (continued):
• Composed of aluminum foil encased in protective plastic.
• Standard CD is 120 mm diameter. 12cm
• 1.2 mm thick.
• Foil layer contains pits and lands arranged in a spiral.
• Changes between pits and lands used to encode data bits.
• CD-R contains photosensitive dye.
• Laser transforms the dye to mimic pits and lands of premastered CDs.
• A type of WORM media.
• After an area has been written to, it cannot be overwritten.
• If space is available, a new session can be started on the disc.
• CD-RW
• Uses a heat sensitive compound to change properties between crystalline and
amorphous by a laser.
• CDs and DVDs have a tendency to degrade and become unusable.
• DVDs:
• Higher density than CDs.
• Thinner than CDs.
• Can be dual-layer (DL) and/or double-sided (DS).
• Double-sided discs have to be turned over to access the other side.
• Higher transfer rate than CDs.
• Multiples of 1.32 MBps.
• Fastest models are 24x read and write speeds.
• DVD-R/DVD-RW versus DVD+R/DVD+RW versus DVD±R discs.
• Most drives can read all formats.
• Most drives write in either + or – format.
• DVD±R supports dual layer and double-sided media.
• DVD±RW supports double-sided media only.
• DVD-RAM is not widely supported, but is optimized for multiple write operations.
• Well suited to data storage.
BD: (Blu-ray disc) Latest generation of optical drive technology,
with disc capacity of 25 GB per layer. Transfer rates are
measured in multiples of 36 MBps.
• Used for High Definition (HD) video recording and playback.

• HD requires more bandwidth and storage space.
• 1920 x 1080 compared to 720x480 (NTSC) or 720x576 (PAL).
• Better quality digital surround sound audio.
• Shorter wavelength laser than DVD uses, so has higher density.
• DVD uses 650 mm red laser.
• Blu-ray uses 405 mm blue laser.
• Base speed is 4.5 MBps with maximum theoretical rate of 72 MBps (16x).
• 2x is the minimum required for movie playback.
• Blue-ray Discs (continued):
• Capacity:
• Standard BD: 25 GB per layer.
• Mini-discs (8cm): 7.8 GB per layer.
• Dual-layer discs: 50 GB.
• BD-XL specification requires compatible drives for reading and writing.
• Triple-layer discs: 100 GB.
• Quad-layer discs: 128 GB (not currently recordable).
CD Standard CD Type
Red book Audio CDs (16-bit sampled at 44.1 Hz).
Yellow book Data CDs with error correction (Mode 1) or without (Mode 2). Mode 2 makes more
space available but is only suitable for use where small errors can be tolerated.
Orange book Defines the unused CD-MO and the more popular CD-R and CD-RW.
DVD Capacity Description

Standard (GB)
DVD-5 4.7 Single layer, single-sided.
DVD-9 8.5 Dual layer, single-sided.
DVD-10 9.4 Single layer, double-sided.
DVD-18 17.1 Dual layer, double-sided.
DVD-Video Up to 17.1 • Commercially produced DVDs using mpeg encoding and chapters for
navigation.
• Can be single or dual layer and single or double-sided.
DVD-Audio 8.5 • Format for high quality audio.
• Superior sampling rates and 5.1 surround sound, for instance.
• Consumer DVDs feature DRM and region coding.
• DVD region codes include:
• Region 0: No coding (playback is not restricted).
• Region 1: Canada and the US.
• Region 2: Europe, the Middle East, Japan, South Africa, and Egypt.
• Region 3: SE Asia.
• Region 4: South America, Australia, and New Zealand. open in
computer not
• Region 5: Russia, parts of Africa, and parts of Asia. player
• Region 6: China.
• Blu-ray Disc region codes include:
• Region A: America, Japan, and SE Asia.
• Region B: EMEA, Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.
• Region C: Russia and Central Asia (including China).
Optical Drives (Slide 1 of 2)
• CD drives, DVD drives, and Blu-ray drives.
• Larger than HDDs.
• 5.25 inch drive bay and SATA connectors
for internal installation.
• USB, eSATA, or Thunderbolt connection
and external power for external
installations.
• Rated by data transfer speed.
• 150 KBps originally to over 7 MBps.
• Most have read and write capabilities.
• Record/Rewrite/Read speed.
• BURN-proof technology.
Optical Drives (Slide 2 of 2)
CD drive: An optical drive consisting of a spindle motor to spin
the disc, a laser and lens to read the disc, and a tracking system
to move the laser and lens assembly.
DVD drive: An optical drive similar to a CD drive, but with a
different encoding method and a shorter wavelength laser.
Typically can read and burn CD and DVD media.
Blu-ray drive: An optical drive for reading, and if so equipped,
writing to Blu-ray disc media. Most drives can also
read CD and DVD discs.
Flash Memory Devices (Slide 1 of 3)
Solid state storage: Any type of persistent digital storage
technology that does not use mechanical parts.
Flash memory: Similar to a ROM chip in that it retains
information even when power is removed, but it adds flexibility
in that it can be reprogrammed with new contents quickly.
Memory card: Flash drives typically used for digital cameras
and smartphones; typically small and flat.
• Non-volatile EEPROM or NAND flash.

• Small and light compared to other types of storage.
• Storage capacity typically ranges from 512 MB to 256 GB.
• Larger drives are available, but are very expensive.
• Packaging of flash memory varies:
• USB thumb or pen drive.
• Memory cards.
Type of Memory Description
Card
Secure Digital (SD) Maximum capacity
• Original SD cards up to 2 GB.
• SDHC is up to 32 GB.
• SDXC is up to 2 TB.
Speed
• Original specification is up to 25 MBps.
• UHS allows up to 108 MBps.
• UHS-II is rated at up to 312 MBps.
Mini-SD Smaller version of SD cards, with the same capacity and speed designations.
Micro-SD Smallest version of SD cards, using the same capacity and speed designations.
Compact Flash (CF) • Supports up to 512 GB, but no cards were created larger than 256 GB.
• Speed is multiples of 150 Kbps (the same rating as CDs).
• Fastest devices work at 1066x read speeds (160 MBps).
xD Format for Olympus cameras that has been discontinued.
Memory Card Readers (Slide 1 of 2)
Memory card readers: A device containing one or more slots to

accommodate reading (and writing) memory cards.
• Can be an internal component with slots on the face, accessed externally.

• Supports most common memory card formats.
• Usually designed to fit in 3.5” or 5.25” drive bay.
• Connects to a USB hub.
• Motherboards typically have at least one spare 9-pin USB header.
• Might connect to an expansion card.
• Might use a USB converter cable from the internal reader to an external USB port.
• Also available as an external device that connects to an external USB port.
Memory Card Readers (Slide 2 of 2)
External Storage Drives
Drive enclosure: An external case that holds one or more disks
and typically connects to the computer through USB or
Thunderbolt ports.
• Enclosure for external drives usually has USB or Thunderbolt ports.

• eSATA can also be used to attach external drives to an eSATA external port.
• Power is not supplied over the cable.
• Some enclosures support Ethernet connections.
• Referred to as Network Attached Storage (NAS).
• Enclosure might hold multiple disks configured as RAID.
Activity
Discussing Removable Storage Device Installation and Configuration
RAID
RAID: (redundant array of independent disks) A set of vendor-

independent specifications for fault-tolerant configurations on
multiple-disk systems.
• Can act as backups for each other to increase reliability.

• Can act together to create one very large drive.
RAID Levels (Slide 1 of 9)
Disk striping: A disk array access pattern where data is written

in stripes to two or more disks sequentially, improving
performance. Also known as RAID 0.
• RAID 0 (Striping without Parity):

• Logical volume size is combined total of smallest capacity physical disk.
• Ideally all disks are identical capacity, type, and performance.
• Adds no storage overhead.
• A means of creating a large logical volume from multiple low capacity disks.
• Provides no redundancy.
• If any physical disk fails, the entire array fails.
RAID 0 (striping)
Disk mirroring: A type of RAID (RAID 1) that uses two hard

disks, providing the simplest way of protecting a single disk
against failure.
• RAID 1 (Mirroring): even numbers
• Requires two hard disks, one being a duplicate of the other.
• Each write operation is duplicated on the second disk, creating a small
performance overhead.
• Read operations can use either disk, which boosts performance slightly.
• If one disk fails, the other takes over.
• When a failed disk is replaced, performance suffers during the resync operation.
• More expensive per gigabyte than other RAID levels (only 50% of space is
available for storage).
• Total volume size cannot exceed available disk capacity.
RAID 1 (mirroring)
redundancy level 1
• RAID 5 (Striping with Distributed Parity):
• Writes error checking data across all disks in the array.
• Data and parity are managed so they are always on different disks.
• If a single disk fails, information spread on the other disks allows data to be
completely reconstructed.
• Performance considerations:
• Offers the best read operation performance.
• Read performance is degraded if a drive fails and data needs to be reconstructed.
• Write operations suffer reduced performance due to the parity calculation.
• Requires at least 3 drives.
• Allows flexibility for overall array capacity. parity
• Maximum number of drives determined by controller or OS. p
• Adding more disks increases chance of failure. p | | | p| | |
• RAID 5 (continued):
• Level of fault tolerance and available disk space is inverse.
• Adding disks to the set, fault tolerance decreases.
• Usable disk space increases.
• Parity requirements vary with the number of disks.
• RAID 5 with 3 disks requires 1/3 of each disk for parity, so using three 80-GB disks
provides 160 GB usable disk space.
• RAID 5 with 4 disks requires ¼ of each disk for parity.
RAID 5 (striping with parity)
redundancy less
mirror strip
• RAID 1+0 (RAID 10):
• Combination of RAID 1 and RAID 0 provides high fault tolerance.
• Considered a nested array.
• Requires at least 4 disks.
• More disks can be used, but there must be an even number of disks.
• Suffers the same 50% disk overhead as mirroring.
RAID 10 strip
mirror
RAID Configuration Options (Slide 1 of 4)
Hardware RAID solution: A method of creating volumes from
an array of physical disks by using a plug-in controller card or
the motherboard, independently of the installed operating
system. controller card
• Entry-level controllers typically support only RAID 0 or RAID 1.
• Typically use SATA drives.
• Mid-level controllers might add support for RAID 5 or RAID 10.
• Hot swap features are typically only available with high-end hardware.
• Requires compatible controllers and disk units.
• New disks are transparently synchronized with other disks in the set.
• Typically uses SCSI (SAS). fastest
• More expensive than a software RAID solution.
• Hardware RAID (continued):
• Usually configured through firmware configuration utility.
• Sometimes RAID controller configuration tools are available within the OS.
Configuring a volume using RAID controller firmware

• Software RAID:
• Windows provides options to set up software RAID.
• Uses standard disks and controllers.
• Windows Server and Windows Professional/Enterprise editions support RAID 1
and RAID 5.
• Can use internal disks on varying interfaces.
• Typically cannot use external disks connected through USB or Thunderbolt.
• Windows 10 Storage Spaces feature provides RAID-like functionality for external disks.
• Linux uses Logical Volume Manager to implement various RAID levels.
• Software RAID is typically less expensive than hardware RAID controller cards.
Hot swappable drive: A device that can be added or removed

without having to restart the operating system.
• Hot swappable drives:

• Usually a server-level or high-end workstation feature.
• Drives mate into combined data/power port.
• Drives can be added from the front of the case without opening the chassis.
• Drives are secured and released with a latch.
Hot swap drive

enclosure
Activity
Discussing RAID Configuration
Disk Failures
• A hard drive that is failing might display the following symptoms:

• Read/write failure hard disk storage
• Blue Screen of Death (BSoD) physical Hdd problem
• Bad sectors
• Constant LED activity
• Noise hdd noises
Disk Integrity Testing (Slide 1 of 2)
• Disk Integrity Tools
• chkdsk
• S.M.A.R.T.
wmi c / node: l ocal hos t di s k dr i v e get s t at us
• Run advanced diagnostic tests
• Obtain from hard drive vendor or PC
manufacturer
Disk Integrity Testing (Slide 2 of 2)
Boot Failures (Slide 1 of 2)
• If the hard drive is not detected at boot (or if a second hard drive is not
shown under Windows):
• Verify that the storage device is powering up.
• If inactive, check that the drive has a power connector attached.
• If drive is powered up:
• Check that the boot sequence is set correctly in the PC firmware system setup program.
• Check that there are no removable disks in floppy or optical drives.
• Check the data cables.
• Check that it has not been disabled by a jumper or via system setup.
Boot Failures (Slide 2 of 2)
• For correctly configured drives:

• If a boot hard drive is detected by the POST but not by Windows, there is probably
a problem with the file system.
• Boot into the recovery environment using the Windows setup disc and enter C: at the
command prompt.
If this produces the error message Invalid media type, try running boot r ec
You can also try to reformat the disk (at the expense of any data, of course).
• If this produces the error message Invalid drive specification, check the drive's partition
structure with di s k par t .
Boot Block Repair (Slide 1 of 2)
MBR: (master boot record) is on first Sector of first partition on a
hard disk storing information about partitions configured on the
disk.
GPT: (globally unique ID partition table) Modern disk partitioning
system allowing large numbers of partitions and very large
partition sizes.
• Drive not detected at bootup.
• Second drive not recognized or shown in Windows File Explorer.
• Malware:
• Damage to the boot information on the drive.
• Two methods of formatting boot information:
• MBR
• GPT
Boot Block Repair (Slide 2 of 2)
• Damage to boot information results in boot errors, including:

• OS not found.
• Invalid drive specification boot using anti-virus software to detect virus that
caused the problem.
• Try booting using the repair options on the Windows product disk.
1. Boot from the product disk and select Repair.
2. Try using the Startup Repair option.
3. If necessary, select the Command Prompt option.
1. Enter b o ot r ec / f i x mbr to attempt repair of the MBR.
2. Enter b o ot r ec / f i x boot to attempt repair of the boot sector.
3. Enter b o ot r ec / r ebui l dbc d to add missing Windows installations to the Boot
Configuration Database (BCD).
4. Reboot the PC.
File Recovery Options (Slide 1 of 2)
• Remove the hard disk from the computer and insert into an external
enclosure.
• Connect external enclosure to a PC via a USB port.
• Mount the externally connected drive through Disk Management or
analyze through file recovery software.
• Try using chkdsk to restore file fragments from bad sectors.
• Files saved as file####.chk files on the root of the volume.
• file####.chk files are rarely directly usable.
• Third-party software might be more successful in accessing the data.
File Recovery Options (Slide 2 of 2)
Using file recovery software to scan a disk

Disk Performance Issues
Disk defragmentation: A software routine that compacts files

back into contiguous areas of the disk.
• Slow disk performance can be a bottleneck.

• Often improved by adding more RAM.
• Ensure file fragmentation is minimized.
• Low disk capacity can cause slow performance.
• Windows warns users in notification area when space is under 200 MB.
• Use Disk Cleanup program to free up space.
• Manually move or delete files.
• Uninstall unnecessary applications.
Guidelines for Troubleshooting Optical Drives (Slide 1
of 2)
• Troubleshooting read problems in optical drives:
• Most problems related to dirt are caused by dirt on the disc itself. Special
cleaning kits are available for cleaning optical drives.
• If the CD drive is not able to read any CDs, it is likely a hardware problem.
• DVD-Video requires MPEG decoding hardware or software (codecs) to be
installed for playback (included in Windows 7, except Starter and Home Basic).
• A DVD-ROM cannot be read from a CD-ROM drive.
• There is currently no native support for Blu-ray in any version of Windows.
Guidelines for Troubleshooting Optical Drives (Slide 2
of 2)
• Troubleshooting write errors in optical drives:
• Where Windows does not support a particular recordable or rewritable format
directly, third-party software is required.
• Check that you are using the write speed recommended for the brand of discs
you have purchased.
• Most problems are connected to buffer underruns. To prevent these:
• Burn discs at a lower write speed.
• Copy source files to the local hard disk (rather than removable or network drives).
• Avoid using other applications when burning a disc.
Common RAID Configuration Issues
• RAID not found

• RAID stops working
Guidelines for Troubleshooting RAID Issues (Slide 1 of
2)
• If Windows doesn’t detect RAID during setup or at boot:
• Verify RAID controller drivers are installed.
• Use the RAID configuration utility to verify the status.
• If the configuration utility cannot be accessed, the controller may have failed.
Guidelines for Troubleshooting RAID Issues (Slide 2 of
2)
• If RAID stops working:
• Volume is listed as degraded, but the data on the volume is still accessible.
• Examine event logs in the OS system log.
• Replace failed disks as soon as possible.
• If the volume is unavailable, too many disks may have failed or the controller may
have failed.
RAID errors using the configuration utility - this volume is missing one of its disks
Activity
Discussing Storage Device Troubleshooting
Activity
Troubleshooting Storage Devices
Reflective Questions
1. Which types of storage devices have you worked with? Have you installed
additional hard drives or replaced hard drives?
2. What sorts of issues have you experienced with storage devices? How will
the troubleshooting tools and guidelines presented in this lesson help with
future issues?

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Installing, Configuring, and

Troubleshooting Storage Devices

DDR SDRAM: Standard for SDRAM where data is transferred

DDR-266/PC-2100 133 133 266 2.1

DDR-333/PC-2700 167 167 333 2.7

DDR-400/PC-3200 200 200 400 3.2

DDR3 100 to 266 400 to 1066 800 to 2133 6.4 to 17.066

DDR4 200 to 400 800 to 1600 1600 to 3200 12.8 to 25.6

Examples of DDR Standards:

Examples of DDR Standards (continued):

• Located in slots on motherboard.

DDR 184 2.5 to 2.6 V

DDR2 240 1.8 to 1.9 V

DDR3 240 1.35 to 1.5 V

DDR4 288 1.2 V

not close cause of heat

• If the motherboard supports an upgrade but the system is not configured

• For best performance and reliability, configure multi-channel systems with

Discussing System Memory Installation

Mass storage devices: Non-volatile storage devices that are

HDD: (hard disk drive) A device that provides persistent mass

• Primary persistent storage method.

Access time: Speed at which memory or a disk drive can be

MBTF: (mean time between failures) The rating on a device or

SATA: A widely used hard disk interface using a 7-pin data

• Transfers data in serial format.

SSD: (solid state drive) A personal computer storage device that

• SSD usually outperforms HDD.

Wear leveling: Routines used by flash drives to prevent any

• Install separate SSD and HDD devices.

• PATA drives use 40-pin port and 80-wire shielded cables.

Interface Standard DMA Mode Max Transfer Special Features

• One SCSI HBA can control multiple devices.

Interface Standard Bandwidth Bus Width (bits) Max. Cable

• Does the computer have existing internal storage devices?

Discussing Mass Storage Device Installation and Configuration

Installing Storage Devices

Removable storage: A storage device that can be removed

CD: (compact disc) An optical storage technology that can hold

Pits: In optical storage media, recessed areas on the disk.

• Used for High Definition (HD) video recording and playback.

Red book Audio CDs (16-bit sampled at 44.1 Hz).

DVD Capacity Description

DVD-9 8.5 Dual layer, single-sided.

DVD-10 9.4 Single layer, double-sided.

DVD-18 17.1 Dual layer, double-sided.

• Non-volatile EEPROM or NAND flash.

Memory card readers: A device containing one or more slots to

• Can be an internal component with slots on the face, accessed externally.

• Enclosure for external drives usually has USB or Thunderbolt ports.

Discussing Removable Storage Device Installation and Configuration

RAID: (redundant array of independent disks) A set of vendor-

• Can act as backups for each other to increase reliability.

Disk striping: A disk array access pattern where data is written

• RAID 0 (Striping without Parity):

Disk mirroring: A type of RAID (RAID 1) that uses two hard

RAID 5 (striping with parity)

Configuring a volume using RAID controller firmware