BIO CELL THEORY-PLANT TISSUE

francesco Redi's experiment

3 jars of meat. designed as followed: covered w/cheesecloth, sealed, and left open. Flies came, and then
maggots appeared on the meat in the open jar and on top of the cheesecloth in the covered jars.

Redi's Conclusion
Maggots come from the flies rather than the meat. Disproving spontaneous generation.
Redi hypothesis
If flies do not land on a piece of meat, maggots will not appear
Redi Independent Variable
Covers on Jars
Redi Dependent Variable
Amount of maggots
Redi Control
Open jar
Redi Constants
Type of jars, size of meat, location of jars, amount of time, temperature
Why was Pasteur's experiment better than Redi's
Swan neck flask kept broth open to the air but microorganisms could not get in (more effectively
disproved spontaneous generation as broth was still exposed to "natural forces")
Louis Pasteur Experiment
Boiled broth in two specially designed swan neck flasks. Each lask is free of organisms until neck is
broken on one flask, causeing the straight necked flask to become contaminated

Pasteur Hypothesis
If broth is boiled and then left in a swan neck flask, then it will not be contaminated by bacteria.
Pasteur Independent Variable
Swan neck vs. Straight neck of flask
Pasteur Dependent Variable
Bacteria Growth
Pasteur Constants
Type of broth, Amount of broth, Amount of pasteurization, air pressure
Pasteur Control
broken flask
John Needham
Boiled broth and sealed flasks trying to disprove Redi, found microorganisms in flasks
Lazzaro Spallanzani
Sealed and unsealed flasks at higher boiling temperatures; trying to disprove Needham
Louis Pasteur

Needham vs. Spallanzani

Francesco Redi

Robert Hooke
He gave us the word "cell" for use with living things. He discovered cells looking at cork.

Anton von Leeuwenhoek

He saw the first living microorganisms.

Matthias Schleiden
He studied plants. He looked at lots of plants under the microscope; their leaves, flowers, roots and
stems. He decided that "All plants are made of cells".

Theodor Schwann
He studied animals. He looked at animal tissues under the microscope and saw cells. He came to the
conclusion, "All animals are made of cells".
Rudolph Virchow
He was a doctor. He studied human illness and looked at diseased body tissue. He observed living cells
dividing into two parts. He came to the conclusion that living cells reproduced and made new living cells.

Microscope
A tool used by biologists to study microscopic (TINY) details of living things.

All living things are made of cells.

The first part of The Cell Theory based on the work of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
Cells only come from living cells.
The third statement of The Cell Theory. This is based on Rudolf Virchow's observation of living cells
reproducing.

Cells
What are the tiny boxes Robert Hooke saw in this drawing?

cell theory
*All living things are composed of cells
*Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things
*New cells are produced from existing cells
cell
The basic unit of life
Eyepiece
fixed lens you look through on a microscope
Cell functions
obtaining energy, bringing in nutrients, getting rid of wastes
Cell structure
what it is made of or how parts are put together
Electron Microscope
type of microscope that are 5,000 times more powerful
magnification
to visually enlarge a specimen
resolution
shows greater detail
What do you call the small structures found inside of cells?
organelles
What is another name for the cell membrane?
plasma membrane
What structure surrounds the cell and divides the chemical reactions that happen inside from the
outside environment?
cell membrane
What organelle controls what enters and exits the cell?
Cell membrane
What passages in the cell membrane let large molecules in and out of the cell?
protein channels
What is the name of the fluid found inside the cell? All of the cell organelles float in this substance?
Cytoplasm
What is the control center of the cell?
Nucleus
What structure surrounds the nucleus?
nuclear envelope
What is another name for the nuclear envelope?
Nuclear membrane
What is found inside the nucleus?
DNA and nucleolus
What is the function of the DNA?
The DNA contains the instructions for building proteins
What is the function of the nucleolus?
manufacture ribosomes
What is the function of a ribosome?
assemble proteins
What is chromatin?
a long strand of DNA that is unwound
What is a chromosome?
a chromatin strand that is wound into a coil
What are the 2 places where ribosomes are located?
1) attached to the endoplasmic reticulum and 2) floating free in the cytoplasm
What is the function of ribosomes that are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum?
assemble proteins that will be exported from the cell
What is the function of ribosomes that are free floating in the cytoplasm?
assemble proteins that will be used inside the cell
What is the function of a Messenger RNA (mRNA)?
it is a copy of the DNA that the ribosomes use as a blueprint to assemble proteins
What is the function of a Transfer RNA?
they bind to amino acids and transport them to the ribosome who links them together to make a
protein strand.
What determines the sequence of amino acids used to build a protein strand?
The sequence if the strand is determined by the sequence of the mRNA which is a copy of the DNA.
What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
a series of canals that connects the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
What are the 2 kinds of endoplasmic reticulum?
1) rough ER and 2) smooth ER.
What happens in the ER?
Proteins and lipids made at the ER are packaged into tiny spheres covered with membrane- these are
called transport vesicles.
What are the transport vesicles used to do?
The transport vesicles are used to move the materials to the Golgi Body from the ER.
What does the Rough ER do that is unique?
Ribosomes on the rough ER make proteins for export
What does the Smooth ER do that is unique?
This section of the ER is used to build lipids (fat molecules.)
What is the function of a Golgi Apparatus?
Inside the Golgi apparatus, each molecule is tagged with a protein marker that tells what the protein is
so that it can be recognized by other cells and organelles. This is called processing the molecules.
What does the Golgi Apparatus do with the processed molecules?
After processing, the Golgi repackages them into vesicles for transport out of the cell or to other
organelles.
What is the function of the Mitochondria?
This is where cellular respiration is done.
What are the 3 steps in cell respiration?
In this process, the cell is supplied with energy by 1) breaking down food molecules 2) extracting their
energy 3) transferring it to an energy storing molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
What kind of cells contain mitochondria?
plant cells and animal cells.
What is the function of a Chloroplast?
these take energy from sunlight and use nutrients from their environment to make sugars
Why are chloroplasts green?
b/c of the green chlorophyll pigments that capture the sunlight
What is the role of a Centriole?
this organelle plays a role in dividing the DNA into 2 halves so the cell can divide into two equal daughter
cells.
What is the function of a Cytoskeleton?
this reinforces the cell shape and controls cell movements.
What is the function of a Lysosome?
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break apart molecules that may be harmful to the cell.
What is the function of a Vacuole?
these large storage units contain water, food, waste or toxins that need to stored for long periods of
time in large quantities.
What is the function of a cell wall?
provide strength and support to a plant
Where are lysosomes made?
They are made in the golgi apparatus, while the enzymes contained within them are made in the
endoplasmic reticulum and are then sent to the golgi apparatus.
What are lysosomes?
Lysosomes are single membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes, which are found in
eukaryotic cells.
How big are lysosomes?
Range between 0.1 and 1.2 micrometres. Usually 0.5 micrometres in diameter.
What is the pH of lysosomes?
Lysosomes are acidic and have a pH of 4.8.
What is the function of lysosomes?
Their main function is to fuse with other vesicles in the cell that contain something that needs to be
digested, e.g. a bacterium which has been brought into the cell by endocytosis. They also help to destroy
worn out or unwanted organelles within the cell. The enzymes in the lysosome break down the large
molecules in the bacterium or organelle producing soluble substances that can disperse into the
cytoplasm and can be used as new cell building materials.
Where are centrioles found?
In animal cells but not in plant cells. If the cell is dividing the centrioles move to the opposite ends of the
cell, otherwise they are both found near the nucleus.
What is the function of centrioles?
They make and organise tiny structures called microtubules which are made of the protein tubulin.
During cell division microtubules form the mitotic spindle and are responsible for moving the
chromosomes around in the cell and pulling them to opposite ends of the cell. Plant cells also use
microtubules during cell division but they are not organised by centrioles.
What is the structure of centrioles?
A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way. They are found in pairs usually with
one centriole perpendicular to the other. Every animal cell has two pairs of centrioles, which are
duplicated during interphase of mitosis.
What is the function of the Golgi apparatus?
The apparatus collects, processes and sorts molecules (particularly proteins from the rough ER) ready to
transport Golgi vesicles either to other parts of the cell (in which case they are modified for export e.g.
by adding carbohydrates such as lysosomes) or outside the cell (in which case the processed proteins
are then transported in the vesicles that bud off from the Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane,
where they fuse with the membrane and deposit the proteins outside the cell in the process called
endocytosis.
What is the Golgi apparatus?
A stack of curved membranes enclosing a series of flattened sacs.
Where are ribosomes found?
Floating in the cytoplasm, rough endoplasmic reticulum and in the mitochondria.
What is the structure of ribosomes?
Small organelles (22nm in diameter) made of RNA and protein. Composed of large and small subunits.
Typical eukaryotic cell ribosomes consists of 2 subunits names 60S (large) and 40S (small subunit).
What is the function of ribosomes?
The site of protein synthesis as they are used in the translation stage of protein synthesis (read RNA and
create the protein which the RNA is code for).
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
A series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs called cisternae which are continuous with the outer
nuclear membrane. It does not have any ribosomes so has a smooth appearance.
What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
Lipid synthesis, packaging and transport.
What is the structure of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Ribosomes are attached to the surface of the rough Er, giving it a rough appearance. The membranes
form a system of flattened sacs like sheets, called cisternae, which store complex molecules as the space
inside the sacs forms a compartment separate from the surrounding cytoplasm. The cisternae can go on
to form the Golgi apparatus.
Where is the rough endoplasmic reticulum found?
Rough Er is found throughout the cell but the density is higher near the nucleus and the Golgi apparatus.
What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
The synthesis, packaging and transporting of proteins. Some of the proteins will be used in the cell some
will be sent out. As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed into the ER. When the
protein is complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle . That vesicle, a small membrane bubble, can
move to the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus.
Where is the nucleus found?
In eukaryotic cells. It is the bigggest organelle (6 micrometres in diameter).
What is the function of the nucleus?
It contains the DNA of the cell and co-ordinates the cell's activity including growth and repair,
metabolism, protein synthesis and cell division.
What is the nucleolus?
A membrane-less organelle within the nucleus. Made of DNA, RNA and proteins which manufacture the
ribosomes used in protein synthesis.
What is the nuclear envelope?
A double membrane which surrounds the nucelus. It has nuclear pores which regulate the movement of
molecules (macromolecules/ micromolecules) into and out of the nucleus.
What is chromatin?
A combination of DNA and proteins. IT allows the DNA to fit in the cell and strengthens the DNA for
mitosis, prevents DNA damage and controls gene expression and DNA replication. (Uncoiled strands of
DNA)
What happens during transcription?
The information on DNA is copied onto molecules of messenger RNA, which travel out of the nucleus
through the nuclear pores, into the cytoplasm.
What is the function of a mitochondrion?
It is the site of aerobic respiration which produces ATP.
What is the structure of a mitochondrion?
It has a double membrane, and the inner one is folded to form the cristae. The matrix is the space in the
cristae which contains ribosomes, circular DNA molecules and phosphate granules. It is the site of the
stages of respiration called the Krebs cycle.
Where are mitochondria found?
In eukaryotic cells, especially in those in areas where high amounts of energy is required, such as in
muscle cells.
Where are chloroplasts found?
In plant cells, especially in leaves.
What is the function of chloroplasts?
It is the site of photosynthesis, producing sugars and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. This is done
using light energy trapped by chlorophyll and then it is converted to chemical energy.
What are the grana?
They are small grains consisting of stacks of membranes. They absorb light during photosynthesis.
What are the thylakoids?
Parallel flattened sacs which run through the stroma, they are stacked to form grana.
What are the stroma?
It is fluid filling the organelle and the site of light independent reaction i.e. where carbon dioxide is
converted to sugars.
What is the structure of the cell surface membrane/ plasma membrane?
The cell surface membrane is primarily composed of a mix of proteins, cholesterol and lipids. The lipids
give it its flexibility and the proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and assist in the
transfer of molecules across the membrane.
What is the function of the cell surface membrane/ plasma membrane?
To protect the interior of the cell by allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other
substances out. It also serves as a base of attachment for the cell walls in some cells. Thus the cell
surface membrane helps to support the cells and maintain its shape.
all cells
cytoplasm, cell membrane, ribosomes, ability to reproduce, DNA, cytosol, characteristics of life are
found in (all cells) or (only some cells)
Prokaryote
cells with NO NUCLEUS or membrane bound organelles
Eukaryotes
cells with a NUCLEUS and membrane bound organelles
Prokaryote
this type of cell always has a cell wall
Prokaryote
this type of cell is always single-celled (not multicellular)
Eukaryote
this type of cell may be single-celled or multicellular
Eukaryote
sometimes has a cell wall, depending on the kingdom
Prokaryotes
bacteria and archaea are examples of
Prokaryote
has genetic material but NOT in a nucleus
Eukaryote
has genetic material contained in a nucleus
Eukaryote
plants, animals, protists, and fungi are examples of this type of cell
...
Eukaryotic Cell

...
Prokaryotic Cell
Bacteria Cell
Prokaryotic cell

Animal Cell
Eukaryotic cell

Animal Cell
Eukaryotic Cell

Plant Cell
Eukaryotic cell

nucleus
organelle containing DNA
nucleus
found in eukaryotes, but not prokaryotes - central information station
nucleus
the 'brain' or where the cell keeps its information
cytoplasm
the 'jelly' that supports organelles and allows materials (waste/nutrients) to diffuse through
cell membrane
semi-permeable
cell membrane
composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins
cell membrane
has proteins embedded that tell what's allowed in or out.
cell membrane
the 'fluid-mosaic' model says this membrane has fluid (lipids) and mosaic (proteins).
ribosome
found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
ribosome
not an organelle, but makes proteins
ribosome
can be found in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
chloroplast
found in plant cells but not most animal cells
chloroplast
contains chlorophyll, which makes it green
mitochondria
organelle found in plant cells AND animal cells, performs cellular respiration
mitochondria
organelle which breaks down glucose (C6H12O2) to generate ATP. generates CO2 as waste, which is
used by chloroplasts.
mitochondria
organelle that performs cellular respiration
chloroplast
organelle that performs photosynthesis
cell wall
maintains overall cellular structure in prokaryotes, some eukaryotes (plants, fungi, some protists)
cell wall
in eukaryotes - for fungi are made of chitin, for plants aare made of cellulose
Golgi apparatus
A structure in a cell that receives proteins and other newly formed materials from the endoplasmic
reticulum, packages them, and distributes them to other parts of the cell.
endoplasmic reticulum
comes in two types that synthesize macromolecules- rough (makes proteins due to ribosomes on
surface) and smooth (makes lipids)
smooth ER
makes lipids (an ANABOLIC, building process)
rough ER
makes proteins due to ribosomes on surface(an ANABOLIC, building process)
Tissues are
groups of similar cells that perform a specific function in an organism

Epithelial tissues structure

- Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets, in single or multiple layer.
- Closely packed and held tightly together by many cell junction.
- Has little intercellular space.
- Avascular (without blood vessels).

Epithelial tissues functions

protect external and internal body surface,
secretion, absorption

Types of epithelial tissues

▪ Simple Squamous
▪ Simple Cuboidal
▪ Simple Columnar
▪ Stratified Squamous

Structure of simple squamous epithelium

• A single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped.
• Central nuclei.

Structure of simple cuboidal epithelium

• Single layer of cube shaped cells.
• Large & spherical central nuclei.

Structure of simple columnar epithelium

• Single layer of rectangular/ tall cells.
• Nuclei (round or oval) near base of cells.
• Goblet cells & cells with microvilli & cilia.
Simple squamous location
air sacs of lungs, walls of capillaries

Simple cuboidal location

Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface

simple columnar location

linings of uterus, stomach, and intestines

Stratified squamous epithelium

• Squamous cells form the apical layer.
• Cuboidal to columnar shape in deep layers.

Nervous tissues consist of

- dendrite
- cell body
- axon

Types of muscle tissues

- Skeletal Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
- Cardiac Muscle

Skeletal muscle structure

•Striated (banding)
•Multinucleated
•Cylindrical & long

Cardiac muscle structure

•Has striations
•Single nucleus
•Branched & interconnected
•Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated discs

Smooth muscle structure

•Lack striations
•Single nucleus
•Spindle-shaped cells

Erythrocyte structure
•Biconcave disc-shape.
•Lack of nuclei.
•Contains haemoglobin,
enzyme & inorganic ions.
Leukocyte structure
•Spherical in shape
•Nucleus & organelles
•Larger than erythrocytes.

Platelets structure
•Fragments of cells broken off from large cells in the bone marrow.
•No nuclei.

Function of erythrocytes
Transport O2 & CO2, nutrients & waste.

Platelets function
Blood clotting, repair gaps in the wall of blood vessel

Function of leukocytes (white blood cells)

Responsible for antibody production and other specific defences against pathogens.

Connective tissues function

mainly to bind and support other tissues, having a sparse population of cells scattered through an
extracellular matrix.

Nervous tissue function

to transmit impulses

Function of compact bone

to provide support & strength

Matrix of compact bones

contains water and impregnated with calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate.

Osteocytes are
Non-dividing and inactive bone cells.

Osteoblast vs osteoclast
Deposit a matrix of collagen vs Reabsorb the matrix

Matrix of hyaline cartilage contains:

Collagenous fiber embedded in chondroitin sulphate
Chondroblast vs chondrocyte
immature cells, secrete matrix: chondroitin sulphate and collagen vs mature cells located in lacunae,
maintaining the matrix
Function of hyaline cartilage
- Provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, as well as flexibility and support
- Supporting trachea and bronchial tube
- Acting as shock absorbers between vertebrates
Blood extracellular matrix are
Plasma (water, salts and dissolved proteins)
Blood cells are
Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, Platelets

Two types of leukocytes

- Granulocytes: Granular cytoplasm and lobed nuclei
- Agranulocytes: Clear cytoplasm and nuclei not lobed

Types of plants tissues

▪ Meristematic tissue
▪ Permanent tissue
Meristem tissue in plants
▪ Undifferentiated embryonic tissue in the active growth regions of plants
▪ Location: Shoot tips and Root tips

Apical meristem
- Elongate shoots and roots.
- Produce primary plant body.

Lateral meristem
- Add thickness to woody plants (increase girth).
- Produce secondary plant body.

Types of ground tissue (permanent plant tissues)

parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

Parenchyma
>Isodiametric cells.
>Have thin primary cel walls which are loosely arranged with many
intercellular air spaces.

Collenchyma cells
•Polygonal and
elongated cells.
•Have primary cell wall
with uneven
thickening at the
corner.

Sclerenchyma cells
•Polygonal and
elongated (fibre) & spherical irregular (sclereid)
•Thick lignified
secondary cell wall
which are tightly packed with no intracellular air spaces
Pith
Ground tissue that is internal to the vascular tissues

Cortex
Ground tissue that is external to the vascular tissue

Types of vascular tissues

- Xylem: Vessel Elements and Tracheid
- Phloem: Sieve tube and Companion cell

Function of xylem (vessel element & tracheid)

Transport water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves

Function of sieve tube

Transport organic material (photosynthesis) from one part of the plant to another.

Function of companion cells

Provide ATP for active transport during transportation of organic material.
Vessel element structure
- Secondary wall: lignin - Ends open and connect to one another to form long pipes
- Dead cells with hollow lumen
- More water can flow with less friction

Tracheid structure
- Thick lignified
- Lumen: small and hollow when mature
- Tapering end wall
- Lots of pits: allow water to move to another tracheid also surrounding living cells

Sieve tube structure

- Consist of sieve elements (sieve cells) joined together to form a long tube.
- End walls are perforated forming sieve plates with sieve pores.
- Cells are alive, with thin cellulose walls and protoplasm.

Companion cell structure

- Located beside the sieve tube.
- Have a nucleus, dense cytoplasm with small vacuoles.
- Metabolically active (have mitochondria and ribosomes).
- Linked to sieve elements by numerous plasmodesmata.

CELL MODIFICATION
Study
CELL MODIFICATION
13 studiers recently
Leave the first rating
Flashcards
Learn
Test
Match
Term
1 / 38

finger like projections of the cell plasma

membrane to increase surface area - occur in
the small intestine, surface of egg cells, and
white blood cells
Definition
1 / 38

Microvilli

Created by
fantasticahyiTEACHER
Find free textbook solutions
Solve tough problems on your own with expert-written solutions for your textbook
Search on Quizlet
Terms in this set (38)

finger like projections of the cell plasma membrane to increase surface area - occur in the small
intestine, surface of egg cells, and white blood cells
Microvilli
Stereocilia
small hairlike projections on the tops of inner and outer hair cells
Long microvilli, commonly found in the inner ear and male reproductive tract - non-motile and increases
absorption - Are actin-based projections on auditory and vestibular sensory cells that are required for
hearing and balance. - convert physical force from sound, head movement or gravity into an electrical
signal, a process that is called mechanoelectrical transduction
Cilia
Hairlike projections that extend from the plasma membrane and are used for locomotion - move in a
wave-like manner - Found in the lining of the trachea, fallopian tube, and bronchus
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility - Many bacteria and sperm
Basal Infoldings
folding in for basal lamina, filled with mitochondria to provide energy for transport - often found in
epithelium ; muscle, epithelium tube, and transport fluid (kidney)
Hemidesmosome
facilitates the stable adhesion of basal epithelial cells to the underlying basement membrane - protein
filaments interlock; found beneath the zonula adherens - found in the skin and cornea
Lateral modification
- cell modification found on the sides of the cell and connects two adjacent cells
Tight junctions (zonula occludens)
are located in the apical region of most epithelial tissues and function to form a seal that closes off the
extracellular space - preventing molecules from passing between epithelial cells
Adhering junctions (zonula adherens)
actin filaments that compose the zonula adherens maintain integrity of the cell to better bind - Occurs in
cell-cell adhesion in epithelial tissues
Desmosome (macula adherens)
strong spot links between cells - resist shearing forces and are found in simple and stratified squamous
epithelium - Such as cardiac muscle tissue, bladder tissue, gastrointestinal mucosa, and epithelia
Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins for
hydrophilic material transport - also called communicating junctions - occurs in cardiac muscles (beating
of the heart), muscle, and smooth muscle (intestines).
Two major phases of the eukaryotic cell cycle
Mitosis
Mitosis
Karyokinesis
Gap 1 (G1)
-cells grow, carry out normal functions, and replicate their organelles
Synthesis Phase
-DNA replication 
-synthesis proteins associating DNA
Gap 2 (G2)
-Synthesis of proteins associating mitosis
-double checks and replicated -chromosomes
-repairs errors
.CDKs (cyclin-dependent kinases)
kinases that must be attached to a cyclin in order to be active. their activity produces rhythmic
fluctuations that time the steps of the cell cycle (molecular control); regulates transcription, mRNA
processing, and the differentiation of nerve cells
Cyclins
A group of proteins whose function is to regulate the progression of a cell through the cell cycle and
whose concentrations rise and fall throughout the cell cycle
Chromatin
Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones;
extended and not condensed (can only replicate and transcribe DNA when in extended state)
chromatin
one of two identical "sister" parts of a duplicated chromosome; condensed chromatin
chromosome
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying
genetic information in the form of genes.
DNA condenses to form chromosomes because it becomes easier to sort and organize replicated DNA
into daughter cells
Prophase (mitosis)
first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles
separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus ; chromosomes condense, nuclear
envelope dissolves, spindle forms
Prometaphase (Mitosis)
discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments,
and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.
Metaphase (mitosis)
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell; sister chromatids are attached by cohesin proteins
Anaphase (Mitosis)
proteins that bind to the centromeres of sister chromatids and hold them together
Telophase (mitosis)
phase of mitosis in which the distinct individual chromosomes begin to spread out into a tangle of
chromatin; spindle fibers disintegrate, nuclear envelopes form, cytokinesis occurs - final step of
karyokinesis, which forms two daughter nuclei
Cytokinesis/ cell motion
the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into two daughter cells - Final step of cell
division
Cytokinesis in animal cells
cleavage furrow
Cytokinesis in plant cells
cell plate
Cancer
- it is caused by uncontrolled cell division
Tumors
- masses of rapidly dividing cells (cancer cells)
Benign Tumors
tumors that are clustered and surgically removable with little risk of further growth in the body
Malignant Tumors
An abnormal tissue mass that can spread into neighboring tissue and to other parts of the body; a
cancerous tumor.
Oncogenes
- genes that cause cancer by blocking the normal controls on cell reproduction
- special proteins that increase the chance that a normal cell develops into a tumor cell
Oncology
study of cancer
Cell checkpoints
are disabled in cancer cells
tumor suppresor genes
prevent uncontrolled cell growth - repair damaged DNA - control cell anchorage (absent in cancers)
Apoptosis
- programmed cell death