Biology Lesson Note SS2 First Term

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Biology lessons for Senior Secondary

school – Edudelight.com
FIRST TERM SCHEME OF WORK OF S.S. TWO

WEEK 1 The cells

WEEK 2 The cell structure and functions of cell component

WEEK 3 The cell and its environment, diffusion, osmosis

WEEK 4 Properties and function of the cells

WEEK 5 Cellular Respiration

WEEK 6 Growth (mitosis)

WEEK 7 Irritability/ cell reaction to its environment

WEEK 8 Reproductions (Asexual)

WEEK 9 Sexual Reproductions

WEEK 10 Reproductive Health

THE CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF CELL COMPONENTS

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.

The cell structure of both plant and animals are composed of

protoplasm which can be divided into two main parts

1. Cytoplasm
2. Nucleus

1. The cytoplasm is a fluid material that consists of cytoplasmic

organelles such as lysosome, golgi bodies, endoplasmic, reticulum e.t.c.

The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear membrane and within the

nucleus are:

(i) chromosome (ii) Nucleus

The animal cell addition has centromere while the plant in

addition has starch granules, cellulose cell and some plastids
(chloroplast).

Similarities Between Animal cell and Plant cell

Both Plant and Animal cells are similar because they posses cytoplasm,
cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear membrane. Nucleus,
chromosomes, nucleoplasm and nucleolus. They both carryout mitosis
in somatic cell and meiosis in reproductive cells..

DIFFERENCES

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELLS

1. Cell has a dead cellulose cell wall hence definite Cell has
living cell membrane hence

In shape it can change its

shape

2. Chloroplast is present Chloroplast

absent

3. A large central vacuole present Small

vacuoles may be present or absent

4. Centrioles are absent Centrioles are

present
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5. Cytoplasm is dense and found along the periphery

Cytoplasm is dense and granular and

Of the cell fills cell

completely

6. Food is stored as starch granules Food is

stored as glycogen and fat

7. Plant cell may be polygonal rectangular or square It is either

circular or avoid in shape

In shape

Function of cell components

Cell organelles are defined as all the structures outside the nucleus but
floating on the cytoplasm. Such materials include endoplasmic
reticulum, mitochondrion, lysosome, golgi apparatus e.t.c. all the
materials are bounded by cell membrane.

Functions cytoplasm

i.All living substances including nucleus are suspended in the semi-fluid

cytoplasm

ii.The streaming of the content of the cytoplasm bring about inter

change of material between the organelles with the cytoplasm

CELL WALL
The cell wall is the non-living outer boundary of the cell made of
cellulose. It has tiny pores or its pits through which nutrient pass from
one cell to another. Cell wall is absent in animal cell

Functions

1.It gives rigidity to the cell and plant as a whole

ii.It allows free passage of material

CELL MEMBRANE

The cell membrane is a thin and flexible living later that surrounds the
entire cytoplasm and separates the cell from neighboring cells.

Functions

i.It regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cells

ii.It protects the cytoplasm

iii.It determines the content of the cytoplasm

iv.It forms a barrier between the cell and its surrounding

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Endoplasmic reticulum is a system of canals found abundantly in the

cytoplasm. It ribosome are attached to it in rough ER and if no ribosome
are attached it is called smooth ER.

Functions

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

1.They transport metabolic products within cytoplasm between the

cytoplasm and nucleus

2.They help in formation of enzymes and protein

3.They help in formation of nuclear membrane during nuclear division

4.They inter connect the organelles of the cell

5.They provide surface for the attachment of ribosome

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

1.It makes lipid (Fat molecules)

2.The enzymes of the S. ER in the liver detoxificate drugs

Ribosome

These are minute and spherical organelles found in large number

attached to endoplasmic reticulum or suspended in the cytoplasm

Functions

1.They make proteins by joining amino acids together

2.They are also site for protein synthesis

MITOCHONDRION

These are tiny red-shaped bodies or granules in the cytoplasm. They are
more concentrated in very active cells such as liver cells.

Function

1.They are center for cellular respiration in which food substances are
oxidized to release energy for the activities of the cell

2.It contains enzymes and deoxyribo nucleic acid (DNA). The enzymes
carry out oxidative phosphorylation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

3.The DNA helps to code the synthesis of protein in mitochondria

membrane
Lysosomes

These are minute and rounded bodies containing enzymes found in

animal cells

Function

1.They destroy worn out part of the cell by discharging enzymes into
them thereby clearing the area for new cell to grow

2.Lysosomes discharge enzymes to degenerated tissues causing the

breakdown of the cells

Golgi Apparatus

These bodies are found as flat tubes of threads. They are absent in
mature sperm and red blood cells

Functions

1.They help to distribute proteins made by the cell

2.They help in the manufacture of lysosome

3.They help in the formation of membrane of endoplasmic reticulum

and production of cellulose of cells of plant

Centriole (centromere)

These are usually two small, cylindrical bodies found near the nucleus.
The two centrioles are mostly found in animal cells. They are absent in
plant except some few algae and fungi

Functions

1.They provide spindle fibers to which chromosomes are attached

during cell division

2.They help in the formation of cilia and flagella

Plastids (chloroplast)

Chloroplasts only occur in green plants. The organelles called

chloroplast contain green pigment called chlorophyll. A chloroplast is
surrounded by a membrane. In the leaves chloroplasts are oval or disk-
shaped in algae

Function

1.It is the site of photosynthesis where organic foods are synthesized

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are found both plant and animal cell. It is bigger in plant. A
vacuole is surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast and is filled with
water, mineral salt, sugars and pigments called cell sap.

Function

1.The cell sap is osmotic in function

2.It stores nutrients and waste product

3.Sometimes vacuole contain colour pigments called anthocyanin which

may blue, purple, yellow, red which give coloruration to flowers

Nucleus

The nuclear membrane permits substances to go in and out of the

nucleus. Within the nucleus is a small spherical body called nucleolus
and the chromatin materials which condense during cell division into
chromosome (hereditary unit). The inside of the nucleus is filled with a
semi fluid material called nuclear fluid or nucleoplasm.

The chromosomes are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

Functions

1.The nucleus controls the activities of the living cell

2.The nucleus carries chromosomes on which hereditary material (gene)
are coded

3.The nucleolus produces several kinds of RNA which are passed of out
the nucleus to cytoplasm to manufacture protein

History of cell

In 1665, Robert Hooke, a British scientist examined thin slice of cork

tissue under the compound microscope and found that the cork
consisted of many neatly arranged little chamber or cavities. Since each
chamber was enclosed by walls similar to cell of honey combs, he
named the chamber cells.

Felix Dujardin

In 1835, Dujardin, a French biologist, examined thin slice of living plants

under much improved microscope and discovered that cells have
content. He named the content sarcode, later named protoplasm by
Purkinje in 1839 and von Mohl in 1846.

In 1839,Mathias Schleiden was a German botanist discovered that

all plants are made up of cells.

Theodor Schwann

In 1839, Theodor, a German zoologist examined bits of animals under a

microscope and observed that animals were composed by cells.

In 1839, Schleiden and Theodor Schawann jointly stated what is now

known as the cell theory, namely that all living things are made up of
cells. After the statement of the cell theory, in 1846, Hugo Von- Mohl fisrt
applied the term protoplasm to the the living substances in the cell, the
name by which it si still known till today. In 1858 Rudolf Virchow stated
that cells come from pre- existing cells.

The cell Theories

1.All living things are made up of a cell or cells

2.The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things

3.New cells arise from pre-existing cells by cell division

4.There is no life apart from the life of cell

5.All living things are either single cell or a group of unicellular or

multicellular

CELL AS A LIVING THING UNIT OF AN ORGANISM

A cell is defined as the basic structural and functional unit of a living

organism. In other word, the cell is the simplest, smallest and basic unit
of life because it can carryout all life activities

Questions

1.The statement that all living things are made of cells was first made
by A. Dujardin B. Robert Hooke C. Mathias Schleiden D. Von –Mohl
E. Rudolf Virchow

2.The part of a cell that is responsible for protein synthesis is called A.

endoplasmic reticulum B.nuclear evelope C.ribosome D.mitochondria
E.Golgi bodies

3.Which of these is present in both plant and animal cells? A. cell

membrane B.chloroplast C. cellulose D. large E. cell sap.

4.Which of the following statements about cells is true? A. all cells are
alike in structure B.cells in a tissue perform different functions C. in a
multicellular organism, each cell is independent. D. a part of a cell is
called an organ . E. a cell can exist as an independent organism.

Theory

5a. Describe the structure of a plant cell.

b.state three similarities between plant and animal cells.

c.state three differences between plant and animal cells.

6.Describe the functions of the following.

a.the cell membrane b. the nucleus c. the mitochondrion d.the Golgi

bodies in cell.

Biology lessons for Senior Secondary school – Edudelight

enote
WEEK TWO

FORMS IN WHICH LIVING CELL EXIST

Cell of different organisms exist in different forms. Some are single and
free living, others may be colonial, filamentous or part of a living
organisms

Cell as independent or single or free living organisms. Cell may live as

independent organisms capable of living freely on their own. Such
organism even though it has only one cell is able to carry out life
processes such as Movement, Reproductions, Sensitivity, Excretion,
Growth e.t.c. Example of such organisms are Amoeba, Paramecium,
Euglena, Chlamydomonas.

Chlamydomonas

The Chlamydomonas is oral or spherical in shape and is bounded by cell

wall consisting of hemi-cellulose. At the anterior end, the wall projects
and thickens into a colourless papilla. Two flagella which arise from the
anterior end are used fo rmovement. Chose to the base of the flagella
are two contractile vacuoles which are used for osmoregulation.

Within the cytoplasm is the nucleus and a cup shaped chloroplast which
contains chlorophyll which the organism use for A pyrenoid responsible
for the storage of starch occur within the chloroplast. An eye spot is
embedded on one side of the cell close to the anterior end. The eye spot
responds to light stimulus. Chlamydomonas is an organism that shares
both the characteristics of plants and animals. The animal characteristics
include flagella for locomotion, eye sport responds to light source,
contractile vacuole for osmoregulation. The presence of chloroplast
containing chlorophyll for photosynthesis and storage excess
carbohydrate as starch are plant characteristic chlamydomonas
Amoeba Proteus

The organism is a single celled, naked colourless, microscopic about

0.07mm, shapeless and jelly-like animal. It is made up of cytoplasm and
nucleus. The nucleus is divided into non-gramular liquid layer called
ectoplasm and granular layer called endoplasm. The cytoplasm is
bounded by a thin flexible cell membrane called plasma membrane
which keep the cell content or plasmalema together. The ectoplasm
forms pseudopodia (false feet) for movement and capturing of food.
Exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon iv oxide) and ammonia occurs at
the ectoplasm. The endoplasm is divided into an outer viscous portion
called plasmagel and an inner liquid portion called plasmasol. The
plasmasol contain the following cytoplasmic structured.

Contractile Vacuole: It excretes liquid product such as dissolved

ammonia and regulates amount of water and mineral salt that enter and
leave the cell (osmoregulation).

Food Vacuole: It is used for storage and digestion of food

Nucleus contains chromosome which are hereditary unit.

Paramecium Caudatum

The organism is slipper shaped with a length ranging 0.15 to 0.30mm.

the anterior part is blunt or rounder while the posterior part is pointed.
Paramecium Caudatum is divided into two distinct parts, the ectoplasm
and the endoplasm. The thin layer of ectoplasm is bounded outside by a
clear and elastic membrane called pellicle which make the animal having
a definite slipper shape. The entire pellicle is covered fine cilia used for
locomotion, embedded in the ectoplasm are spindle shaped bodies
called trichoicyst which contains filaments that can be discharged either
to trap a prey and hold it or used for offense and defence.

The endoplasm is granular, large and contains the following organells

anterior and posterior contractile vacuoles, food vacuoles which are
formed near the gullet (cytopharynx. There are two nuclear-
meganucleus and micronucleus which are centrally phased in the
endoplasm. The maganucleus is bean shaped or kidney shaped. It
controls the ordinary activities of the cell.
The two contractile vacuoles are used to remove excess water from the
animal.

At one side of P. caudatum is a depression called oral groove which lead

to a gullet through which food particle can be swallowed. At the
posterior and is a small opening anal pore through which indigested
food material is ejected from the body.

Euglena Viridis

Euglena is a pear or spindle shaped single celled organism. It is about

0.66mm in length with the widest width at the middle of the body. The
anterior part is blunt or rounded while the posterior part is pointed. The
body is divided into clear ectoplasm and granular endoplasm. The
organism lives in water. It is a boarder line between plant and animal

The ectoplasm (plasmagel) is bonded by a thin, flexible, tough and

elastic covering called pellicle which enable the animal to carry out a
type of locomotion called euglenoid movement. Within the cytoplasm
are rod-shaped structures called chloroplast which contain chlorophyll
hence Euglena is green in colour and is able to carry out photosynthesis.

The granular endoplasm (plasmasol) contains myonemes ( thin fibres)

and paramylum granules containing starch reserve. The nucleus is
bounded by a nuclear membrane which contain the nucleolus and
nucleolus. At the anterior part of the organism is a flask-shaped opening
called gullet. Below the gullet is a granule called blepharoblast. Arising
from the blapharoblast a rhizoplast arising the blepharoblast is
rhizoplast believe to initiate cell division. From the flagellum used for
locomotion, at the base of the gullet lies a large contractile vacuole used
for osmoregulation. There is presence of eye spot which respond to light
stimulus

Euglena has a mixture of plant food and animal characteristics

Euglena as a plant

(i)The presence of chloroplast which is used for photosynthesis

(ii)Stores excess carbohydrate as starch called paramylum granules only
plant stores starch

(iii)Definite shape (pellicle)

Euglena as an animal

(i)Possession of eye spot which sensitive to light. It is not used for sight

(ii)Possession of flagellum for locomotion

(iii)It carries out holozoic feeding in the absence of sun light by using the
gullet to ingest foodparticles

(iv)Contractile vacuole for osmoregulation

(v)No cellulose cell wall but flexible living pellicle

(vi)No central cell sap vacuole is small and not central

Cell as a colony

Certain organism are composed or numerous and similar cells joined by

strand of protoplasm. Each associating cell has nucleus,cytoplasm and a
pair of flagella. The flagella enable the colony to swim by rolling over and
over. The cells making up the colony are not differentiated into tissues
e.g. Eudorina pandorina and volvox

Cell as a filament

Some independent cells arranged themselves into filament. The

filament of spirogyra consists of

about twelve cylindrical cells all similar in size bound together by a cell
wall and mucilage, each cell is separated from the other by intercellular
cell walls. Each cell can live independently and is capable of carrying out
asexual reproduction to form a new filament.

Spirogyra is an unbranched green filamentous alga consisting of a chain

of cylindrical cells. The entire filament is covered with a layer of mucilage
which makes it slimy. Inside each cell is a lining central vacuole. In the
cytoplasm the chloroplasts are arranged spirally. Each chloroplast
contains pyrenoids. The nucleus is suspended by cytoplasmic threads.

Cell as part of a living organisms

Most multicellular organisms are made up of groups of cells which are

similar in shape and structure. The cell making in shape and structure.
The cells making up the group work together for a particular function.
The specialized group of cells is called tissue. Each cell depends on the
other for efficient performance.

Questions

(a)What is a cell?

(b)Outline the cell theory as propounded by the following biologist

Robert Hook, Dujardin, Schleiden Mathias and Theordor Schwann

(c)Make a diagram 8 10 cm long of chlamydomonas and label the

diagram full

(d)State (i) two advantages and

(ii) Two disadvantages of a unicellular organisms has over a multicellular

organisms

WEEK THREE

THE CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

DIFFUSION: is the process by which molecules of substances, such as

liquid gases move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration until the particles are evenly distributed.
Diffusion can occur in air, liquid and solid.

Biological significance: It is a process by which fine particles or

molecules flow in and ;out of cells living things and it can occur in non-
living material. By diffusion molecules of substance evenly spread in any
available space.

Factors Affecting rate of diffusion

(i)State of matter of diffusing molecules

(ii)Molecular size of the diffusing molecules

(iii)Differences in concentration of diffusing molecules and the medium

(iv)Temperature: High temperature increases the speed at which

molecules move thus, the higher the temperature, the faster the rate of
diffusion.

Demonstration Diffusion in Liquid

Fill a beaker with distilled water use pipette to deliver small quantity of
potassium permanganate solution gently at the bottom of the beaker
and leave it to stand for few minutes. The purple colour of the
potassium permanganate solution starts to spread outside.

Gradually, the colour spreads evenly throughout the water medium so

that the water have the same shade of purple colour.

Demonstration of Diffusion in Gases

Take a bottle of ammonia solution, open the bottle and move some
distance away from the bottle and wait for some time. The smell of the
ammonia gas shows that diffusion of ammonia gas has taken place.

Importance of Diffusion in Plant

(i)Diffusion acids movement of oxygen produced during photosynthesis

into the atmosphere

(ii)Diffusion assists easy movement of carbon (iv) oxide from the

atmosphere into the leaves through the stomata cell
(iii)Diffusion promotes free movement of oxygen needed for respiration
from the atmosphere into the plant through stomata cell

(iv)Movement of water vapour from the leaves of plant to outside in a

process called transpiration is possible because of diffusion

Importance of diffusion in Animal

(i)Absorption of glucose and other food material through the villi in the
small intestine in through diffusion

(ii)Diffusion aids the exchange of body nutrients in the placenta from the
mother to a developing foetus

(iii)Diffusion aids gaseous exchange in many cells and organisms for

instance amoeba takes in oxygen and get rid of carbon (iv) oxide by
diffusion

(iv)Diffusion aids the movement of carbon (iv) oxide form the lungs
capillaries into the air sac and vice- versa.

Osmosis

Osmosis is defined as the movement of water molecules from a region

of low concentration fo solute to a region of high concentration of solute
through a semi-permeable membrane separating the two solution until
equilibrium is attained.

A solution with higher solute concentration has a smaller amount of

water left for dissolution of more solute, while a solution with lower
concentration of solute has more water available.

Condition necessary for osmosis to take place

(i)Presence of a stronger solution e.g. sugar or salt solution

(ii)Presence of weaker solution e.g. distilled water

(iii)Presence of a selective or differentially permeable membrane/pig

bladder
Types of solution

(i)Hypertonic Solution is a solution which gains water in osmosis or that

is higher in concentration

(ii)Hypotonic Solution is a solution that lose water in osmosis or a

solution that is weak-distilled water

(iii)Isotonic solution: when a state of equillibrum is established between

two solution, that is neither solutions gains or loses water.

Osmosis is a special form of diffusion

DIFUSION OSMOSIS

1. Diffusion occurs in gases and liquid Osmosis occur in

liquid medium only

2. Differently permeable membrane is not Differentially

permeable membrane is required required

3. It occurs in living and non-living organisms It occurs naturally in

living organisms

4. Molecules diffuse into any space accessible Water molecules

move between two solutions

to them of different osmotic

pressure leading to the

Establishment of an
osmotic equilibrium

Demonstration of Osmosis using living cell

Aim:– To demonstrate the process of osmosis using a living tissue e.g.

Yam or Pawpaw

Method: Two thick slices of yam A and B are obtained and their skin
peeled off. A large cavity is drilled into the middle of each. A strong
solution of salt is poured into A. Yam slice B is left without salt to serve
as a control. They are both kept in a trough containing distilled water
and allowed to stand for some hours.

Result: After some time, it is observed that the water level in yam slice A
rises tremendously while no water rise is observed in B. Water
molecules moved from the rough yam slice A

Conclusion: It can be concluded that living tissue have semi-permeable

membrane which allows molecules to pass through from the
surrounding if they have higher osmotic pressure. Water could not move
to Yam slice B since it contained no salt or sugar solution. It is therefore
of the same osmotic pressure with the water in the trough

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis using a non-living material

Aim: To demonstrate osmosis using non-living material

Method: A piece of cellophane packet is tied over the mouth of a thistle

funnel carefully and tightly. The cup of the thistle funnel is filled with
sugar solution while the beaker contains water.

The cup side carrying the semi-permeable membrane is immersed into

the beaker of water, the experiment is left for one day. The control
experiment is similarly arranged but instead of filling the funnel with
sugar solution it is filled with water.

Result: After few hours the level of liquid in the funnel has risen to its
original marks. There is no rise in the control experiment.

Conclusion: Water has passed through the semi-permeable membrane

to the sugar solution by osmosis (endosmosis)

Biological Significance of Osmosis

Osmosis is a special form of diffusion. Diffusion allows free movement

of substances without hindrance, but osmosis because of the selective
permeable membrane allow some particles to pass through them while
other cannot. All living cells have cell membranes which are selective to
control or select which substances of outer or leave the cell.
PLASMOLYSIS

Plasmolysis is defined as the shrinkage of the cytoplasmic lining from

the cell wall or cell membrane when the cell is placed in a more
concentrated solution. This can be observed when plant cell is placed in
a more concentrated salt or sugar solution than that of the cell sap,
water is lost by exosmosis. As a result of water loss the cell become
flaccid.

When the plasmolysed cell is again placed in distilled water (hypotonic

solution), water moves into the cell sap solution is in the vacuole
increases in volume and distend towards the cytoplasm and cell wall.
The shrinkage or red blood cell is crenation

Haemolysis

Haemolysis is defined as inward movement of water uncontrollably into

a cell when the cell is surrounded by hypotonic solution to the port of
bursting in a process called endosmosis.

Haemolysis is the process by which red blood cells become split or burst
as a result of excessive intake of water called endosmosis.

Normally, the blood and red blood compuseles are isotonic, that is bod
red blood cell and the plasma have the same osmotic concentration.
Mammalian plasma and red blood cell have sodium chloride solution.

If for some reason, the concentration of salt in the plasma falls i.e
become hypotonic water will enter the red blood cells by osmosis called
endosmosis through the cell membrane continuous absorption of water
into the cell will make the cells very turgid and eventually burst
haemolysis will lead to anaemia which may cause death.

Condition that cause haemolysis

(i)Disease attack

(ii) abuse of use of drugs

(iii)Food poisoning, infection/epidermics industrial activities/pollution

TURGIDITY: is defined as the condition in which cells absorb plenty of
water up to a point where the cell is fully stretched. At this point, the cell
is said to be turgid. Turgidity occurs when a cell is place in hypotonic
solution. Turgidity is useful to plant because it make them stand erect,
give support, make them stand erect, give support to the stem, leaves,
flower and guard cells

FLACCIDITY: is defined as the condition in which plants lose water to

their surroundings faster than they can absorb. When plants lose more
water, it is said to be flaccid. Flaccidity normal occur when there is no
water in the soil during drought. The situation may cause plant to wilt or
even die if last for a very long time

Questions

1i.Explain what happens to a red blood cell when placed in a hypotonic

solution

ii.Mention three conditions that may cause haemolysis

b.Describe an experiment to show the effect of plasmolysis on a fresh

filament of spirogyra

ii.How can the process be reversed

c(i).Describe an experiment to demonstrate osmosis using a living

material

ii.Give two differences between osmosis and diffusion

d.A normal plants was watered daily with a hypertonic solution for about
seven (7) days.

Itwasdiscovered that the plant was not doing well. Explain why.

2a.Define Osmosis

Diffusion

Plasmolysis
(b) Explain why red blood cells swell and later burst when placed in a
distilled water

(c) State four important of diffusion to animal

3a. Describe one experiment, using a non-living material to

demonstrate osmosis

(b). Use the result of your experiment to explain how water passes
from the soil into the root hair of a plant, through what cell does if then
pass on its way to the stem

Objectives

4.The diffusion rates of gases are generally higher than those of liquids
because

A. atmospheric air is much lighter than water B.gas molecules move

faster than those of liquids.

C.the proportion of the atmosphere which is gaseous is very

high..D.liquids tend to cool down

more quicklythan gases do.E. none of the above.

5.Haemolysis is an example of A. osmosis B. plasmolysis C.active

transport D.hydrolysis E.

absorption

6The toad does not normally drink water, but when placed in a dish of
salt water, however, a toad

may drink water. This is because the toad A.is absorbing molecules of
salt through the skin B.is

losing salt too rapidly to its salty enviroment.C. requires salt from its
surroundings for its bone
formation D. is losing water from its body to its salty surroundings
E.requires water from its

surroundings for a balanced diet as an amphibian.

WEEK FOUR

SOME PROPERTIES AND FUNCTION OF THE CELL

Nutrition is defined as the process by which living organisms obtain and

utilize food materials from external environment for metabolic activities
such as respiration, growth, excretion and reproduction.

Food is any substance which when absorbed into the body cells yields
energy and materials for growth, repairs of damaged tissues and
regulation of body processes without harming the living organism.

Anabolism is defined as the synthesis of complex organic compound

from simple substances. Living things require food( carbohydrtate,
protein, lipids,mineral salt ,vitamins and water) for the following
activities

i. production of new protoplasm

ii. growth.

iii.Repair of body cells and tissues.

iv.production of energy for life activities.

Types of Nutrition

1.Autotrophic Nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organisms are

able to manufacture their own food. organism which can manufacture
or synthesize their own food are called autotrophs. Autotrophic mode of
nutrition is carried out by green plants through the process of
photosynthesis and some certain bacteria through the process of
chemosynthesis..
Photosynthetic (Holophytic) Nutrition is the process where green
plants manufacture their own

organic food from simple inorganic substances such as carbondioxide,

water, sunlight and chlorophyll with the release of oxygen as by-product.

6CO2+6H20 Sunlight energy C6H12O6+6CO2

Chlorophyll

Chemosynthetic Nutrition: is a process where certain bacteria which

are autotrophic manufacture their own food through simple inorganic
substances such as carbon (iv) oxide, water, hydrogen sulsphide by
using the chemical energy released during the process as source of
energy.

These bacteria do not depend upon sunlight energy. They have enzyme
system capable of trapping chemical energy. For example, the sulphur
bacteria in the soil can oxidize hydrogen around it to chemical energy

2H2S+O2 S+2H20 + Chemical Energy

Heterotrophic Nutrition is a type of nutrition in which organisms

cannot manufacture their own food but depends directly on plants for
their own food. Such organisms are called heterotrophs. Most
heterotrophs are fungi, protozoa and some bacteria. Heterotrophs take
food items into their gut in three different forms

1.Macrophagous feeder are animal such as mammals that take large

food item which need the aid of teeth to break down before entering
digestive gut

2.Microphagous feeders are other heterotrophs which take tiny food

particles into their gut without being broken down by teeth. Examples
are paramecium, mosquito larvae and tilapia galilaea

3.Some other heterotrophs feed on fluid and they are referred to as

fluid feeders. Examples are adult mosquitoes, aphids, butter flies and
sunbird.
There are four main types of heterotrophs nutrition

i. holozoic

ii. Saprophytic

iii. Symbiosis

iv. Parasitic

MINERAL NUTRITION

Plants require mineral nutrients or elements obtained from the soil in

form of solution for good growth and healthy development. The source
is the main source of mineral salts while gaseous elements such as
oxygen, hydrogen and carbon are mainly derived from the atmosphere.
These plants nutrients elements are grouped into two classes depending
on the quantity required by the plants

(1)Macro nutrients or elements are mineral elements required in large

quantities for healthy growth of plants. Example are nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, sulphur and iron. These macro element are called essential
element.

(2)Micro nutrients or elements or traced element are those mineral

elements required in small quantities for healthy growth of plants.
Examples are zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, colbat, chlorine and
manganese. When a plant lacks any of these elements, it shows certain
signs and these signs are called deficiency symptoms. The micro
nutrients are also called non-essential element.

WEEK FIVE

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration is defined as the oxidation of organic food substance

in the cells particularly in the mitochondrion to release energy inform of
ATPS (Adenosine Triphophate) All living organisms require energy to do
work. Energy is abound in food molecules. The energy in the food
molecules is called potential energy. This potential energy can only be
used for work energy is abound in food molecules. The energy in the
food molecules is called potential energy. This potential energy can only
be used for work when it has been converted into kinetic energy.

CHEMEICAL PROCESSES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration occurs in two aim stages involving series of chemical

reactions and respiratory enzymes.

First stages Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a series of chemical reaction which involves the breaking

down of glucoses to a 3-carbon molecule of pyruvic acid.

In this process, the glucose molecules is phosphorylated by addition of

phosphate group to glucose to become glucose phosphate through
series of oxidative enzymes, the glucose phosphate is converted to two
molecules of triose sugar (a 3-carbon sugar). The triose sugar is
converted to pyruvic acid by removal of four atoms of hydrogen by co-
enzymes called NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinueleotide) with the
formation of 2ATP.

C6H12O6 Glycolysis 2C3H4O3+2H2+2ATP

NAD

Second Stage: Aerobic Respiration

This stage occurs in the mitochondrion if sufficient oxygen is available,

each molecule of pyruvic is oxidized to remove one molecule of carbon
(iv) oxide (decarboxylation) and two atoms of hydrogen
(dehydrogenation) forming one molecule of acetic acid a 2-carbon acid
or acety co-enzymes.

A.Carbon (iv) oxide is released. Kreb cycle or citric acid cycle. The acetic
acid entries into a kreb cycle where it is joined to a 4-carbon acid
oxaloacetic acid present in the mitochondria to form citric acid a 6-
carbon acid
One molecule of carbon (iv) oxide and one atom of hydrogen are
removed by oxidative decarboxylation and NAD respectively to form a 5-
carbon acid ketoghitaric acid. Another molecule of carbon (iv) oxide and
one atom of hydrogen are further removed from ketogluteric acid to
form a 4-carbon succinic acid. One atom of hydrogen is removed from
succinic acid to form a 4-carbon malic acid. Again another hydrogen
atom is removed from malic acid to form a 4-carbon oxaloacotic acid.
The oxaloacetic aid then combines with acetic acid again and the cycle is
repeated. The hydrogen atoms removed in succeeding stages combine
with molecular oxygen to form water. The overall reactions of glycolysis
and kreb’s cycle is represented by an equation.

C6H12O6+602 6CO2+6H20 + ENERGY (38ATP)

ATP is a water soluble energy carrying small molecules that is

transported around cells.

The process of glycolysis is a catabolic process because it involves

breaking down of complex organic molecule glucose to simple
moleculses such as ATP. ### process realeses energy. In glycolysis one
molecule of glucose releases 2ATP of energy. In kreb cycle 1 molecule of
glucose releases 38ATP of energy.

Aerobic Respiration

This is the type of respiration which requires oxygen to break down

glucose into water, carbondioxide and energy (ATP). This type of
respiration is commonly carried out by most living thing

C6H12O6+602 6CO2+6H20+Energy

Anaerobic Respiration is the type of respiration in which the glucose is

broken down inside the cell without oxygen to produce carbon (iv) oxide
and ethanol and 2ATP.

(a)Alcoholic Fermentation is the type of respiration in which glucose is

first converted to pyruvic acid. The pyruvic acid is then reduced to
ethanol by accepting the hydrogen of NADH. This type of respiration on
is common to some organism that respire anaerobically such as yeast,
bacteria, fungi and endoparasite such as tape worm and round warm

C6H12O6 No 2CO2 +2C2H5OH+

Energy

Glucose O2 Carbon(iv) oxide (Alcohol) 2ATPS

(b)Lactic acid fermentation is the type of anaerobic respiration where

glucose is broken down to

pyruvic aid. The pyruvic acid is then reduced to lactic acid by NADH
without the production of

carbon (iv) oxide.

Lactic acid fermentation often occurs in the muscles of animal after a

very fast race or strenuous exercise. In the absence of oxygen reaching
the muscle cells, the pyruvic acid reduce to lactic acid whose
accumulation in the muscle ells causes temporary muscle fatigue and
aches. The athlete recovers when sufficient oxygen is carried to the
muscle cell. Which oxidize the lactic acid to pyruvic acid and pyruvic acid
is oxidized by the supplied oxygen to give carbon (iv) oxide, water and
energy. The muscle cell then recovers

2CH3COCOOH CH3CHOHCOOH + 2NAD+

2ATP

Pyruvic acid Lactic acid

Differences Between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Anaerobic

1. Occurs in most animals as well as occurs in some bacteria, fungi

and cells of the muscles of

Plant cells animals

2. Oxygen is needed oxygen is not needed

3. Produce greater energy (38ATP) per Produce lesser energy 2ATPs
per molecule of glucose

Molecule of glucose

4. Carbon (iv) oxide and water are the Carbon (iv) oxide and alcohole
or lactic acid are the by-

By-product product

5. It takes place in mitochondria it takes place in the cypoplasm

Questions

1. Explain briefly the term muscle fatique

b. Name the structure in a cell in which ATP is formed

– Define the term internal respiration

2a. What is the importance of ATP

– Briefly describe the simplified chemical process of cellular

respiration

– In a tabular form state the difference between aerobic and

anaerobic respiration

– Write chemical equation only to explain

(i) Aerobic respiration

(ii) Anaerobic respiration

3. Define fermentation

– Lactic fermentation

– Alcoholic fermentation

WEEK SIX
GROWTH

Growth is defined as an irreversible increase in volume, size, numbering

of parts, length and weight of an organism. It is an organic process
which takes some time to accomplish. Growth however occur faster in
young organisms than older ones.

The three processes involve in growth

(i)Cell division is a process by which cell increases in number and is

achieved by cell division called mitosis. The division of cell commences
with synthesis of new protoplasm leading to the doubling of the
chromosomes number in a process called replication before cell actually
divide into two, with each daughter cell having the same chromosome as
parent cell.

There are two types of cell division

(i)Mitosis which is a cell division that lead to growth

(ii)Meiosis is a cell division that lead to formation of gametes

CELL ENLARGEMENT

This is a process which follows cell division. After mitotic division in

animals, the daughter cells absorb nutrients from their surrounding
which it uses to increase in mass and size. Part of the nutrient is used for
respiration to generate energy while the remaining is assimilated
resulting in the enlargement of the cells.

CELL DIFFERENTIATION

This process takes place after cell enlargement in which each cell
develops into a special type of cell by changing its shape and structure in
order to carry out a specialized or particular function. Cell differentiation
is important in the growth and development of a mature multi cellular
organisms.

MITOSIS
Mitosis is a division of cell which produces two identical cells with the
same number of chromosomes and characteristics as those of the
parent cell. Mitosis is a cell division that lead to growth and it occurs in
somatic cell(body cells) such as skin, bone marrow, lymph nodes and
injured places and meristimatic tissues of plant. Mitosis occurs in five
stages namely interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telephase.

Interphase- This is a resting stage of the cell: At this stage, the cell
has normal appearance of non-dividing cell condition.
chromosomes are not clearly visible.

Prophase- The chromosomes become visible as chromatin threads.

The chromosomes become shorter, thicker and clearly visible. Each
chromosome now forms two district chromatrids joined by a
centrometre.

Nucleolus is gradually disappearing and formation of spindle fibres

commence.

Metaphase- At metaphase the chromosomes (now parried) called

chromatids arranged themselves along the equator or middle of
the spindle. The chromatids are attached to the spindle by
centrometre.

Anaphase- The chromatids of each chromosome separate. The

start migrating to the poles of the cell by elongation of the spindle
axis. The chromatids eventually reach the pole.

Telophase (cytokinesis)- The cell

starts dividing into two by line of division at the equator. The

chromosome looses their thick appearance and the nuclear material,
nucleus and nuclear membrane reformed. The spindle structure
disappear and the cell split completely into two daughter cells having the
same condition as interphase. The

division of the cell at telophase into daughter cells is called

cytokinesis
Apical and Intercalary Growth

Growth does not occur any how in all parts of the plant. It takes place in
certain tissue and places in a plant bodies. The tissue where growth
takes place plant is called meristem or MERISTIMATIC TISSUE.

MERISTIMATIC TISSUE.

A meristem is a tissue that retain their ability to divide by mitosis and

turn out new cells. Such meristimatic tissues include root apex, stem or
shoot apex base or internodes and vascular cambium.

Growth which occur in the apical stem and root meristem is called apical
growth while growth which occurs at meristem base of internodes is
called auxiliary growth

Hormones or chemical or biochemical substances produced in small

quantity by cell of the body of plant and animal that have profound
effect on other part of their body where they are needed for some form
of growth

Plant hormones are produced only at the growing parts such as apical
meristem of shoot or root i.e. shoot tip or root tip and transported to
other part by diffusion.

Example of plant hormones are auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin,

abscissic acid and florigens. Plant hormones help plant in the following
ways.

i. It promotes stem enlongation

ii. It makes plant to respond to tropism

iii. It causes root and stem apical division

iv. It causes fruit growth and ripening

v. It causes flower bud and lateral root initiation

Animal Hormones
In animal, hormones are produced inductless glands called endocrine
system and release straight to the blood stream which transport them to
the target organ. Animal hormones include the following

GLANDS SITE HORMONE

1. Pituitary gland base of head

Pituitrin

2. Thyroid gland Neck

Thyroxine

3. Parathyroid Neck
Parathormone

4. Pancreas Loop of duodenum Insulin

5. Adrenal gland Top of each kidney

Adrenaline

6. Testes Testes
Testosterone

7. Ovaries Ovaries Progesterone

FUNCTION OF ANIMAL HORMONE

i. It controls body metabolism

ii. It promotes growth of the animal

iii. It induces or stimulates reproduction

GROWTH CURVE

Growth is quantative and measurable, so that the amount of

growth achieved by plant can be expereseed. The measures for growth
in plant include
1. increase in the height or length of the stem, root and any other
organ of the plant

ii. Increase in the girth or width or circumference of the stem

iii. Increase in the area of leaves

iv. Increase in weight

v. Increase in the number of branches

vi. In animal measurement in growth in length of animal

The rate of growth of a plant is usually studied by measuring the

rate of increase in length or height of the shoot or root of the plant. Rate
of growth varies with age of the plant. A young seedling is a good choice.
The amount of growth achieved by a seedling of 24hrs interval over a
known period of time represent the rate of growth.

The increase in height (mm) can be plotted on a graph over a time

intervals. The rate of enlongation or height growth is seen to vary from
individual to individual and from species to species. The graghs are the
same.

In all cases, the rate of growth is at first slow, then rises up to a part and
continuous at this rapid rate until maturity and later declines. The
graphs shows a typical s-shaped curve called sigmoid growth curve. The
sigmoid growth curve is characteristic of all living organisms. It is the
typical growth curve for the whole plant as well as for its individual
organs.

Biology lessons for Senior Secondary school – Edudelight

enote
WEEK 6

1a. Define the term growth as applied to living things

b. State three similarities and three differences between the growth

in plants and animals
c. List four factors that affect the growth of living organisms

d. What role does mitosis play in growth?

WEEK 7

IRRITABILITY

Irritability is the ability of an organism to perceive and respond to

changes in internal and external environment or stimuli. Stimulus is a
change in condition which produces a change in the activities of the
organism or part of its body. A stimulus can either be external or
internal. External stimuli are those environmental factor that evoke
response. Organisms respond to stimulus in three ways namely tactic,
nastic and trophic response.

Tactic Response or taxis is a directional type of response or movement

in which the whole organism moves from one place to another in
response to external stimulus such as light, temperature, water or
certain chemical. The response is thus said to directional and positive if
the organism moves towards the stimulus or it is negative if it moves
away from the stimulus.

– Photo taxis is the response to variation in light intensity

– Chemo taxis is the response to variation in concentration of chemical

substance

– Aero taxis is the response to variation in concentration of oxygen

– Osmotaxis is the response to variation in osmotic condition

– Rheotaxis is the response to variation in the direction of the flow of

liquid e.g.

Nastic Response or Nastism: This is a type of response in which a part of

a plant moves in response to non-directional stimulus such as changes
in light intensity, temperature and humidity.
Nastic movements are varied in nature and may be as a result of growth
curvature or of sudden changes in tugor.

Nastic responses are usually described according to the stimulus

evoking them.

(i) Nyctinasty is a response to changing in day and night condition

(temperature) or light e.g.

– The opening of the petals of sun flower in the light and closes in
the dark

– The closing of the morning glory flower when light intensity is low

(ii)Haptonasty is the response due to contact or touch

– The infolding of the leaflet of mimosa plant when touched.

– The closing of leaflet of flamboyant tree.

– The nastic movement of floral parts during pollination mechanism and

movement of leaves of insectivorous plant

(iii) Hydronasty is the response to humidity changes

(iv) Chemonasty is the response to the presence of chemical

Tropic response or tropism: This is a type of response in which a part of

a plant moves in response to directional stimulus.

Tropism are growth movement named according to the stimulus e.g.

phototropism, hydrotropism, chemotropism, haptotropism or
thigmotropism, geotropism.

Phototropism is the growth movement in response to light, thus the

direction of growth movement depends on the direction of light. The
shoot of plant is positively phototropic.

Experiment
Aim: To show that shoots are positively prototrophic

Material Required: Two boxes, seedling growing in pot, kmife, aluminium

foil

Procedure: The two boxes are arranged in a proper way. Some

afermenting bean seeds are placed in two boxes with a hole cut at one
end. Box A contains normal seedlings while B contains seedlings with a
caps of aluminium. The inside of each box is painted black to prevent
light reflection. The entire experiment is put on the window and
observed for few days

Observation: The shoot of the seedling in box A will be observed to bend

towards the source of light while those in box B do not

Conclusion: Since the shoot of seedlings bend toward light, it shows that
the shoot is positively phototrophic

Geotropism: This is a response to gravitational force. The shoot of plant

is negatively geotropic while the root is positively geotropic.

Experiment

Aim: To show that plants root respond positively to gravity

Material Required: Bean seedlings, pins and klinostat

Procedure: Select six similar seedlings with straight radicles and

plumules. Pin three seedlings to the turnable of a klinostat so that they
are horizontal. In the real experiment, do not let turable rotate so that it
can receive the stimulus of gravity from one direction. Pin the remaining
three seedlings to another klinostat in an identical ways, but allow the
turnable to rotate slowly so that the seedlings receive the stimulus of
gravity equally on all sides (to serve as control experiment)

Observation: in the stationary seedlings, the plumules will bend and

grow vertically upward while the radicles will bend and grow vertically
downward. But the seedlings in the rotating klinostat will continue to
grow horizontally
Result: The plumule have responded to one-sided gravity by growing
away from it i.e. they are negatively geotropic. The radicles (root)
however responded by growing towards the direction of the stimulus i.e.
they are positively geotropic

Conclusion: This shows that the roots of plant are positively geotropic

Hydrotropism: This is the response to water source. Roots of plants will

always grow towards a water source

Chemotropism is the response of plant to concentration of chemical

substance e.g. roots respond positively to the presence of salt,
particularly salt of calcium but negatively to alkaline or acid
concentration.

Haptrotropism /(Thigmotropism) is a response of plant to contact and is

characteristic of tendrils and other organs by which the plant secures
support. Tendrils show positive response to touch by twinkling around a
support while roots on the other hand show a negative response to
touch by growing away from stones.

Traumotropism: is a response to wounding. Some roots show curvature

as a result of damage on one side, the curvature always being away from
the injured side.

Thermotropism: is a response to heat

Rheotropism is a response to water current

MOVEMENT

Movement is the ability of living organisms to move from one place to

another.

Reasons for Movement

i. To search for food

ii To escape from danger

iii. To respond to stimulus either positively or negatively

iv. For the sake of reproduction

CYCLOSIS

The cytoplasm as a whole of normally in motion. Irregular streaming

often occurs but at other times, the contents of the cell are subjected
contents of the cell are subjected to cynical currents moving constantly
in one direction. This is known as cyclosis. The cellular organelles are
swept along passively by these streams or current.

Organisms Organelles for movement Mechanism

of movement

Amoeba Pseudopodia Cytoplasmic

streaming (cyclosis)

Paramecium Cilia Beating the cilia

against water

Euglena Flagellum Lashing

movement of flagellum

Hydra Tentacles Swimming,

swaying, hoping and

Somersaulting

Earthworm Chaetae Crawling

Fishes Fins Swimming

Toads and frog Limbs Hopping

Biology lessons for Senior Secondary school – Edudelight

enote
WEEK SEVEN

ASSIGNMENT
1a. What is meant by term tropism?

b. How do plants response to the external stimulus of light

c. explain what is meant nastic response

WEEK EIGHT

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the ability of living organisms to produce new individual

of their type or new offspring. Reproduction is necessary for increase in
number and perpetuation of life. Reproduction is divided into two types

1.ASEXUAL REPRODUTION: is a type of reproduction which only one part

is involved to produce offspring by itself without formation and fussion
of granuder offsprings which are identical (clones) to the parent cells are
always produced

Types of Asexual Reproductioni.Binary Fission: this is the simplest form

of asexual reproduction during which a parent organisms, divided into
two parts or more than two equal parts. The mucus first divides into two
parts. The nucleus part divides into two parts. Then follows the division
of the cytoplasm. After the completion of the division of the cytoplasm,
two daughter cell are formed. Example can be seen in Amoeba,
Paramecium or Euglena

ii.Budding: the new offspring formed developed as a protusion or

outgrowth of the parent. This outgrowth is referred to a BUD. The bud
may form on an internal or external buds break off from the
independent life. Examples are yeast, hydra, coral and polyps.

iii.Spore Formation: certain plants such as fungi reproduce asexually by

spores which are small unicellular bodies. They are light and can be
easily be dispersed by air. Each spore can develop to an independent
organisms. This independent organism develops a hypha which grows
from the substrate to the air. These are termed aerial hyphae or
sporangiophores. The tip of these aeria hyphae become swollen to form
sporangia which houses the spores.
iv. Fragmentation: an organism may break into two or more pieces
and each piece can then develop into a new individual organism.
Examples are spirogyra, sponges and coelenterates.

Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation involves the use of parts of plants in multiplying

the plant or when a new plant grows out of a parent plant, without the
use of seeds. Vegetative propagation involves two methods.

(i)Natural vegetative propagation: is carried out by plant themselves by

means of leaves, stems and buds.

– leaves: tiny plants grow from the leaf which later break off to form a
new plant. Bryophyllum and Begonia are good examples. In Bryophyllum
and Begonia are good examples. In Bryophyllum the tiny plants grow
from the veins at the end of the leaf margin while Begonia, they grow
form the veins on the surface leaf.

– Stem: stems of different plants have modified themselves in different

ways to carry out vegetative propagation. Some stems are modified as
runners, rhizomes, corms and tubers.

– Runners: stem runners such as sweet potatoes grow horizontally along

the ground

– Rhizomes: A rhizomes is a thick fleshy underground stem which grows

more or less horizontally below the surface of the soil. Food is stored in
the stem as starch. It has nodes and internodes. The scale leaves are
membraneous and cover lateral bud at the modes e.g. canna lily and
ginger.

– Corms: This is an underground stem which grows vertically in the soil.

The stem is short and swollen with food reserve. Scale leaves, nodes,
lateral buds are arranged over it while terminal bud is at the top. The
new corm has adventitious and contractile roofs.

-Stem tuber: stem tubers have the terminal ends of their underground
stems swollen with food reserve plants like yams and sweet potatoes
which develop tubers. The underground stem tuber is left below in the
non-growing season. The dormant underground tuber gives rise to
another aerial shoot when rain return in the next growing season.

Sweet potato, the tuber has auxiliary buds covered with sale
leaves.

– Suckers: suckers are underground young plants which develop from

the axilliary buds of the parent plants. The terminal buds of suckers
grow above the soil to form shoot. Examples of plants that develop
suckers of the base of their stems are plantain, banana and pineapple.

(i) Bulb: The shoot of some plants are modified to form

underground buds for vegetative propagation. Example of bulb is onion,
tulip and daffodil. Bulbs are underground compressed shoot or buds.
The stem is very short with inner scale leaves which are fleshy and
swollen with food reserves. They overlay and the out leaves are by dry,
scaly and brownish terminal and lateral buds are parent. Adventitious
root rise from the short stem.

(ii)Artificial vegetative propagation: this is carried out by planting parts of

perennating organs (organs that survive from one growing season to the
next) like tubers and rhizomes. Each perennating part must possess a
bud which can develop into a new plant

i.Budding: This is the bring together of the bud and stock. The bud and
stock. The bud is taken from a tree already producing or matured. This
forms the bud stock or slip the stock is a young plant of about a year old.
During building, a T-shaped cut or inverted T in made at about 45cm
from the ground on the stem of the stock plant. The cut shape is slight
by raised to expose the cambium. The bud is carefully slipped into the
raised bark and pressed formly to ensure that the cambia of both bud
and stock unite together. It is commonly used in citrus to select desired
species.

ii. Layering: this involves bending shoot or branch of a plant to the

ground so that the nodes can make contact with the soil. It is then
pegged below the ground and covered with rich soil to provide good
medium root development. When roots have emerged the branch is cut
form the parent plant-layering can be used in coffee, cocoa and kola
production
iii.Cutting: this involves the use of mature stem or branch to propagate
plants. This is a very common method of asexual propagation in many
crops such as cassava, croton and sugar-cane. The plant produced have
the same character as the original plant from the cuttings were
obtained. The cutting should be about 20cm long or convenient length
with two or three nodes or buds. It should be put into ground to enable
it have contact with the soil. It should be watered after planting or raised
in shade during dry season or planted during the rain.

iv.Grafting: this is the union of the stock and scion. The part of the plant
whose root is in the ground is called the stock while the shoot removed
from other plant is called scion. The two plants must be of the same
species or closely related species. The plant should be of the same age
and size for grafting to be possible. Both plants are cut in a slant or V-
shape to provide good surfaces fro contact. They are then tied together
with plastic tape or any device to keep them in place the junction is
rubbed with grafting wax to prevent the entrance of air, water and
pathogens

v. Marcotting: This is a practical vegetative propagation method in

which the back of a branch

is peeled off with a knife, up to a considerable length (5cm). Soil rich in

organic nature is tied to the pealed portion by means of coconut husk or
any suitable device. It is watered to keep it moist always.

After a time, roots will grow out of the peeled portion. As the
roofs become strong enough, the branch is cut off the plant. The roofed
branch is planted into the soil to give rise to a new plant. The method is
employed in fruit crops such as lemon and mango

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

1. The offspring are genetically similar to their parent which is a

great advantages if the organisms are well adapted to their environment

2. Agents of pollination are not needed

3. Agent of dispersal are not needed

4. Greater nourishment is obtained from the parents therefore they
can withstand adverse condition

5. Since food is ready at hand, the offspring grow and mature

quickly

6. They can colonise the locality easily

7. It is easy to obtain planting material

Disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction

1. No variation since parents and offspring are similar from

generation to generation

2. Bad adaptation of the parents and offspring can lead their death
since they are similar genetically

3. Since there are no means of dispersal overcrowding, competition,

food, space and light may result. This will lead to stunted growth

4. There is less chance of evolution

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction which involves

the fusion of the male gametes and the female gametes to form a zygote
which later develop to a young offspring.

Types of Sexual Reproduction

1. Conjugation: is a simple types of sexual reproduction which

occurs in some lower organisms such as mucor, rhizopus, paramecium
and spirogyra. Conjugation is the process by which nuclear material is
passed from one cell to another.

In spirogyra, for example, conjugation starts with two filaments

called conjugants coming together to lie side by side. lateral outgrowth
start to develop opposite each other from opposite cells in the two
filaments. The outgrowth meet and the separating well dissolve to form
a continuous channel called conjugation tube. The cytoplasm of each cell
shrinks away from the cell walls and round up to form gametes.

One of the gametes regarded as migratory move through

conjugation tube into the other cell resulting to the fussion of cytoplasm
and nucleir of the cells to form zygote. After sometime the zygote
develop into zygospore which will germinate to a new filament

FERTILIZATION

Fertilization (fusion of gametes) is defined as the fusion of a minute

haplow male gamete (sperm) with a haphoid female gamete (egg) to
form a diploid zygote.

In higher animal the gametes are formed in special organ called gonads.
The male gamete is called spermatozoa (sperm) which are produced in
the testes by a meotic cell division called spermatogenesis. The female
gamete is called ovum or egg which are produced in the ovary by meotic
cell division called oogenesis. The process of gamete formation either
male or female is called gametogenesis. These two type of gametes
(male&female) are brought together during mating and they unite by
process of fertilization to form a diploid zygote which later develop to a
new organism.

In higer plants, male and female gametes are also produced. The flowers
are the reproductive units in plants. The male gamete is called pollen
grain which are produce by the anther while the female gametes called
ovules are produced by the ovary of the flower

MEIOSIS

Meiosis is the form of division which bring about a halving of the

chromosome number as well as an interchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes. In animal, meiosis takes place at
the formation of the gametes and in diploid plants at the formation of
spores.

The formation of spores

Meiosis consists of two successive divisions

1. 1st Meiotic division: when the parent cell split into two

2. 2nd meiotic division: when the products then divide again giving a
total of four daughter cells

1st MEIOTIC DIVISION (REDUCTION DIVISION)

The 1st meiotic division is divided into five stages. These are
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.

INTERPHASE: This is the resting stage of the cell. At this stage

chromosome are not seen

PROPHASE: There are three phases of the prophase. These are Early
prophase, Middle prophase and Late prophase

Early Prophase: chromosome become visible as long threads

Middle Prophase; Homologous (marching) chromosome become thicker,

shorter and clearly visible. Spindle is formed.

Late Prophase: Each chromosome reproduce replice of itself (double

stranded). Nuclear membrane starts disappearing. Cross-links called
chiasmata (chiasma) are formed between chromosome. Chiasmata help
to hold two homologous chromosomes together and also exchange of
genetic material (or gene) take place between homologous chromosome
which leads to variation or mutation

METAPHASE 1

Nuclear membrane gets dissolved in the cytoplasm. Bivalent

chromosomes are arranged at the equator and attached to the spindle
by their centromeres.

ANAPHASE 1

Each member of the bivalent chromosomes moves apart and moves

toward the poles of the cell by the shortening of the spindle
TELOPHASE 1

Bivalent chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell. A new nuclear

membrane is formed around each group of chromosomes.
Chromosomes uncoil. Nucleolus appear on each nucleus. Nucleus looks
granular again. The two nucleic have half the number of chromosomes
of the parent cell. This is the reduction division of meiosis. No cleavage
of cytoplasm takes place

PROPHASE II

Chromosome become distinct in the two nucleic centrioles divide,

separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell. Spindles are
formed.

METAPHASE II

Nuclear membrane gets dissolved in the cytoplasm chromosomes are

attached to the spindle by their centromeres. The two chromatids of the
chromosome become more distinct.

ANAPHASE II

The chromosomes get detached at the centromeres. The chromosomes

separate and more to the pole.

TELOPHASE II

The chromatids arrive the polls of cells. Nuclear membranes are formed
round the four cells. A nucleolus appears in each cell. Spindles get
dissolved in the cytoplasm. Cleavage of cytoplasm follows. Four haploid
cells are formed at the end of the second meiotic division. Each cell has
half the number of chromosomes.

Characteristics of the mother cell hence called haploid (n)

Four daughter cells each contains half (haploid) the original number of
chromosome of the parent cell.

IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS
1.Meiosis ensures that the fertilized egg (zygote) has a diploid number of
chromosome. Therefore, meiosis brings about the reduction of
chromosome to half the original number both in the male (sperm) and
the female (egg) gametes. For example, every human being has 46
chromosome. During the sperm or egg formation in a process known as
gametogenesis, the 46 chromosomes will reduce to 23 chromosomes.
When the sperm fuses with the egg, a zygote with 46 chromosomes
result.

2.Random assortment of genes during meiosis lead to genetic variation

among offspring of the same parents. This is why no two individuals can
look exactly alike unless identical twins.

Meiosis can lead to a marked gene change (mutation) which can also
bring about variation among individuals.

Life processes involving meiosis

Formation of spermatozoa

Formation of eggs

Formation of pollen grains in flowering plants

Formation of ovules in flowering plants

Biology lessons for Senior Secondary school – Edudelight

enote
WEEK EIGHT

ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe two methods of reproduction in unicellular animals you

have

WEEK NINE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM IN MAMMAL

Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system in man consists of testes, vasa
efferenctia, vas deferend (spermdnut penis and glands)

Testes

There are two testes in male animal. Each testes is oval in shape and is
housed in a wrinkled sac called scrotum which hangs out of the body
behind the penis. The scrotum functions as a thermoregulator that
protects the sperm from high temeperature. The body temperature is to
high for the formation of sperm hence the testes are positioned out of
body that is slightly water (2 or 30c lower) than the normal body
temperature.

Each testis is made of a large number highly coiled tubes called

seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells which lie with the seminiferous
tubules. The seminiferous tubules produces the sperm while the
interstitial cells produce testosterone.

Vasa efferentia: are small number of tubes which are connected with
seminiferous tubules and unite to form epididymis, vasa deference
collect sperms from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis

Epididymis: This is highly coiled tube about 6 metre long which receives
sperm from vasa efferentia. Sperm are temporarily stored to mature
and develop in the epididymis.

Urethra: it serves as a passage for both urine and sperm

Seminal Reside: the seminal reside is a small sac where sperms are
stored. It is located close to the posterior end of vas deferens. It secrets
seminal fluid. Seminal fluid contains fructose which provides energy for
the sperm.

Gland: Three glands open into the male reproductive system. These are
seminal fluid, prostate glant and cooper’s gland.

The prostate gland is located a little below the bladder while a pair of
cowper’s gland is situated below the prostate gland. These three glands
secret seminal fluid in which sperm swim. The fluid activities sperm and
into swimming. It provides food for the sperm and lubricates the
passage. The sperm swim freely in the seminal fluid. The acidity of the
urine is neutralized by the seminal fluid.

The seminal fluid plus the sperm make up the semen.

Functions of male Reproductive system

1. Formation of sperm to fertilize the eggs of the female

2. It produces male hormones (testosterone)

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system consists of ovaries, fallopian tube

or oviduct, uterus, cervity and vagina and vulva.

Ovaries: These are two oval-shaped structure located in the abdominal

cavity on the side of the uterus.

Each ovary is held in position by ligaments. Ovaries are small and

short, each contain thousands of undeveloped egg (ova). It is only when
a girl has reached the age of puberty (9-15years) that a ripe egg is
released alternatively each months by the ovaries. The ovaries stop
producing eggs at about the age of 45-55years, a condition referred to
as menopause.

Functions

1. Ovaries produce and release mature egg

2. They produce female sex hormones (oestrogene and

progesterme)

Fallopian Tube: this arise from the uterus as narrow tube of about (9-
13cm) long. The free ends are funnel-shaped free ends are lined with cell
having cilia. When an egg is related to the cilia beat to direct the egg into
the fallopian tube. Fertilization takes place in this tube

Functions of Fallopian Tube

1. Directs the release egg from the ovary to itself

2. Fertilization takes place inside the oviduct

3. The fertilized egg (zygote) is pushed to the uterus by the cell of

the fallopian tub

Ovulation is the release of the egg into the Fallopian Tube by the
ovaries.

Ulterus (womb)

The uterus is a wide and thick-walled muscular chamber of about 8cm

long and 5cm wide. Two fallopian tubes entre into it at the top while the
lower narrow part terminates as a neck or cervix. The inner side of the
uterus is lined with endometrium (layer well supplied with blood and
food to receive fertilized egg)

Function of Uterus

1.Implantation of fertilized egg (zygote): Implantaion is the attachment of

the fertilized egg to the wall of the uterus.

2.The uterus provides a place for the attachment of foetal placenta.

Before the development of placenta, the uterus provides nutrients for
the embryo.

3.Before the development of placenta, the uterus provides nutrients for

the embryo

CERVIX

The cervix is a ring of muscle with tiny aperture that closes the lower
end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. It controls the opening and
clothing of the vagina during birth.

VAGINA

The vagina leads from the cervix of the uterus to the outside of the
body. It is an elastic and muscular tube of about 10-14cm long. The
opening of the vagina is partially covered by a thin membrane called
hymen. If the hymen is intact, it means that the girl is still a virgin.
However the hymen can be torn during vigorous physical exercise such
as athletics or during sexual intercourse.

Function of the Vagina

1. It receives the male penis which deposits sperm into it

2. It serves as birth canal during the expulsion of the foetus from

the uterus

3. The woman menstruate through the vagina

VULVA

The external female organ are collectively called vulva. These include the
two thick fold of skin covered with public hair called labia major, two fold
of hairless skin called labia minora

Function of Vulva

1. It protects the opening of the vagina

CLITORIS: is a small erectile organ. It is a sensitive organ well supplied

with blood vessels and nerves. It causes excitement during sexual
intercourse and accelerates organism in female. Like penis it become
erective in sexual excitement.

WEEK NINE

ASSIGNMENT

1a. Distinguish between asexual reproduction and sexual

reproduction

b. Make a fully labelled diagram of female reproductive system